People & Performance Assignment

Erik Erikson

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 People & Performance Assignment

INDEX

PART - 1
Introduction .......................................................................................................................3

PART - 2
Principles & Theories .......................................................................................................5

The Epigenetic Principle......................................................................................................5

Stages of Development........................................................................................................6
Stage One.............................................................................................................................7
Stage Two............................................................................................................................7
Stage Three..........................................................................................................................8
Stage Four............................................................................................................................8
Stage Five............................................................................................................................9
Stage Six..............................................................................................................................9
Stage Seven........................................................................................................................10
Stage Eight.........................................................................................................................10

PART - 3
Psychology In The Workplace........................................................................................11

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PART

In tr oduct ion
One of the most influential psychoanalysts of the 20th century, Erik Erikson was born on
June 15, 1902, in Frankfurt-am-Main, Germany. After completing high school, he moved to
Florence to pursue his interest in art, and in 1927 became an art teacher at a
psychoanalytically enlightened school for children started by Dorothy Burlingham and Anna
Freud in Vienna.

The move changed his life and career. He earned a certificate from the Maria Montessori
School, and then embarked on psychoanalytic training at the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute.
By 1936, he had joined the Institute of Human Relations, part of the department of psychiatry
at Yale University.

Erikson’s Legacy

Erikson's best known work is his theory that each stage of life is associated with a specific
psychological struggle, a struggle that contributes to a major aspect of personality. His
developmental progression-from trust to autonomy, initiative, industry, identity, intimacy,
generativity, and integrity-was conceived as the sequential reorganization of ego and
character structures. Each phase was the potential root of later health and pathology.

By focusing on the social as well as the psychological, Erikson's stages represented a

quantum leap in Freudian thought, which had emphasized the psychosexual nature of
development. While much of his theoretical work has since been challenged, Erikson's basic
developmental framework-conflict negotiated in the context of relationships-continues to
illuminate our thinking, as does the identity crisis, the confusion of roles that Erikson first
identified.

Human Development In Social Context

More enduring is his broader attempt to place childhood squarely in the context of society. It
was Erikson who first eloquently developed the idea that children are not simply biological
organisms that endure, nor products of the psyche in isolation. Rather, they develop in the
context of society's expectations, prohibitions, and prejudices.

Erikson's fieldwork among the Yurok and Sioux demonstrated the powerful influence of
culture. His synthesis of biological, psychological, and social perspectives signaled a
revolution in human development and set the stage for today's increasingly accepted view of
development as a bio-psychosocial process.

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Complexity and Resilience

Another major contribution of Erikson's work is the notion that personality is shaped over the
life span, which implies that experiences later in life can heal or ameliorate problems in early
childhood. Erikson believed that we continually have the opportunity to restructure our
identity images to attain a sense of confidence in the continuity of the self, which is matched
by a consistency of one's meaning to others.

Finally, Erikson powerfully advocated for a "new education of children" based on self-
knowledge and a complex world view that scorned "immediate diagnoses of health or
sickness, judgments of goodness or badness, or advice on `how to.'" Erikson believed in the
complexity and resilience of children and in the importance of mutuality in helping
relationships, which "strengthens the doer even as it strengthens the other."

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PART

2
Princ ipl es and T heorie s
Erikson is a Freudian ego-psychologist. This means that he accepts Freud's ideas as basically
correct, including the more debatable ideas such as the Oedipal complex, and accepts as well
the ideas about the ego that were added by other Freudian loyalists such as Heinz Hartmann
and, of, course, Anna Freud. However, Erikson is much more society and culture-oriented
than most Freudians, as might be expected from someone with his anthropological interests,
and he often pushes the instincts and the unconscious practically out of the picture. Perhaps
because of this, Erikson is popular among Freudians and non-Freudians alike!

The Epigenetic Principle

He is most famous for his work in refining and expanding Freud's theory of stages.
Development, he says, functions by the epigenetic principle. This principle says that we
develop through a predetermined unfolding of our personalities in eight stages. Our progress
through each stage is in part determined by our success, or lack of success, in all the previous
stages. A little like the unfolding of a rose bud, each petal opens up at a certain time, in a
certain order, which nature, through its genetics, has determined. If we interfere in the natural
order of development by pulling a petal forward prematurely or out of order, we ruin the
development of the entire flower.

Each stage involves certain developmental tasks that are psychosocial in nature. Although he
follows Freudian tradition by calling them crises, they are more drawn out and less specific
than that term implies. The child in grammar school, for example, has to learn to be
industrious during that period of his or her life, and that industriousness is learned through the
complex social interactions of school and family.

The various tasks are referred to by two terms. The infant's task, for example, is called "trust-
mistrust." At first, it might seem obvious that the infant must learn trust and not mistrust. But
Erikson made it clear that there it is a balance we must learn: Certainly, we need to learn
mostly trust; but we also need to learn a little mistrust, so as not to grow up to become
gullible fools!

Each stage has a certain optimal time as well. It is no use trying to rush children into
adulthood, as is so common among people who are obsessed with success. Neither is it
possible to slow the pace or to try to protect our children from the demands of life. There is a
time for each task.

If a stage is managed well, we carry away a certain virtue or psychosocial strength which will
help us through the rest of the stages of our lives. On the other hand, if we don't do so well,
we may develop mal-adaptations and malignancies, as well as endanger all our future

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development. A malignancy is the worse of the two, and involves too little of the positive and
too much of the negative aspect of the task, such as a person who can't trust others. A mal-
adaptation is not quite as bad and involves too much of the positive and too little of the
negative, such as a person who trusts too much.

Stages of Development

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Stage Ages Basic Important Summary

Conflict Event
1. Oral-Sensory Birth to 12 to Trust vs. Mistrust Feeding The infant must form a first
18 months loving, trusting relationship
with the caregiver, or develop
a sense of mistrust.
2. Muscular 18 months Autonomy vs. Toilet The child's energies are
to 3years Shame/Doubt training directed toward the
development of physical
skills, including walking,
grasping, and rectal sphincter
control. The child learns
control but may develop
shame and doubt if not
handled well.
3. Locomotors 3 to 6 years Initiative vs. Independence The child continues to
Guilt become more assertive and to
take more initiative, but may
be too forceful, leading to
guilt feelings.
4. Latency 6 to 12 years Industry vs. School The child must deal with
Inferiority demands to learn new skills
or risk a sense of inferiority,
failure and incompetence.
6. Young 19 to 40 years Intimacy vs. Love The young adult must
Adulthood Isolation relationships develop intimate relationships
or suffer feelings of isolation.
7. Middle 40 to 65 years Generativity vs. Parenting Each adult must find some
Adulthood Stagnation way to satisfy and support
the next generation.
8. Maturity 65 to death Ego Integrity vs. Reflection on The culmination is a sense of
Despair and acceptance oneself as one is and of
of one's life feeling fulfilled.

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Stage One
ORAL-SENSORY

Description:
The important event in this stage is feeding. According to Erikson, the infant will develop a
sense of trust only if the parent or care-giver is responsive and consistent with the basic needs
being meet. The need for care and food must be met with comforting regularity. The infant
must first form a trusting relationship with the parent or care-giver; otherwise a sense of
mistrust will develop.

Elements for a positive outcome:

The infant's need for care, familiarity, comfort and nourishment are met. Parental consistency
and responsiveness is essential for the sense of trust to develop.

Elements for a negative outcome:

Babies who are not securely attached to their mothers are less cooperative and more
aggressive in their interactions with their mothers. As they grow older, they become less
competent and sympathetic with peers. They also explore their environment with less
enthusiasm and persistence.

Examples:
Babies will begin to understand that objects and people exist even when they cannot see
them. This is where trust becomes important.

Stage Two
MUSCULAR

Description:
According to Erikson, self control and self confidence begin to develop at this stage. Children
can do more on their own. Toilet training is the most important event at this stage. They also
begin to feed and dress themselves. This is how the toddler strives for autonomy. It is
essential for parents not to be overprotective at this stage. A parent's level of protectiveness
will influence the child's ability to achieve autonomy. If a parent is not reinforcing, the child
will feel shameful and will learn to doubt his or her abilities. "Erikson believes that children
who experience too much doubt at this stage will lack confidence in their powers later in life"

Elements for a positive outcome:

The child must take more responsibility for his or her own feeding, toileting, and dressing.
Parents must be reassuring yet avoid overprotection.

Elements for a negative outcome:

If parents do not maintain a reassuring, confident attitude and do not reinforce the child's
efforts to master basic motor and cognitive skills, children may begin to feel shame; they may
learn to doubt their abilities to manage the world on their own terms. Children who
experience too much doubt at this stage will lack confidence in their own powers throughout
life.

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 People & Performance Assignment

Examples:
In this stage children begin to assume important responsibilities for self-care like feeding,
toileting, and dressing.

Stage Three
LOCOMOTOR

Description:
The most important event at this stage is independence. The child continues to be assertive
and to take the initiative. Playing and hero worshipping are unimportant form of initiative for
children. Children in this stage are eager for responsibility. It is essential for adults to confirm
that the child’s initiative is accepted no matter how small it may be. If the child is not given a
chance to be responsible and do things on their own, a sense of guilt may develop. The child
will come to believe that what they want to do is always wrong.

Elements for a positive outcome:

In order for a positive outcome in this stage, the child must learn to accept without guilt, that
there are certain things not allowed. Children must be guilt free when using imagination.
They must be reassured that it is okay to play certain adult roles.

Elements for a negative outcome:

If children are not allowed to do things on their own, a sense of guilt may develop and they
may come to believe that what they want to do is always wrong.

Examples:
A four year old passing tools to a parent who is fixing a bicycle. Children at this stage will
worship heroes. Pretend games are also common.

Stage Four
LATENCY

Description:
"In this stage children are learning to see the relationship between perseverance and the
pleasure of a job completed". The important event at this stage is attendance at school. As a
student, the children have a need to be productive and do work on their own. They are both
physically and mentally ready for it. Interaction with peers at school also plays an imperative
role of child development in this stage. The child for the first time has a wide variety of
events to deal with, including academics, group activities, and friends. Difficulty with any of
these leads to a sense of inferiority.

Elements for a positive outcome:

It is essential for the child at this stage to discover pleasure in being productive and the need
to succeed. The child's relationship with peers in school and the neighborhood become
increasingly important.

Elements for a negative outcome:

Difficulty with the child's ability to move between the world at home and the world of peers
can lead to feeling of inferiority.

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 People & Performance Assignment

Examples:
In this stage children want to do productive work on their own. Students are able to water
class plants, collect and distribute materials for teacher, and keep records of forms for teacher.

Stage Five
ADOLESCENCE

Description:
At this stage, adolescents are in search of an identity that will lead them to adulthood.
Adolescents make a strong effort to answer the question "Who am I?" Erikson notes the
healthy resolution of earlier conflicts can now serve as a foundation for the search for an
identity. If the child overcomes earlier conflicts they are prepared to search for identity. Did
they develop the basic sense of trust? Do they have a strong sense of industry to believe in
themselves?

Elements for a positive outcome:

The adolescent must make a conscious search for identity. This is built on the outcome and
resolution to conflict in earlier stages.

Elements for a negative outcome:

If the adolescent can not make deliberate decisions and choices, especially about vocation,
sexual orientation, and life in general, role confusion becomes a threat.

Examples:
Adolescents attempt to establish their own identities and see themselves as separate from
their parents.

Stage Six
YOUNG ADULTHOOD

Description:
In this stage, the most important events are love relationships. Intimacy refers to one's ability
to relate to another human being on a deep, personal level. An individual who has not
developed a sense of identity usually will fear a committed relationship and may retreat into
isolation. It is important to mention that having a sexual relationship does not indicate
intimacy. People can be sexually intimate without being committed and open with another.
True intimacy requires personal commitment. However, mutual satisfaction will increase the
closeness of people in a true intimate relationship.

Elements for a positive outcome:

The young adult must develop intimate relationships with others. Not resolving this conflict
leaves the young adult feeling isolated. The young adult must be willing to be open and
committed to another individual.

Elements for a negative outcome:

An individual may retreat into isolation if a sense of identity is not developed and will fear a
committed relationship.

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Examples:
Giving and sharing with an individual without asking what will be received in return.

Stage Seven
MIDDLE ADULTHOOD

Description:
In this stage generativity refers to the adult's ability to care for another person. The most
important event in this stage is parenting. Does the adult have the ability to care and guide the
next generation? Generativity has a broader meaning then just having children. Each adult
must have some way to satisfy and support the next generation. According to Erikson, "A
person does best at this time to put aside thoughts of death and balance its certainty with the
only happiness that is lasting: to increase, by whatever is yours to give, the goodwill and
higher order in your sector of the world"

Elements for a positive outcome:

To have and nurture children and/or become involved with future generations.

Elements for a negative outcome:

An individual must deal with issues they are concerned with or it can lead to stagnation in
later life.

Examples:
In this stage an adult will be concerned with issues such as: the future of the environment,
what kind of world will we leave the next generation, equality for all people, etc.

Stage Seven
MATURITY

Description:
The most important event at this stage is coming to accept one's whole life and reflecting on
that life in a positive manner. According to Erikson, achieving a sense of integrity means
fully accepting oneself and coming to terms with the death. Accepting responsibility for your
life and being able to undo the past and achieve satisfaction with self is essential. The
inability to do this results in a feeling of despair.

Elements for a positive outcome:

The adult feels a sense of fulfillment about life and accepts death as an unavoidable reality.

Elements for a negative outcome:

Individuals who are unable to obtain a feeling of fulfillment and completeness will despair
and fear death.

Examples:
An aged person may find it necessary to reflect and analyze what they have accumulated
throughout life and decide what offspring will receive from them upon death.

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PART

3
Psy cholog y In T he Wor kpl ace
Erik Erikson talked about leadership, getting along with others and making sense of our
world. Although every psychology student knows about Erikson, the business world has been
slow to realize that his theory also applies to the workplace. Erikson said that at each one of
eight stages we learn how to master a specific task. If we are successful, this leads to the
development of a lasting strength or ability, which helps us deal with our world and those
around us.

In the first stage we learn either to trust or mistrust people. Most of us find that we can trust
people to behave in certain ways. Erikson says that those of us, who learn this, develop drive,
the ability to hope and be optimistic.

How does this apply at work?

When you join a new firm, you must determine whether you can trust the people there and
rely on them. If, for example, you find that your boss "has it in for you',' you will not trust
that person. Your efforts will not likely be rewarded. On the other hand, if your employer
evokes your trust, you become a person with drive and renewed hope for your future at the
firm.

In the next stage, Erikson suggested that we learn one of two things — autonomy or to feel
doubt when we assert ourselves. If, for example, your employer allows and encourages you to
be independent, you feel good and will likely become autonomous. This sets the stage for the
development of self-control and exercising of your will power.

Erikson's third stage involves learning to either show some initiative or feel guilty when you
do. Most people want to use their brains. However, if you are put down each time you make
suggestions, you will soon feel guilty about doing anything other than what you are told.
Erikson says people who are allowed to show initiative are able to bring direction and
purpose to their lives and their work.

Next, we learn either to be industrious or are made to feel inferior when we don’t produce. Of
course, every employer wants their employees to be industrious, but all too often, managers
concentrate only on the negatives. A better approach would be to encourage both the hard
workers and those who aren't as proficient. This helps them become more confident and
competent in what they are doing.

You have probably heard of, or used, one of Erikson's terms — identity crisis. Every time we
take on a new position, join a new organization or even add a new role to our lives (such as
parenthood), we have to figure out what behavior is appropriate in our new role. Once we
understand what that is, we feel more comfortable and confident. This leads to the ability to
devote ourselves to a particular role and be true to the behavior the role demands.
In regards to the workplace, let's say a person knows precisely what to do, how to do it and is

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confident that they can do it easily and well. There is no confusion about their role or identity.
However, if an individual is unsure about the task at hand, that person will experience role
confusion and not be very successful at the duties they have taken on.

At Erikson's sixth stage of development he explains that we are usually learning either to be
intimate with others (usually the stage when one marries and starts a family) or we become
isolated and withdrawn. In the workplace this involves establishing relationships with fellow
workers — be they close or distant.

People who can't — or won't — allow others to get too close tend to become "loners" who,
more often than not, aren't very effective workers. On the other hand, those who learn to
relate to others develop the lasting ability that is the foundation for love and affiliation.

The stage of generativity or stagnation usually occurs at midlife. This is when the well-
adjusted individual begins to devote his or her time to helping the next generation grow and
develop. It is not difficult to see how this stage applies in the workplace: Middle-aged
employees now turn their attention to helping younger employees develop new skills. This is
usually the time when mentoring relationships begin.

The last stage is really the last stage of life (Erikson calls this a period of wisdom or despair),
but applies equally well to those who are retiring from the workforce. Some retirees may feel
they have made valuable contributions to their organizations and feel good about themselves
and their accomplishments. But those who retire with feelings of resentment and bitterness
about how they have been treated are unhappy and filled with despair for the past and the
future.

Erikson's ideas therefore offer excellent insight as to where you and your coworkers stand or
why you act and feel the way you do at your workplace.

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