Toxicity of Chlorinated hydrocarbons Background

Hydrocarbons are a heterogenous group of organic substances that are primarily composed of carbon and hydrogen molecules. They are quite abundant in modern society. Some of the most commonly ingested hydrocarbons include gasoline, lubricating oil, motor oil, mineral spirits, lighter fluid/naphtha, lamp oil, and kerosene. Other common sources of hydrocarbons include dry cleaning solutions, paint, spot remover, rubber cement, and solvents. In addition, many volatile substances that contain hydrocarbons (eg, glue, propellants) are commonly abused for their euphoric effects. Toxicity from hydrocarbon ingestion can affect many different organs, but the lungs are the most commonly affected organ. The chemical properties of the individual hydrocarbon determine the specific toxicity, while the dose and route of ingestion affect which organs are exposed to the toxicity. Unlike the aromatic or aliphatic hydrocarbons, the halogenated hydrocarbons tend to cause a wider range of toxicity.

General
Chlorinated Hydrocarbons are a group of chemicals composed of carbon, chlorine and hydrogen. As pesticides, they are also referred to by several other names, including chlorinated organics, chlorinated insecticides and chlorinated synthetics. Although the first chlorinated hydrocarbon was synthesized in 1874, its insecticidal properties were not discovered until 1939 by the Swiss chemist, Paul Mller. It was introduced as DDT in 1942 during World War II and its subsequent use is responsible for saving millions of lives from vectored diseases such as typhus and malaria.As with most of the chlorinated hydrocarbons, DDT has been banned for use in the United States, but is still used in some developing countries for combating insect vectors of disease. Other members of this chemical group no longer in use in the United States include aldrin, dieldrin, heptachlor, mirex, chlordecone, and chlordane.

Toxicity
The chlorinated hydrocarbons are all contact poisons, although they penetrate insect cuticle at differing rates. Because they are insoluble in water, they are not translocated within plants. They show a high affinity for fats, and are concentrated in fatty tissues of animals. In varying degrees, chlorinated hydrocarbons are absorbed from the gut and also by the lung and skin. The efficiency of dermal absorption is variable. Endosulfan is efficiently absorbed across the skin, while docofol is not. Lindane is absorbed even more efficiently across abraded skin, which becomes important when taking into account its use on children with severe dermatitis associated with scabies. The chief acute toxic action of the chlorinated hydrocarbons is on the nervous system. Acute symptoms of neurologic toxicity include tremor and involuntary muscular movement, which is due to the prolonged recovery phase of the affected neuron.

Defination :
Hydrocarbons are organic compounds made primarily of carbon and hydrogen atoms. The addition of chlorine to the carbon-hydrogen chemical backbone increases the stability and decreases the flammability of the resulting compounds. Chlorinated hydrocarbon compounds are a diverse group of compounds, some of which are widely used in industrial and leisure activities. Common chlorinated hydrocarbons include carbon tetrachloride, methylene chloride, and trichloroethylene. These solvents have characteristic slightly pungent odors. They are used extensively in industry as cleaning, degreasing, and thinning agents because of their excellent solvent properties and low flammability relative to other effective solvents. They are also used in the manufacture of other chemicals including plastics and pesticides. Because of their high volatility and low boiling point, workplace exposures may be greater than anticipated. At high temperatures, these substances may decompose to yield highly toxic gases such as phosgene and hydrogen chloride. They are commonly encountered as mixtures with variable toxicity depending on the concentration of individual constituents.

Toxic Effects
Carbon tetrachloride is used infrequently due to its relative potency as a liver and kidney toxin. Methylene chloride is a common constituent of paint strippers, is very volatile, and can accumulate substantial amounts in enclosed spaces. It is metabolized to a form of carbon monoxide that has a half life about 2.5 times longer than that produced by carbon monoxide inhalation. In a small number of people, trichloroethylene will produce "degreaser's flush," a transient reddening of the face and neck, which occurs when the individual consumes even small quantities of alcohol. Sometimes this reaction may also produce a sensation of fullness in the chest and breathlessness. As a class, the chlorinated hydrocarbons are potent central nervous system depressants or stimulants. They also cause greater liver and kidney damage compared to other organic solvents. Many have been shown to cause cancer in laboratory animals; due to widespread industrial use, the issue of carcinogenic risk to humans is one of the most controversial issues in regulatory toxicology. The chlorinated hydrocarbons have been implicated in causing sudden death at high exposure levels possibly related to the development of heart arrhythmias (ventricular fibrillation). Exposure to chlorinated hydrocarbon compounds in the occupational setting is primarily through inhalation. Skin absorption is variable and usually insignificant, although dermal absorption following prolonged or extensive skin contact can cause systemic toxicity. Risk: Individuals exposed to high levels of industrial and environmental pollutants are at higher risk.

1-DDT And Other Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Pesticides

The use of DDT and other chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides increased following W.W.II due to their effectiveness against a wide range of insect pests, residual activity, and relatively low mammalian toxicity. More recently the use of many of these insecticides has become limited due to their persistence in biological systems. Included in the chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticide group are DDT (dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane), methoxychlor, aldrin, dieldrin, chlordane, toxaphene, endrin, heptachlor, and lindane (gamma isomer of benzene hexachloride (BHC)). These are trade names for closely related hydrocarbon compounds to which several chlorine atoms have been joined. Chlordane, lindane and toxaphene are commonly used pesticides applied to animal skin for control of external parasites DDT is fat soluble and is disseminated by air and water to terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. When DDT enters a water environment, it is taken up by aquatic animals and becomes part of the food chain, accumulating and concentrating in the fat of predatory species. DDT also remains residual in upper soil layers and accumulates in many terrestrial animal species.

Transmission and Development

Since absorption from the gut is poor, the major portion of ingested DDT is excreted unchanged in the feces, with the remaining DDT excreted in the bile or stored in adipose tissue from which it is removed and gradually eliminated in the urine. DDT is metabolized by the liver, is fat soluble and therefore, its absorption through the skin is enhanced when present in an oil base solution or emulsion form. Absorption by the lung is rapid when DDT is present as an aerosol. Dieldrin may be absorbed from the skin in a dry powder. Acute toxicity can occur due to either acute exposure or as a result of the utilization of fat containing high concentrations of accumulated DDT during periods of starvation. The DDT which was stored in the fat is suddenly released into the bloodstream and results in signs of acute organochlorine poisoning.

Effects on humans:
In the early to mid 1950s, DDT became one of the most widely used pesticides. This was when we thought it was completely harmless to human beings. When we originally used it to control lice, people were unaffected even though they were in direct contact with the pesticides. One of the reasons why the DDT did not affect people is because it is difficult for DDT to be absorbed through human skin. Eventually, we realized that some DDT was staying in our bodies. DDT was being used in the environment, on agricultural products, and on livestock. In the 1960's, concern arose about the widespread use of DDT and it's effects on humans.

A study in 1968 showed that Americans were consuming an average of 0.025 milligrams of DDT per day! When DDT gets into our bodies, it is stored primarily in such fatty organs as the adrenals, testes, and thyroid. DDT is also stored in smaller concentrations in the liver and kidneys. DDT concentrations are especially high in human milk. Milk production depends heavily on the use of stored body fat, and this is where DDT tends to stay in our bodies. At concentration above 236 mg DDT per kg of body weight, you'll die. Concentration of 6-10 mg/kg leads to such symptons as headache, nausea, vomiting, tremors.

2-Carbon tetrachloride
Carbon tetrachloride, like chloroform, is a clear, organic, heavy liquid. Consisting of one carbon atom and four chlorine atoms, carbon tetrachloride has a sweet odor and evaporates very easily and so is most often encountered as a gas. The compound does not occur naturally. Rather, it is manufactured industrially in large amounts for use as a solvent to dissolve other organic materials, or as a raw material in the production of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) used as aerosol propellants and refrigeration fluids. For many years, carbon tetrachloride was used as a cleaning agent to remove greasy stains from carpeting, draperies, furniture upholstery, and clothing. Also, prior to 1960, carbon tetrachloride was used in fire extinguishers since it is inflammable. Because it is an effective and inexpensive pesticide, before 1986 carbon tetrachloride was used to fumigate grain. These applications, however, have been discontinued since the discovery that the compound is probably carcinogenic, or cancer causing. Given its potential to cause cancer in humans, carbon tetrachloride is especially dangerous since it does not break down in the environment very easily. It can take up to 200 years for carbon tetrachloride to degrade fully in contaminated soil. Fortunately, the carcinogenic effects seen in laboratory experiments were due to very high levels of exposure that are not characteristic of the levels encountered by most people. Currently, it is not known what long-term low levels of exposure might have on human health.

Health Effects
Carbon tetrachloride does not occur naturally. Exposure to this substance results mostly from breathing air, drinking water, or coming in contact with soil that is contaminated with it. Exposure to very high amounts of carbon tetrachloride can damage the liver, kidneys, and nervous system. Carbon tetrachloride can cause cancer in animals. Carbon tetrachloride has been found in at least 425 of the 1,662 National Priority List sites identified by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).

Reffrences

http://fresc.usgs.gov/products/papers/900_Henny.pdf http://science.jrank.org/pages/1435/Chlorinated-Hydrocarbons.html http://toxic-effects-chlorinated-hydrocarbon-solvents.html