Q. What are the project Management Process groups A. Initiating, Planning, Executing, Monitoring and controlling and closing.

Q. What are the main competing project constraints? A. Scope, Quality, Budget, Risk and Resources

The Role of Data Collection in Project Management

Data collection is necessary for practically any project. You can use data collection methods for stakeholders during the analysis of a project. Use the Power/Influence grid to identify relevant stakeholders and then use the following data collection methods: One-on-One Interviews Focus Group Discussion Collaborative Workshop Mode Surverys Observation

Data Collection Method 1 - One-on-One Interviews

One-on-one interviews are also known as face-to-face interviews. In this data collection method, you interview stakeholders to extract information relevant to your analysis. The key term here is relevant! The reponses you get from stakeholders must be useful for the analysis. Therefore, start the discussion by informing the stakeholder about the activity and the objective. This helps bring in focus to the interview. Before you take the interview, make sure you have created a list of questions to ask. In addition, have a general strategy in mind to guide the interview in a manner that extracts relevant data from the stakeholders. A benefit of this data collection methods for stakeholders is that the stakeholder is not under any pressure. Many times in group discussions some stakeholders may not express their views honestly for fear of comments from other participants. In one-to-one interviews, this fear doesn't exist.

Data Collection Method 2 - Focus Group Discussion

These data collection methods for stakeholders involve inviting stakeholders to express their opinion on the objective. The number of people in a focus-group typically varies from 4 to 12 participants. The key to holding a successful focus group session is to ensure no participant dictates the discussion. Therefore, careful moderation is critical to the success of a focus group. Another critical success factor is that the discussions should not be based on preconcived notions. Rather, they should be used to understand them better. Participants should not only concur or disagree, but rather build on the opinion expressed. Through focus groups, a large amount of data can be collected. The key is to ensure participants are carefully selected. When you moderate a focus group, do watch for politically correct responses. In addition, make sure you clarify practice active listening. This reduces common communication-related errors.

Data Collection Method 3 - Collaboratve Workshop Mode

The Collaborative Workshop Mode data collection method is possibly the most engaging manner to collect and analyse data. It involves participation from all stakeholders. Depending on the objective, the Collaborative Workshop Mode sessions may be spread over a few sessions, alternatively it could be concluded in one session. For example, suppose you are improving the design of a web application. The data collected can be through statistics and observation of users. This data can then be brought into a Collaborative Workshop Mode session for analysis and drawing conclusion on the web design. To select stakeholders for this type of data collection method, use the Power/Interest grid. One of the key benefits of this approach is that stakeholder participation is not only used to gather data, but also draw conclusions. This enables a greater degree of engagement from statekholders and also helps in setting expectations. To conduct a Collaborative Workshop Mode session is quite challenging. It requires multiple moderators.

Data Collection Method 4 Surveys

Surveys are an economical method of data collection from a large audience. Similar to the other methods of data collection, Surveys require a set of questions that are answered by stakeholders. Deployment of these surveys is typically by an Internet application. You should provide a time frame to stakeholders in which they need to complete the survey. It is quite common to have a dismal survey response. Therefore, for a higher degree of successfor these data collection methods for stakeholders, you should plan to send multiple reminders. A survey is appropriate for closed-ended questions. For example, suppose you are carrying out a survey to make a decision on the features of a mobile phone intended for people over 50. Your survey should contain a list of feaures from which participants can select a few. You wouldn't ask open-ended questions for these data collections methods for stakeholders. To make decisions in projects, you can also use Decision Trees. In addition, the responses from stakeholders of a survey may not be a true answer, rather it could be just another click. Do not make the survey too long; participants get bored and consequently do not complete the survey or complete the survey without even read the question! Make sure the survey states the amount of time it'll take to complete. Make sure this time is realistic. This method of data collection is used extensively in industry.

Data Collection Method 5 - Observation

Observation is a method of data collection that involves physically viewing the actions of the end customers. To use these data collection methods for stakeholders, you need to observe participants. For example, you might be gathering data to understand the mistakes sales people make while selling cameras or camcorders. For this, you could ask them for the mistakes and most probably they'll say, "I don't make any!" Alternatively, you could physically be there to observe the mistakes. The key to success in this method of data collection is to make sure the participants do not get concious.

Methods of Data Collection Checklist

Here's a quick reference that you can use while implementing the methods of data collection discussed in this article: Why are you collecting the data? Define the objective. Consider using the SMART framework. Have you identified the stakeholders from whom you'll gather the data? Select the stakeholders that can give relevant information. Have you set expectations with the identified stakeholders? By setting expectations, you are ensuring the stakeholders know what is expected out of them and how much of their time is required. When you set expectations, clearly mention the objective of the analysis. Have you created a set of questions to ask? The key to rich data collection is the set of questions you have prepared. Use both close and open-ended questions. Do you need support to document stakeholder response? This is probably the most common problem faced during method of data collection, such as interviews. It is common for the interviewer not to be able to document responses accurately and perform the interview. Ideally, get some support to document the data collected from stakeholders. Have you determined their preference in providing you with data? The method of data collection you deploy for each stakeholder may vary accordingly. For example, a stakeholder may not like to express her opinion in a group setting. Therefore, a one-on-one interview is most probably going to be a more appropriate data collection method to employ.

What is the Influence/Impact Grid (Influence/Impact Matrix)?

Introduction
The Influence/Impact grid, which is also known as the Influence/Impact matrix, is a tool that helps you understand which stakeholders have the most influence and the impact they can make on project success. This tool is very similar to the Power/Interest or Power/Influence grids. By focusing on the key set of project stakeholders, you can prioritize stakeholders requests, spend time as per influence and impact stakeholders have, and lead your project to a success without stakeholder conflicts. By definition, Influence is the level of involvement the person has and impact is the ability of the stakeholder to bring out a desired change. This could be during project planning or project execution. For example, a stakeholder that has the ability to set deadlines and hence the project schedule would be classified as high impact. This stakeholder would also have the ability to dictate the length of the critical path. PMP Tip: The Influence/Impact grid is part of Project Communication Management as per the fourth version of the PMBOK. You should know what it is and how to apply it. During the Stakeholder Analysis of a project, you: Document the interests and motivations of stakeholders in the project Which stakeholder has influence over project resources? Identify the stakeholders that can make the project unsuccessful Identify conflicting interests and relationships between stakeholders Identify stakeholders whose influence evolves during the project Determine communication media and style is best suited for each stakeholder Etc. The Influence/Impact grid in stakeholder management pertains to the level of influence stakeholders have on the project. By using this matrix, you can determine which stakeholders to manage closely and which stakeholders to put minimum effort in. This helps you channel you time and energy on the stakeholders that can make-or-break your project. In addition, it helps you create a communication and stakeholder strategy. Next, lets see how the Influence/Impact Grid looks like.

Influence/Impact Grid
The Influence/Impact grid contains four quadrants. Each quadrant gives you an indication of the level of stakeholder management that youll have to employ. The four quadrants of the Influence/Impact Grid is shown below.

Stakeholders that lie in the Manage Closely quadrant can easily ensure project failure, if you dont manage them properly. For example, suppose you the project manager of a software product development project. The sign-off authority on the deliverables is someone wholl fall in the Manage Closely quadrant in the Influence/Impact Grid. As you might have already deduced, influence is very subjective and can be error prone. You might think a certain stakeholder has high level of influence in project success, but in relative terms, may actually not. Hence, identifying and gaging the interest levels of stakeholders is critical when using the Influence/Impact grid for stakeholder management.

Questions to Determine Stakeholder Influence and Impact

The following questions can help you gage the level of influence and impact of stakeholders have on the outcome of your project: What are the responsibilities of the stakeholders? What do stakeholders expect from the project and how to they benefit? Are there any conflicting interests that the stakeholder may have with the project? How committed is the stakeholder to the project? Is he/she willing to commit tangible resources? What are the consequences of the not managing this stakeholder? Can stakeholders influence others, who are the dominant stakeholders? Are there any threats posed by stakeholders? By getting answers to these questions, youll be able to determine the actual influence of stakeholders and manage them appropriately by using the Influence/Impact grid for stakeholder management.

Scalability in Project Management

Scalability is the ability of a system or process to handle growing amounts of work or enlarge itself when required. Such resilience comes on the establishment of robust systems and procedures, and establishing a strong knowledge base that makes prioritization of tasks easy. Scalability of an enterprise refers to the business model that allows handling potential growth and where the proportion of variable costs remains the same irrespective of volumes. If the elements of the system fall apart on an increased load, such systems do not have scalability. Despite the apparent advantages of scalability and the limitations of a non-scaled system, scalability related to need is not always be a good option in project management owing to factors such as location, budgetary considerations, and complexity.

Location Factors
Scaling the model of a small project for a large project not only means multiplying actions many times over, but also missing some considerations essential for large projects but irrelevant to small projects. Large projects spread over many locations and employing many thousands of employees needs to incorporate factors such as cross-cultural complexities, divergent labor laws, data storage and transfer issues, co-ordination issues, time zone differences, and other factors when implementing projects. Such considerations remain irrelevant for small projects confined to the same geographical location and implemented by a handful of employees. Similarly, scaling down large project models for small projects make many functions and processes redundant, causing loss of operational efficiency and wasted efforts.

Budget Considerations
A major reason why scaling of size in project management does not work is budgetary considerations. Small projects score on their flexibility. Identification of a problem and finding solutions usually leads to earmarking a budget in an ad-hoc manner. Large projects require other considerations such as the executive managements approval based on consideration of several priorities. Scaling a large project model to smaller projects causes small projects to lose their speed and edge, and scaling small projects to big projects means large project approvals and budgeting not undergoing the required checks and balances.

Complexity
Another reason why scaling of size in project management does not work relates to complexity. Development of big

projects that involve complexity based on established methodologies, and success depends on following specific tools and procedures. The success of small projects, however, depends on flexibility and needs strong connectivity between the project process and goal, which big projects do not require. Extending the flexible model of small projects to big projects causes problems such as vagueness, over-dependence on key personnel, and other issues. Similarly, extending big project models to smaller projects might make such projects too restricted to become effective.

The Agile Approach

Many companies approach the problem of scalability in projects by developing many small, self-managing Agile project teams, all working off the same product backlog. Such an approach, however, is not free from issues. Agile development problems relate to insufficient training, poor communications, failure to apply risk management techniques, and more. Success depends on smooth handling of the dependencies and interfaces that grow between such Agile teams, and limiting the single product backlog resultant from this approach to manageable levels.

Using Affinity Diagrams to make sense from Brainstorming

In most projects, brainstorming is a common tool used to gather issues. As a mechanism for allowing a group of individuals to get ideas and issues on the table brainstorming is hard to beat however all too often such sessions generate large quantities of issues and these can become complex to review and difficult to interpret it can also be challenging to highlight particular trends that the gathered issues may portray, finally following the brainstorming session, themes and thoughts may be forgotten. There are however a variety of methods available to analyze and group the outputs of such team meetings, in order that gathered ideas can be efficiently utilized. Of these methods, Affinity diagrams represents an excellent tool to both group ideas in a logical way and capture themes that have developed during the brainstorming. Created in the 1960s by Jiro Kawakita, Affinity diagrams allows large numbers of ideas to be sorted into groups for review and analysis. These, simple to produce, diagrams are particularly useful with large group where ideas which are generated at a fast pace require to be organized. The process for producing the Affinity diagram is easy enough: 1. Conduct a brainstorming meeting 2. Record ideas an issues on post-it-notes or cards 3. Gather post it notes/cards into a single place (e.g. a desk or wall) 4. Sort the ideas into groups based on the teams thoughts. Continue until all cards/notes have been sorted and the team is satisfied with their groupings. 5. Name each group with a description of what the group refers to and place the name at the top of each group. 6. Capture and discuss the themes or groups and how they may relate. Whilst affinity diagrams are not complicated, getting the most from takes a little practice, for example Make sure that ideas/issues that have been captured are understood (brainstorming sessions have a habit of simplifying issues or agreeing without understanding the concepts being discussed.). Use an appropriate number of groups within the diagram, too many and it can become confusing and too few groups doesnt allow for analysis dont use too many groups that it becomes unmanageable. Ensure that the brainstorming team all contribute to the affinity diagram groupings, this helps ensure that the diagram can be understood and that the information can then be utlised. Step1: Gather all issues from brainstorming session

Step2: Group issues/ideas - describe each group.

What is DMAIC
"DMAIC a Crucial Model in SixSigma" With business improvement projects, the best results are garnered from following a pre-defined process - DMAIC is one such process and is a widely used business methodology for problem solving. Representing the five phases of

sixsigma, DMAIC is an acronym and stands for *Define *Measure *Analyze *Improve * Control DMAIC projects are commonly run by teams and whilst it is possible to skip elements the process is arranged to provide maximum benefit in analyzing business problems and quantifying and highlighting improvements and therefore the best results are obtained from following the process in its entirety. There are a variety of benefits in following DMAIC, firstly its a structured approach and provides a road map for solutions solving from start to finish and is tied into producing bottom line results for businesses. Secondly it supports an analytical approach through use of data, this helps ensure that accurate baselines can be established and improvements quantified finally utilizing DMAIC is suited to challenging problems and the model helps find answers where both problems and solutions are likely to be complex

DMAIC isnt a panacea however and isnt recommended in all cases, for example where processes are broken beyond repair and or your designing a new product or service other tools are better suited (e.g. DMEDI (Design for Lean Six Sigma). DMAIC also suggests a team based approach and it does require time and resource to be worked effectively. As with all projects businesses must provide the correct resources to deliver the correct results.

How to produce an Affinity Diagram

An Affinity diagram is used to organize/group various sets of data such as ideas, opinions, issues, facts etc. Using affinity diagrams helps determine relationships between the data and helps develop a framework. Similar issues are grouped together and the results are used to consider next steps/actions. Another significant benefit of affinity diagrams is that they is traditionally a team based tool and it allows people (the project team) to collaborate in high level data analysis. Inputs to affinity diagrams may be as a result of customer interviews or assessments or project team brainstorming and is useful early on in the project planning phase as it helps to assess information about the project that may not yet be well organized or structured. Steps in producing an Affinity Diagram * Gather data raised from brainstorming, interviews or other (data can include ideas, opinions, issues, facts etc) * Using sicky notes place data/issues on a display board * The project team should now group the sticky notes on the display board into logical groups * Name each group * Review results

What is Process mapping

A process map is a visual depiction of workfolow/activity including the functions that take place and related inputs and outputs. Process Maps help articulate activity within the business help organizations understand not only what they do but also help highlight how they can be improved process mapping is an important element in organization design. Process mapping is an important activity in improvement projects it helps understand what activity takes place and

how they can be improved. There are generally two types of process maps as is which describes current activity and to be or future state which describes a possible future refinement of the process. A process map should show enough detail thats useful for decision making but not too much that it over complicates matters. When mapping current processes ensure that processes are not just to tuned to the perfect process when everything goes as anticipated ensure that the map covers routes where errors occur e.g. rework etc. Steps involved in process mapping There are a number of best practice steps that can be followed when process mapping 1/ Agree the boundaries where does the process start and where does it end 2/ List the steps in the process, maintain the flow of the process in a single direction (either vertically or horizontally). 3/ Use standard symbols to describe the process 4/ Number each step in the process and apply version controls to the document 5/ Ensure that the map is complete work closely with workers close to the process and when the first draft is complete replay the process to stakeholders.

How to produce a SIPOC diagram

A SIPOC diagram is a tool that is used to gather a snapshot view of process information. SIPOC diagrams are very useful at the start of a project to provide information to the project team before work commences. SIPOC stands for S Suppliers I Inputs P Process O Outputs C Customers Unsurprisingly the SIPOC model encourages the project team to consider the elements listed above and their scope within the project. In some cases requirements are added to the model. SIPOC diagram benefits from being designed at a high level. How to create a SIPOC diagram 1/ Identify key process activities 2/ Identify outputs of the process and known customers 3/ Identify inputs to the process and likely suppliers Example SIPOC Diagram of Husband making wife a cup of tea.

How to draw a Deployment flowchart

Traditional process mapping captures the steps of a business process detailing inputs, activity and outputs deployment flowcharts, sometimes referred to as cross functional flowcharts, take this a stage further by displaying the function group or individual that carries out each step and where interfaces occur between process participants. While deployment flowcharts are similar to traditional process maps, they are typically constructed as a matrix, this is

used to display the various participants and the flow of steps. When constructed to the right level of detail a deployment flowchart can reveal duplication, waste, overprocessing or unnecessary steps. Therefore such a flowchart is especially useful when targeting inefficiency as the greater level of detail (specifically the movement of activity as it flows) can provide an insight not obtained through traditional process mapping techniques. Steps in constructing a deployment flowchart Deployment flowcharts are not overly complicated to construct they utilize the same shapes and symbols that are used in traditional process mapping activities. The map is constructed linking each activity together in the sequence of events as they occur. The activity is then placed within the individual or department which carries out the task. The completed process map thus clearly articulates which team or individual undertakes which activity at which stage within the process. Examples Deployment Flowchart Vertical Deployment Flowchart

Horizontal Deployment Flowchart

What is 5S
5S is a improvement technique usually associated with six sigma. The main purpose of which is to maintain an effective workplace that is organized and efficient. 5s is a methodology that ensures that everything has its place in the workplace and that time is then not wasted in looking for something. The most important aspects are in determining what should be kept and where it should be stored. 5s is a Japanese methodology and is a reference to five Japanese words beginning with s. These are often translated into English which sees the 5 Ss as: Sort - Separate needed items and eliminate uneeded. Set in order Set a place aside for items that are needed and ensure that they can be easily retrieved Sweep Keep the workplace clean Standardize Ensure that the workplace is kept in a standard way Sustain - ensure that 5s becomes an established procedure.

What is Poka Yoke?

Definition Poka Yoke (pronounced Poh-kah YOH-kah) is a concept of mistake proofing processes to result in zero defects. The concept originated at Toyota and is credited to Shigeo Shingo an engineer at Toyota (and author of various books on lean methods using the Toyota production method). Why is Poka Yoke important The concept of Poka Yoke is a fairly simple one mistakes will not turn into defects if worker errors are discovered and eliminated beforehand. Poka Yoke depends on creating simple yet effective visual methods of inspecting the quality of what is being produced and deploying simple efficient systems for highlighting and preventing defects. Often Poka Yoke depends on three different types of inspection (as defined by Shingo) these are: * Judgment inspection sorting the defects out of the acceptable product * Informative inspection Operators inspects their work or the work of the prior operator thus ensuring quick feedback along the production line and the rework of defects at a stage where they are easier to fix. * Source inspection ensuring that the conditions for a quality production environment exist. Prior to deciding where to place mistake proofing systems its important to be able to identify the process step where the defect occurs (often where information inspection is being used this is made easy because it is likely to be the previous step). Poka Yoke represents an easy to implement and rewarding system of mistake proofing and you may be surprised to learn that various examples exist in day to day life. For example paint that goes on pink then dries white offers a visual tool to check for areas that havent been painted old style floppy disks being designed in such a way that they could only be inserted one way are all forms of Poka Yoke. While Poka Yoke is usually low cost, improvements can be dramatic defining a sensible easy to implement method of removing defects can improve both production runs whilst having a rewarding impact on an organisations bottom line.

What are the seven wastes?

One of the targets of any improvement activity is usually to reduce the number of non-value added activities within a an organizations processes. Non-value add tasks are often referred to as waste and the ability to clarify waste is key to distinguishing between work that is valuable to the organization (and its customers) and those that arent. Waste can be applied to a variety of business scenarios from manufacturing through to service and can affect both the quality and cost of the end product. Waste is commonly divided into seven categories. The seven wastes are: Overproduction Producing more goods than the customer needs Transportation Anywhere where goods are moved within a process Waiting Where waiting time occurs, traditionally where one process waits for another to finish before it can start. Inventory Typified by stock or materials that are not being used in the process or current activity. Motion Poor planning and organizational layout often cause motion waste for example if you commonly use a printer on the other side of the office that you have to walk to to retrieve your print jobs that is waste. Over processing Where steps occur in the production process that do not add value to the end customer this is termed overproduction for example authority processes often require multiple signatories. Defects The process results in an error or requires rework for example in manufacturing this could represent an item where components have been omitted from the construction.

Using a Supply Chain Responsiveness Matrix (SCRM)

Material spend is a significant portion of cost for most companies in Lean organizations the cost of stock and materials is often closely managed to ensure that just enough material/inventory is maintained to buffer against supplier lead-time avoiding overstocking and unnecessary waste. Inventory analysis is a common theme within supply chain improvement programs and there are various tools with which organizations can use to understand (and improve) their inventory for example, * Inventory turnover, * Fast moving/slow moving stock However, these tools are not adept at highlighting which function or department is carrying what percentage of inventory. Inventory is typically held to counterbalance lead time and therefore there is typically enough stock held to enable re-ordering to be done to ensure that stock-outs do not occur- any inventory held above this requirement could be considered surplus. However, with most organizations this is a target rather than a reality. Therefore understanding an organizations inventory at the various stages of its process can identify waste (over stocking) and help conceptualize the overall lead-time the organization is buffering against. The company is then armed with sufficient information to make a first pass at whether too much stock is being held. A Supply Chain responsiveness matrix is one such tool, used for analyzing stock, process and lead-time. It is constructed by reviewing stages of the companies process and reviewing the inventory and lead time associated with each step then displaying the results pictorially. In the example below we can see that the process takes 33 days to complete and there is 48 days (lead time) inventory within the supply chain with a total lead time therefore of 81 days. Example Supply Chain Responsiveness matrix

The approach does have some drawbacks however as there may be valid reasons for some overstocking for example risk avoidance mitigating obsolescence, batch break buying. These may all account for surplus inventory but have been made with appropriate rationale. However given these drawbacks, SCRM has many benefits: * Once produced the diagram is very easy to understand * Can help improvement teams home in on areas which have large stock holdings * Can show areas that may represent quick win improvement targets.

What is Productivity
Productivity is a measure of outputs produced over inputs. Typically expressed as a ratio productivity is a common measure used withing organisations to quantify output against costs of input Productivity is often a focus of lean improvement programs where businesses try to rationalize the resources (cost) used to produce the output. There are various factors which impact productivity these may range from machinery or technology effectiveness number of available staff materials available. Improvements in productivity can be achieved by various methods for example by automating activity, making workplaces more ergonomic. Improvement programs often set baselines for productivity so that once improvements have been initiated measures can be taken to quantify results.

What is lead time

Simply put, lead time is the time taken to meet a customer requirement. For example when ordering goods the lead time is the time it takes from the initial request to the provision of the goods ordered. Measuring lead time is very important and one of the common results of business improvement programs is that lead time is reduced. QCD (Quality, Cost, Delivery) measures are the three foundation measures that can be applied to businesses and as such lead time adherence or delivery schedule adherence is often a key measure used within industry for example if a supplier stated that goods would have a lead time of six weeks was that six weeks met? A failure to comply with stated lead time can have both financial and process repercussions and as such is an important part of lean concepts.

What is the Chi-Square test?

The Chi-Square test is a statistical testing method, and is commonly used for testing discrete data, both the contributing factor and result are attribute data. The method is concerned with testing a sample for independence and Homogeneity. Examples where the Chi-Square could be used: * Does customer location affect the products purchased * Does the supplier affect if end product passes quality inspection. * Does the month of the year affect when people buy products * Is age a factor in recruitment

What is ANOVA
ANOVA is a word used to describe Analysis of Variance, in short is a concept/calculation whose purpose of which is to analyze variation and determine its significance. It is used to analyze the relationships between inputs and an output and is often used to determine whether variation has a common cause. ANOVA forms part of the Analyze method as part of the DMAIC model. There are a variety of ANOVA methods of which includes: One-way ANOVA tests for differences between independent groups Two way ANOVA How different levels of two factors affect a response variable

What is the Five Whys

Five whys is a technique used in improvement programs to help find the root cause of a problem. Five whys has been around for many years and its a simple technique, by repeatedly asking why the change agent/project team can challenge current methods and reveal the issues causing the problem. Five whys has a number of benefits in that its simple to do (doesnt require specialist training) through a systematic approach it helps identify causes (or the root cause) of problems being experienced. Five whys works best in a project workshop environment or where interviews are being conducted although notionally why is asked five times you may find that the root cause is revelaed with less whys Example five whys 1/ Why are our customers not satisfied Because we always ship late 2/ Why do we ship late Because our products arent ready 3/ Why are our products not ready Because Purchasing order the materials incorrectly 4/ Why do purchasing order incorrectly Because they dont specify a lead time 5/ Why dont they specify a lead time Because their process doesnt tell them to. Notice in the example above how we peeled the layers of the problem down tracing back the problem to its source. Dont be surprised if using the 5 whys doesnt result in many other questions relating to your project as the project team becomes more familiar with the business processes and issues therein.

Value add chart

A value add chart is a visual depiction of both value add and non value add time within a process. A value ad chart is used to portray results from value add analysis The value add chart is comprised of * Processes or steps * Value add time * Non-Value add time For each step in the process the time spent on value add and non value add tasks is recorded and displayed. Example Value add chart

CRITICAL PATH IS EASY AS 1,2,3

In my previous post about the problem of telling whats important on a project, I promised to share some thoughts and tips on how standard project management methodologies, particularly the critical path method, can facilitate your planning efficiency when applied to a project creatively. But first of all, it is worth discussing what the critical path method (CPM) is all about. What is Critical Path? CPM is a mathematically based algorithm for scheduling a set of project activities. The essential technique for using CPM is to construct a model of the project that includes the following: A list of all activities required to complete the project, The dependencies between the activities, and The estimate of time (duration) that each activity will take to completion.

Using these values, CPM usually calculates the longest path of planned activities to the end of the project, and the earliest and latest points that each activity can start and finish without making the project longer. This process determines which activities are "critical" (i.e., on the longest path) and which have "total float" (i.e., can be delayed without making the project longer). Now well try to illustrate the concept with an example. Lets take a simple, real-life project: hanging a picture on the wall. What should you do to complete this mini-project successfully? First, we need to define and list all the tasks that have to be done, so that the whole project is completed.

Choose a place on the wall Buy the screws Choose the picture Drill a hole Screw in the screws Hang the picture
When we think of these tasks, we realize that some of them cannot start before the others are finished. That is, some tasks are dependent

on the others.

The actions drill a hole, screw in the screws and hang the picture form a sequence of tasks that must be performed in a specific order, one right after the other, to ensure a successful result. Such tasks are called sequential activities. So these three tasks, together with the start of our project (choosing a place on the wall) in our example, are the most important critical steps that must be taken to arrive at the proper solution to our problem. These actions will be placed on your critical path for this project. So the essential concept behind Critical Path Analysis is that you cannot start some activities until the others are finished. These activities need to be completed in a sequence, with each stage being more-or-less completed before the next stage can begin. Heres what a sample schedule can look like:

The critical path consists of the longest sequence of activities from project start to end that should be started and completed exactly as scheduled to ensure the project is completed by a certain date in the future. The activities on the critical path must be very closely managed. If jobs on the critical path slip, immediate action should be taken to get the project back on schedule. Otherwise, completion of the whole project will slip. Imagine that you have a project that will take 300 days to complete. If the first activity on the critical path is one day late, the project will take 301 days to complete, unless another activity on the critical path can be completed one day earlier. So the critical path is simply all the tasks that determine the end date in your project schedule. There can be more than one critical path in one project, so that several paths run in parallel. For instance, in our case, choose a picture and hang the picture, as well as buy the screws, screw in the screws and hang the picture form other task sequences that also are important for us to complete the project. The critical path may contain all the important activities on the project, or it may not. In fact, sometimes the activities on the critical path are not the most important parts of the project. At the same time, there will be tasks that are not on the critical path, but still determine your projects success. Understanding the critical path involves determining which activities are critical to complete on time. But other activities, lying outside of critical path, also may be very important and require extra diligence and focus.

What Resource Constraints Are and Why They Are Important

Traditional critical-path-derived schedules are based only on causal (logical) dependencies. Weve already marked these dependances in our plan (e.g., it is impossible to drill a hole before you choose a place on the wall). However, a project can have resource limitations, which also should be taken into consideration. These limitations will create more dependencies. These dependencies are often called resource constraints. So, if you work on a team, your project work can be split between the team members. In our case, while youre choosing a place on the wall and drilling a hole, one of your friends can go and buy some screws, and your spouse can choose the picture. The tasks can be done in parallel, like on our chart above. However, if youre the only person responsible for the project, you have a resource constraint (i.e., you cannot drill a hole and go shopping for screws simultaneously). In this case, your critical path will look different.

On the chart above, we assume that you first need to choose the picture, and only later can you buy the screws. However, depending on the project conditions, these tasks can be performed in a different order. Such a critical path is called a "resource critical" path. This method was proposed as an extension to the traditional CPA to allow for the inclusion of resources related to each activity. A resource-leveled schedule may include delays due to resource bottlenecks (i.e., unavailability of a resource at the required time), and it may cause a previously shorter path to become longer. This is what you see on our chart above.

Calculating the Length of Your Project

In project management, a critical path is the sequence of project activities that add up to the longest overall duration. This determines the shortest time possible to complete the project. Getting back to our example, lets assume that you have to do everything by yourself. For each activity, show the estimated length of time it will take. Also, you determine the approximate start time for each task on the critical path. Heres how it can be done in our example.

Now, if we add up all the critical tasks duration, well get the approximate time that will be needed for the whole project to be

completed. In our case, 2 hours and 26 minutes. Add the duration to the start time, and youll be able to calculate the earliest project completion time (10:26 am in our example).
Flexibility in the Critical Path

The critical path method was developed for complex, but fairly predictable, projects. However, in real life, we rarely get to manage such projects. A schedule generated using critical path techniques often is not followed precisely. As we already mentioned above, any delay of an activity on the critical path directly impacts the planned project completion date. New requirements may pop up, and new resource constraints may emerge. Lets say youre planning to redecorate the living room together with your spouse. Your tasks will include: Getting rid of the old furniture Painting the walls Fixing the ceiling Installing the new furniture

Your spouse will then be responsible for: Choosing the new curtains Hanging the new curtains

The curtain tasks form a sub-project and can be treated as a non-critical path. Your spouse can choose the new curtains and hang the new curtains any time before the end of your project. So these tasks do have flexibility in the start and end date, or float. These tasks are parallel, and they will not be placed on the critical path. Heres how the whole project can look on a Gantt chart:

However, if any of the parallel tasks gets significantly delayed, it will prevent your whole project from being completed on time. Therefore, you should always keep an eye on parallel tasks. Now, lets assume that choosing the curtains took your spouse longer than you initially expected. This will delay the end of the project.

Your redecoration is incomplete without the new curtains, so the path that previously was non-critical becomes critical for the projects completion. The initial critical path changes. To keep an eye on your non-critical tasks, you should always keep your schedule up-to-date. Thats the only way youll know exactly where your project is at any given moment in time and whether it will be delivered as it was initially planned.

QUALITY ASSURANCE AND QUALITY CONTROL

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN QUALITY ASSURANCE AND QUALITY CONTROL IS THAT

o o o o

Quality assurance aims to assure that quality work and quality deliverables will be built in before work is done Quality control aims to determine that quality work and quality deliverables did occur after work was done Quality control is conducted by inspection and testing

Of materials, workmanship and product

QUALITY CONTROL IS ALL ABOUT

Conformance to requirements

WHAT DOES QUALITY CONTROL INVOLVE? - 1

QUALITY CONTROL INVOLVES A SERIES OF PROCESSES 1. Planning for quality control
And to what extent or frequency 2. Identifying the relevant reference standards

I.e. identifying where control is to be exercised

E.g. the technical (technological) specifications applicable

WHAT DOES QUALITY CONTROL INVOLVE?

3. Influencing performance by collecting specific information

o Usually highly technical, standardized data 4. Analyzing and comparing results to standards 5. Reporting results to all parties concerned o As a basis for management decision o o
On appropriate corrective action On-going retro-fixing to maintain end results

APPROPRIATE CORRECTIVE ACTION? - 2

Process adjustment o I.e. process improvement

o
Re-testing

To avoid the same condition recurring If there is doubt about the test results Often occurs where only small samples can be tested But representing large volumes of product Or because the samples are subject to human error

o o o o

WHAT IF REWORK OR REPLACEMENT IS NOT POSSIBLE?

THERE ARE TIMES WHEN THE FAILED PRODUCT IS NO LONGER ACCESSIBLE IN SUCH CASES

o o

A condition found in large construction works It may be necessary to add supplementary work

To secure the integrity of the works as a whole

1. Communication is more complex in Matrix Org., since it involves people from across the organisation 2. Project Manager (PM) should always be pro-active and not reactive 3. Identify the tense of the question 4. Risk assessments