Hierarchical Model Core layer to switch traffic as fast as possible

LAN(Local Area Network) Ethernet Topology: physical Bus or Star; logical=Bus Distribution layer between access layer and main(core) Collision Domain: set of devices which frames can collide(Hub) access layer aggregation point Broadcast Domain: all hosts that can be reached by broadcast routes traffic STP(Spanning Tree Protocol, 802.1d) broadcast/multicast domains L2 Loop: Broadcast storm => solution: 802.1d (Spanning-Tree) media/protocol translation - STP process: 1) elect root bridge 2) determine root ports, security 3) determine designated ports (bridge with lowest BPDU cost) point for remote access - Root Bridge elected based on lowest bridge cost/priority, in Access layer end station network entry point case of equal cost then decided on lowest MAC address. e.g.hub(colli&broadc), switch(broadc.only) - BPDU(Bridge Protocol Data Units) send every 2s, stored 20s OSI Model STP states STP timeouts Application user interface, e.g. Telnet, FTP, HTTP Disabled administratively down 2 s BPDUs Hello Time Presentation data format/structure, en/decoding, Blocking receives BPDU only 15 s listening/learning e.g. JPEG, MPEG, ASN.1, ASCII, HTML Listening building active topology 30 s new switch connect Session separate different application data flows Learning building bridging table = 2 * Forward Delay e.g. SQL, NFS, RPC Forwarding send/receive user data 20 s MaxAge till link fails Transport providing reliable (connection-oriented) RSTP(Rapid STP, 802.1w) 50 s indirect failure or unreliable (connectionless) transport - topology information is exchanged, builds topology table e.g. TCP, UDP, NCP, SPX, ATP - MaxAge=6 s, typical network convergence within 1-2 s. Network logical addressing, routing, path finding - MST(Multi Sp.-Tree, 802.1s) and PVST+(Per VLAN Sp-Tree, e.g. IP, ICMP, IPX, RIP, IGRP, OSPF Cisco) create different Spanning-Tree (configuration) per VLAN. Datalink media access, MAC addressing, error VTP(VLAN Trunking Protocol), Cisco proprietary detection (CRC), e.g. LLC (802.2), MAC/ - Trunk = special link between switches which transports VLAN Ethernet (802.3), Token-Ring (802.5) - Use VTP to create consistency on VLAN info in your network PPP, HDLC, LAPB, Frame-Relay, FDDI - VTP can operate in 3 modes: Server, Client, Transparent Physical move bits between devices, specifies - VTP pruning = no broadcasts sent to switches with no ports in media, connector and signalling type Trunking a specific VLAN, broadcasts send every 5 min. EIA/TIA-232(console port), V.35 (serial) - Tagging frames with VLAN ID: ISL(Inter Switch Link, Cisco) Config-register CISCO IOS or 802.1q (IEEE standard, has 1 untagged native VLAN), this RAM - running config/image/tablesNormal value 0x2102 works in conjunction with 802.1Q and PVST+. FLASH - stored IOS images/tables WAN NVRAM - startup-config HDLC(High-Level Data Link Control), Cisco default on serial IF Ignore config 0x2142 ROM - BIOS, ROM monitor PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) Access-modes - add. to HDLC: multi prot. field, err. corr. optional, async.comm. Rommon 0x2100 User exec: router> Privileged exec: router # - 1) link establishment 2) authentication 3) network-layer phase Setup mode: after boot startup with empty configuration - PAP (Passw. Auth. Protocol), 2-way handshake, unencrypted Rxboot mode: router(boot)> (in case of IOS boot - CHAP (Challenge Handshake Auth. Prot.), 3-way, encrypted Frame-Relay failure) uses virtual circuits to set up connections ROMmonitor: rommon1> (e.g. password recovery) Star(Hub & Spoke): point-to-point conn.,each different subnet Line Editing Keys Full Mesh: like 1 multipoint access network => 1 subnet Ctrl B: back 1 char Ctrl V: del line Ctrl A: line begin supports burst traffic, traffic parameters: Ctrl E: line end CIR (Committed Info Rate): guaranteed bandwidth per time unit Esc B: back 1 word Ctrl F: forward 1 charCtrl W: del word Bc (committed Burst rate): data that may be sent above CIR Esc F: forward 1 word Be (excess Burst): data above Bc, marked with DE bit set Public IP ranges Private IP ranges DE(Discard Eligible) bit: frame discarded if network congested 1-126/8 (startbit 0) Class A 10.0.0.0/8 1 net 128-191/16 (startbits 10) Class B 172.16.0.0/12 16 nets Tc (committed rate measurement interval)=Bc/CIR 193-223/24 (startbits 110) Class C 192.168.0.0/16 256 net PVC (Permanent Virtual Circuit): preconfigured logical circuit LMI, Local Management Interface between router(DTE) and 224-239/32 (startbits 1110)Multicast D 127.0.0.0/8 (local loop) provider(DCE), 3 stds: ANSI, Cisco, Q.933a(ITU), default=auto 241-255 (startbits 1111)Class E(xperimental) Each PVC has DLCI(Data-Link Connection Identifier),only local Switching Methods significance, mapped in network, managed by LMI. DLCI - Store and Forward: whole frame is read, before forwarding - Cut-Through: when MAC address header is read, then forward mapping, e.g.IP to DLCI, AUTO, uses Inverse ARP or MANUAL - Fragment-Free: When first 64 bytes OK, then frame forwarded ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) * Tasks: 1) learn source MAC addrs 2) forward or drop 3) STP - BRI(Basic Rate IF)= 2B(data, 64kbps)+1D(signalling, 16kbps) - PRI(Primary RI)= 30B+ 1D(64 kbps)+ 1D sync= ITU E1(2 Mb) * Logic: 1) receive frame 2) if dest. is broad-or multicast OR Protocols: = 23B + 1D(64 kbps)+ 8kb sync= ANSI T1(1,5 Mb) unicast NOT in addr table then forward on all ports except - E series Telephone network and addressing (E.163, E.164) receiving port 3) if dest. is unicast listed in addr. table then - I series ISDN concepts(I.100) and interfaces(I.400 UNI) forward out correct port 4) otherwise, filter(drop/delete) frame - Q series switching&signalling(Q.921,LAPD & Q.931,network) NAT Reference Points marked in bold: a. inside local IP assigned to host on the inside network TE1=ISDN terminal(4-wire, twisted-pair), TE2=non-ISDN term. b. outside local outside host IP address as it appears on inside network. Not necessary real hosts IP connects(R) via TA(Terminal Adapter) to(S) NT2(Netw.Term., e.g. PBX, layer 2&3 and conc. services) connected to(T) NT1, c. inside global public NIC assigned IP, representing 1 or which connects 4-wire ISDN to 2-wire local loop(U). more inside local IP(s) to outside network U ref point in North America only, there NT1 not part of network d. outside global IP assigned to host on outside network ISDN switchtype: basic/primary - net3(Eur.) / 5ess(N.America) DDR(Dial on-Demand Routing): 1) routing packets to ISDN IF

2) filter on packet content 3) dialling 4) trigger call termination Shows hardware IDs, address list & capability list. Frames (L2) ROUTING should support SNAP (=LLC subheader) like Ethernet does. Administrative Distance => best (trusted) source of routing inf Metric => best route, based on cost(hop-count,bandwidth,delay) Convergence = time needed for all routers to agree on the network topology Administrative Distance Cisco r-table ref. after a change, e.g. new routes added, old routes change. Directly connected interface 0 C Convergence time is affected by: Static Route 1 S - Update mechanism (e.g. using hold-down timers or not) EIGRP Summary Route 5 D - Size of network topology table External BGP(Border Gateway Prot.) 20 B - Route calculation algorithm Internal EIGRP 90 D - Media type IGRP (Interior Gateway Routing Prot.) 100 I OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) 110 O,IA,N1,N2,E1,E2 RIP v1 IS-IS (Intermediate System-Int. Syst.) 115 i, L1, L2, ia - Hopcount (max=15, 16=infinite) RIP (Routing Information Protocol) 120 R - Updates (entire database of known routes) send every 30s EGP (External Gateway Protocol) 140 E - Default timers: invalid(180s), hold-down(180s), flush(240s) External EIGRP 170 EX - Can load balance over multiple paths Internal BGP 200 - No VLSM (Variable Length Subnet Mask) Unknown 255 U - Slow convergence RIP v2 Protocol Comparison OSPF IS-IS EIGRP RIP IGRP - VLSM (subnet mask) support Administrative distance 110 115 5 120 100 - Route tag: indicates interval external route Hierarchy topology required X X - Authentication (more secure) Remembers all possible routes X X X - RIP v1 support Route summarisation manual X X X IGRP (Ciscos alternative for RIP) (metric=max 4,294,967,295) Route summarisation automatic X X X - Faster convergence Event-triggered announcements X X X v2 - Updates every 90s Load balancing - Equal paths X X X X X - Default timers: invalid(270s), hold-down(280s), flush(630s) Load balancing Unequal paths X X - Metric is combination of: bandwidth, delay,reliability,load,MTU VLSM support X X X v2 - Supports unequal path load balancing Routing algorithm Dijkstra Dijkstra DUAL DV DV - Flash update: updates when topology changes Metric Cost Cost Comp hpcnt Comp - No count to infinity Hop count limit Unl. 1024 100 16 100 - Classfull (subnets not supported) Scalability Large VryLg Large small sma OSPF Autonomous System(AS) - Exchange link state information cost based on bandwidth A collection of networks under one administrative domain. - Communication between areas always via area 0 (core) IGP(Interior Gateway Protocol): runs within one AS - DR: Designated Routes, BDR: Backup Designated Routes EGP(Exterior Gateway Protocol): runs between different AS - In Multi Access network, like Ethernet, DR and BDR are chosen to represent the LAN segment Dynamic Routing Types - if router link goes down, router notifies all DRs on 224.0.0.6 Distance vector, Link state, Hybrid, Classfull, Classless DR subsequently notifies other routers on 224.0.0.5 - OSPF states: Down (no OSPF info) > Init (HELLO sent) > Distance Vector(DV) (distance = how far, vector = direction) Two-Way (Neighbour replies HELLO) > Exchange (Summary - Sends periodically copy of complete routing table on each IF exchanged) > Loading (requesting additional routing info) > - RIP, IGRP Full (Routing table created) - Slow convergence - Hello/dead interval = 10/40 s, after 40s a silent router is - Count to infinity problem => Solutions: marked down in topology db. a) define maximum hop count Exchange link state information - 1) Discover neighbours (through exchanging Hello packets) b) Split Horizon: dont return route information of - 2) exchange topology info with neighbours, sending LSUs routes learned via an specific interface (Link State Updates) containing multiple LSAs (Link-State c) Split Horizon with Poison Reverse:split horizon used until route fails, then route advertised down on all IF u Advertisements) listing subnet+cost+next-hop - 3) learned topology updates local topology database d) Route Poisoning: if route goes down, set distance - 4) Dijkstra, SPF(Shortest Path First) algorithm calculates to infinity(16) instead of announcing route down best routes to each known subnet in topology database e) Triggered Updates: when route fails, update is sent - 5) best route to each subnet is placed in IP routing table immediately without waiting till update timer expires f) Hold-Down timers: after route down, new routing Hybrid routing (e.g. EIGRP) info for that route is not accepted for some time - Advanced distance vector Link State(LS) - Fast convergence - Routers form adjacencies to exchange link state info (Hello) - Incremental updates - When link state changes, an update (only LS change) is sent - Supports VLSM (Variable Length Subnet Mask) - One topology map is created for the whole network - Protocol independent (also IPX and AppleTalk support) - Topology map is used to find the best path EIGRP (Cisco proprietary <= drawback) - Fast convergence - Multicast instead of Broadcast (HELLO uses 224.0.0.10) - Uses Bandwidth & Delay to determine Cost(metric=IGRPx256) CDP (Cisco Discovery Protocol) - Unequal (cost) path LoadBalancing (like IGRP) Discovers other Cisco equipment independent of other prots - More flexible than OSPF - Multiple protocol support (e.g. IPX, AppleTalk)

- HELLO send every 5 s. If link speed < T1 then every 60 s.