VENTILATION FOR URBAN BUILDINGS Natural and Hybrid Ventilation in the Urban Environment

March 2006

CALCULATION OF THE OPTIMAL OPENING....................43 VENTILATION CONFIGURATION....................................53

Introduction to Module 2
Natural and hybrid ventilation are used in urban buildings to provide good air quality and acceptable thermal comfort while reducing energy consumption of buildings. Natural ventilation has many advantages compared to air-conditioned buildings; however it remains an uncontrollable system and depends on the ambient conditions. Hybrid ventilation combines both natural and mechanical ventilation switching from one mode to another according to outdoor and indoor parameters. Hybrid ventilation may be a solution for naturally ventilated buildings in urban areas for extreme hot periods. The urban environment offers disadvantages in the application of natural and hybrid ventilation: the reduced wind speeds, the high ambient temperatures, the outdoor pollution and the increased noise levels decrease the cooling potential of natural and hybrid ventilation. The effective integration of both ventilation systems in the building design requires a good understanding of the urban climatic characteristics and the choice of the appropriate techniques in order to reduce the buildings exposure to the ambient constraints. Several design assisted tools have been developed for the design of naturally ventilated buildings. These include deterministic and empirical models for the prediction of wind speed at specific height in urban canyons and software for the calculation of optimal openings or airflows in naturally ventilated buildings.

Alternative ventilation strategies can also be used in the urban environments to enhance the airflows in naturally ventilated buildings. Their function is based on the increased temperature difference of the inlet and exhaust air thus the increase of the buoyancy stack pressure. These strategies are appropriate for urban sites because the location of inlet and outlet of air is at high level, in an above roof position where the noise levels are reduced, the pollutant concentration lower and wind speed higher than inside the urban canyon. Evaluation of the performance of natural and hybrid ventilation has been carried out through experiments and monitoring of buildings in real urban canyons. The assessment of both ventilation systems aims to identify the parameters that affect the indoor air quality in naturally ventilated buildings, to present the advantages of hybrid ventilation versus natural ventilation and to examine the parameters that affect the operation of hybrid ventilation systems. It can be concluded that the indoor air quality in naturally ventilated buildings depends on the air change rates, the concentration of indoor pollutants, the use of buildings and the different configurations of natural ventilation. Hybrid ventilation has high cooling potential while keeping the energy consumption of buildings at low levels; it has advantage over natural ventilation under windless conditions. The operation of the hybrid system depends on various outdoor and indoor parameters: the canyon geometry, the ambient air, the indoor pollutants concentration, the building leakage and the control strategy. The choice of the ventilation system of urban buildings and the application of the appropriate design techniques should take into consideration the urban characteristics while maximizing the natural forces in the urban environment, optimizing the thermal comfort, saving energy and/or improving the indoor air quality.

CHAPTER 1 Natural and Hybrid Ventilation in Urban Buildings

Learning objectives After studying this section you should:

1. Understand the principles of natural and hybrid ventilation systems used in urban buildings 2. Understand the function and control strategies of hybrid ventilation

Introduction
This module presents the principles of natural and hybrid ventilation systems that are used in urban buildings. Natural ventilation remains an uncontrollable system depending on the ambient conditions i.e. wind direction and air velocity. Often in urban sites, where wind flows are reduced due to the heat island effect, natural ventilation is inadequate. Hybrid ventilation system may be a solution for naturally ventilated buildings as it combines the advantages of natural and mechanical ventilation. The system combines both modes switching from one to another depending on outdoor and indoor conditions; the optimum function of the system uses natural ventilation as much as possible. Both natural and hybrid ventilation systems use the outdoor environment to create good indoor air quality and thermal comfort while reducing energy consumption of buildings.

1.1

Natural Ventilation

Natural ventilation is caused by naturally produced pressure differences due to wind, temperature difference or both. Natural ventilation is achieved by allowing air to flow in and out of the building by opening windows and doors or specific ventilation components like chimneys. The effectiveness of natural ventilation depends on the wind speed and direction, temperature difference, the size and characteristics of the openings. (See module 1) The main configurations for natural ventilation in urban climate are the same as for open area location: Single sided Cross ventilation Stack ventilation Combinations of these strategies and enhancement of the airflows make them more suitable to urban climates When it is used for free-cooling, natural ventilation can replace air-conditioning systems for large periods of time during a year. The potential of natural ventilation is related to the energy saved for cooling if natural ventilation is used instead of cooling. However, urban environment presents disadvantages for the application of natural ventilation: lower wind speeds, higher temperatures due to the effect of urban heat island, high levels of noise and air pollution.

1.2

Hybrid Ventilation

Hybrid ventilation is a two mode system combining of natural ventilation and mechanical ventilation. (De Gids 2004) Mechanical ventilation is used when natural driving forces cannot fulfill the required ventilation level, a case very often met in the urban context (Figure 1.1).

Figure 1.1: Definition of Hybrid Ventilation (De Gids, 2004)

Hybrid ventilation is a new ventilation concept that combines the best features of natural and mechanical ventilation at different times of the day or season of the year. It is a ventilation system where mechanical and natural forces are combined in a two mode system. The operating mode varies according to the season and within individual days, thus the current mode reflects the external environment and takes maximum advantage of ambient conditions at any point in time (Heiselbeg, 2002). The main difference between conventional ventilation systems and hybrid systems is the fact that the latter are intelligent systems with control systems that automatically can switch between natural and mechanical mode in order to minimize energy consumption and maintain a satisfactory indoor environment (RESHYVENT research programme, WP8) The aim of the strategy is to reduce energy, cost and the environmental side effects of year-round air conditioning while optimizing indoor air quality and thermal comfort by combining the two modes of ventilation. The operating mode performs according to seasons and depends on external ambient conditions. Figure 1.2 shows the combination of a balanced ventilation system with natural ventilation in a dwelling. When the ambient conditions allow it, the dwelling is naturally ventilated. In extreme weather conditions, natural ventilation is shut down and the mode is switched to mechanical ventilation. Figure 1.2: Example of Hybrid Ventilation in a Dwelling (RESHYVENT, WP8)

1.2.1 Hybrid ventilation Advantages Hybrid ventilation systems offer many advantages: Relative low running costs for energy conditioning the ventilation air Energy savings compared to full mechanical ventilation systems Provision of good IAQ and thermal comfort Easily controlled by the inhabitants compared to natural ventilation Relative low maintenance Reduced use of mechanical equipment compared to mechanically ventilated buildings Possibilities for night or passive cooling 1.2.2 Hybrid ventilation - Disadvantages Disadvantages include: Relative high initial costs Relative small national markets Lack of knowledge and data on hybrid ventilation Depending on climatic conditions, hybrid ventilation is not suitable for many types of buildings where mechanical ventilation might be the only solution Room space for equipment might be needed (space for ducting) Building design might impose restrictions to the use of hybrid ventilation (i.e. roof shape/ slope of the roof outlet may have an impact on the pressure of the roof outlet. Also, a floor plan may have some consequences on the air supply side of a hybrid ventilation system) The urban aspects (noise, outdoor pollution, wind velocity, humidity) might limit its use 1.2.3 Control Parameters for Hybrid Ventilation The control purposes of hybrid ventilation systems aim at reducing energy consumption while controlling indoor pollutant levels and providing thermal comfort. The control is obtained via dedicated sensors or a set of conditions always in conjunction with the users behaviour. The control parameters include: Outdoor climatic characteristics (temperature, humidity , outdoor pollution) Usage in buildings or components (i.e. opening windows, switching on/off lighting) Characteristics of ventilation systems (airflows, pressure difference) Odours in service rooms (WCs , kitchen) Humidity in service rooms (WCs, kitchen) Indoor temperature Indoor pollutant concentration (presence of people)

1.2.4 Control Strategies for Hybrid Ventilation The control strategy is a key role for the function of hybrid ventilation systems as it switches from natural to mechanical mode depending on the driving forces and the required airflows. Control strategies can be distinguished in spatial and temporal. Spatial Control Spatial strategy is related to the design system and should be taken into consideration at an early stage. It is linked with outdoor air entering the habitable rooms living rooms and bedrooms, and being extracted from the service rooms kitchen and bathrooms. The aim of this strategy is to control the air change rates that have an impact on the energy consumption. These are linked to the presence of occupants since it is limited into the service rooms than into the habitable areas to limit the diffusion of short term pollutants from the service rooms to the habitable rooms. The drawback of this strategy is the excessive increase of airflows rates into the habitable rooms when high air rates are required in some of the service rooms. Temporal Control Temporal strategy is related to the presence of occupants, thus emissions from metabolism and activities; and to the climatic conditions. It is linked to demand control ventilation. Flows can be controlled by: Presence: movement, switching on/off lighting Metabolism: CO2 emissions, water vapour, odours Activities: cooking, shower (this applies mainly to residential buildings) Climatic conditions: outdoor/indoor temperature, wind speed and wind direction Temporal strategy is based mainly on control/monitoring of CO2, VOC, humidity and temperature parameters.

Summary
Hybrid ventilation systems use both natural and mechanical ventilation aiming at reducing energy consumption of buildings and enhancing indoor air quality and thermal comfort. The optimized operation of the system uses natural ventilation as much as possible; the mechanical part is used when due to ambient conditions natural ventilation cannot provide adequate airflows. The control strategy is a key parameter for the function of the system and may be connected to the outdoor parameters, the indoor conditions or the usage of the

building. Both natural and hybrid ventilation systems are influenced by the outdoor climate and take maximum advantage of ambient conditions at any time.

1.3

Questions for self assessment

1. How hybrid ventilation is connected to outdoor parameters? 2. Which parameters that are connected to the presence of people can be controlled using hybrid ventilation? 3. What are the benefits of hybrid ventilation compared to other ventilation systems

Problem(s)
1. Describe using a sketch a simple hybrid ventilation scheme integrated in a dwelling switching from mechanical to natural ventilation

CHAPTER 2 Impact of the Urban Environment on Natural and Hybrid Ventilation

Learning Objectives After studying this section you should: 1. Understand the conditions under which the urban environment presents constraints to the use of natural and hybrid ventilation 2. Be able to provide design solutions to enhance the use of natural and hybrid ventilation in urban buildings

Introduction
The chapter aims to discuss the most important constraints of the urban environment on the ventilation efficiency of natural and hybrid ventilation systems and to suggest several solutions to overcome these barriers. The urban environment presents disadvantages for the application of natural and hybrid ventilation. Because of the specific urban characteristics, the potential of natural and hybrid ventilation can be seriously decreased in the urban environment mainly due to: Reduced wind speeds High ambient temperatures due to urban heat island Increased external pollutant Increased noise levels

2.1 Wind speed

The urban wind pattern is complicated. Compared to the undistributed wind in rural areas, wind in the urban context is characterized by irregular flows because of the built landscape, building geometry, street orientation, arrangement of built structures and streets. As a result, wind speeds within the urban canopy are usually reduced in comparison with rural winds at the same height: the wind speed u at any height z is lower in the urban area, and much lower within the obstructed area. As a result, wind induced pressure on building surface is also reduced. Figure2.1: Wind Velocity and Wind Induced Pressure are Reduced in Urban Environment

[Pa]
Pressure [Pa] Length [m]

4m/s

2.1.2 Direction of airflows with respect to canyon axis

Pressure [Pa]

4m/s 4m/s

The wind distribution in urban canyons is determined by the prevailing airflow direction with respect to the canyon axis. The following wind incidence angles can be observed: Perpendicular Wind When the predominant direction of the airflow is approximately normal (say 20 degrees), to the long axis of the street canyon. Parallel wind (say 20 degrees) When the airflow is along the canyon axis. Oblique wind When the airflow is at an angle to the canyon axis.

Additionally, different types of air flow regimes are observed as a function of wind incident angle, building (L/W) and canyon (H/W) geometry. (See foundation module) 2.1.3 Model to Predict Wind Speed Knowledge of the air speed inside urban canyons is of high importance for passive cooling applications and especially for hybrid and naturally ventilated buildings. Various methods, simplified or detailed have been proposed to calculate the wind speed inside a canyon. However, air flow in canyons is not always a deterministic problem and prediction algorithms may not be appropriate for any case. Additionally, the boundary conditions are difficult to be defined and are rarely known. Thus, a complete methodology to predict and estimate wind speeds in canyons should be a combination of deterministic and empirical methods. This section describes a new model that predicts wind speed inside canyons at any height above ground level. This model is an algorithm based on existing experimental knowledge and has been developed within the framework of URBVENT European Project (2000).This model operates as a function of the geometrical characteristics of the canyon, the undisturbed wind speed and other boundary conditions. The inputs of the model are: The orientation of the canyon The geometrical characteristics (width, height and length of the canyon without intersections) and Undisturbed wind speed (wind speed and direction outside canyon). The output is: Wind speed value at any specific point inside the canyon which is defined by coordinates (x, y, z).

2.1.4 Description of the proposed model

Figure 2.2: Flow-Chart of The Algorithms and The Empirical Values Used in The Empirical Model for Estimating Wind Speed Inside Street Canyons (Georgakis and Santamouris, 2005a). Source: Final report of the URBVENT project, European Commission, Directorate General for Research, Brussels, June 2004 The proposed model to predict wind speeds can be described by the following chart:
1. Aspect ratio H/W>0.7 Yes 2. Aspect ratio L/W>20 Yes 3.Wind speed v>4m/s No 4.Wind flow perpendicular/ oblique to the canyon axis No Dominant end effects. Use wind speed close to 0.5m/s No Not a street canyon

Yes Use empirical values

Yes

No

5.Wind flow along canyon Yes

No

Use Exponential Law.

Use Hotchikiss-Harlow and YamartinoWiegand model.

2.1.5 Sequence of Calculations Based on the input data, the model carries out the following sequence of calculations: Calculations to check if a canyon situation exists Aspect ratio (H/W): If the aspect ratio of the canyon (H/W) is greater than 0.7 then there is a canyon situation. Otherwise the space between the buildings is not a street canyon.

Calculations to check if there is wind circulation inside the urban canyon Ratio of length and width between the buildings: the ratio of the building length between main intersections and the width between buildings (L/W) is greater than 20 then there is a wind circulation in the canyon and the calculations continue. If the ratio L/W is less than 20 then, the end effects dominate inside the canyon and extended experimental analysis indicated that a wind speed value of 0.5 m/s could be considered as mean (Georgakis and Santamouris, 2005b). Calculations of wind speed Consequently, if the wind speed outside the canyon is less than 4 m/s but greater than 0.5m/sec and its direction is perpendicular or oblique to the canyon, the values from Table 2.1 (Empirical Values) can be used. Table 2.1: Empirical Values for Perpendicular/Oblique Canyon Wind Speed Inside the Canyon (Georgakis and Santamouris, 2005a)
Wind Speed Outside The Canyon (U) Wind Speed Inside The Canyon Near The Windward Facade of The Canyon Lowest Part U=0 0<U<1 0 m/s 0 m/s Highest Part 0 m/s 75% of the corresponding maximum wind speed value recorded at the top of the canyon, for this cluster 75% of the corresponding maximum wind speed value recorded at the top of the canyon, for this cluster 75% of the corresponding maximum wind speed value recorded at the top of the canyon, for this cluster 75% of the corresponding maximum wind speed value recorded at the top of the canyon, for this cluster Near The Leeward Facade 0 m/s 50% of the calculated wind speed value close the windward faade 50% of the calculated wind speed value close the windward faade 50% of the calculated wind speed value close the windward faade 50% of the calculated wind speed value close the windward faade

1<=U<2

0 m/s

2<=U<3

0 m/s

3<=U<4

0 m/s

If the winds incidence angle is parallel to the main axis of the canyon and greater than 4 m/sec the following algorithms can be used: In the obstructed sub-layer 0 z hb , where hb the height of the buildings, the following exponential law describes the variation of wind with height below rooftops giving the air velocity inside the canyon parallel to canyon axis (vp) at any height from the ground to the mean building height:
v p = U 0 exp( y ) z2
(1)

and
z 2 = 0.1 hb2 / z 0

(2)

Where:
Uo y up z2 zo is the constant reference speed, (outside the canyon) is the height from the ground in which we want to calculate the up is the calculated wind speed inside the canyon is the roughness length for the obstructed sub-layer is the aerodynamic roughness length

Typical values of zo are given by Oke, (1987) in Table 2.2. Table 2.2: Typical Roughness Length Values zo, for Urbanized Terrain (Oke, 1987) Terrain Scattered Settlement (farms, villages, trees, hedges) Suburban Low density residences and gardens High Density Urban High Density, < 5 story row and block buildings Urban high density plus multi - story blocks zo (m) 0.2-0.6 0.4-1.2 0.8-1.8 1.5-2.5 2.5-10

For example, for the centre of the city of Athens where the mean buildings height is close to 30 meters, we considered z 0 equal to the value 3. If the wind incidence angle is perpendicular/oblique to the canyon main axis and the wind velocity is greater than 4 m/s, the following algorithms are used: In this case the proposed algorithms are based on the study of Hotchkiss and Harlow (1973) and permit the calculation of the cross and vertical wind speed components ( u , v ). The algorithms consider incompressible flow, absence of sources or sinks of vorticity within the canyon, and appropriate boundary conditions for the simple two-dimensional rectangular notch of depth H and width W. The proposed algorithms are the following:
u= ky e (1 + ky ) e ky (1 ky ) sin ( kx ) k

(3)

and

v = y ( e ky e ky ) cos ( kx )

(4)

Where
k = /W
= exp ( 2kH )

(5) (6) (7)

= ku 0 / (1 )

y = z H

(8)

And u 0 is the wind speed above the canyon and at point x=W/2, z=H.

The above-mentioned algorithms were tested and approved by Yamartino and Wiegard (1986). Additionally, the along canyon wind speed component, w( z ) is calculated by the following equation:
w( z ) = wr log[ ( z + z 0 ) / z 0 ] / log[ ( z r + z 0 ) / z 0 ]

(9)

Where wr was the wind speed values measured outside the canyon at zr meters above the ground and z0 was the surface roughness. The horizontal wind speed inside the canyon is:
v h = (u 2 + v 2 ) 0.5

(10)

The total wind speed inside canyon at any point ( x , y , z) is:

v t = ( v h + w 2 ) 0 .5

(11)

2.2 Temperature Distribution

The temperature distribution in the urban canopy layer is greatly affected by the radiation balance: the temperature of the canyon surfaces depend on the heat exchange processes between the buildings surfaces and the environment through: radiation, convection and conduction Surfaces absorb short-wave radiation and absorb/emit long wave radiation depending on: Thermal and optical characteristics of the materials-materials absorptivity. This is defined by the albedo; the albedo being a measure of the solar energy amount that is reflected by the surfaces. The use of high albedo materials, thus high reflectivity results in cooler surface temperatures whereas

low albedo implies higher surface temperatures since the larger amounts of solar energy is absorbed (Santamouris, 2001). Surfaces exposure to solar radiation and buildings orientation. Because of the cities characteristics, canyon geometry, buildings thermal properties and anthropogenic heat rate ambient temperatures in the urban contexts are higher than their surroundings. This results in the urban heat island effect that is the best documented example of inadverted climate modification (Oke, 1987). 2.2.1 Analysis of The Air and Surface Temperature in Urban Canyons Analysis of temperature distribution in several deep urban canyons showed that: The surface temperatures are higher than the air temperatures in urban canyons. Surface temperatures vary according to their orientation: Southerly, southeasterly and south westerly orientated facades during the day may result in higher temperatures than northerly, north-westerly and north-easterly orientated facades. Additionally, the surface temperature stratification observed during the day period of the analysis was between 300C to 500 on the South-East wall and 270C to 410C on the North-West wall. Surface temperature depend on inclination and materials: Comparison of the maximum difference of daily temperatures of the building facades and the surface temperatures of the street shows that at street level the temperature is 20C and 50 C higher than the lower and the highest parts of the canyon. Horizontal surfaces during the summer period receive more solar radiation than vertical ones. Additionally slabs used in the pedestrian streets absorb more radiation than materials used fro the building walls Surface temperatures vary according to the surface height: maximum simultaneous difference of the two facades was up to 10-20C at the middle and at the highest measured levels of the canyon. It should be noted that the air temperature outside the canyon was during the experimental period about 5C higher than the temperature inside the canyon. This can be explained by the canopy geometry as most of the canyons that were used were deep. Additionally, the street orientation prevented the solar radiation for a long period and a very good airflow was observed due to the big aspect ratio (H/W=3.3) Figure 2.1: Box-Plots of Temperature Distribution in a Street Canyon: a) Vertical Distribution in The Centre of The Canyon; b) Walls Temperature (Georkakis and Santamouris 2003).
31 Temperature [C] 29 27 25 23
1 2 3 4 5

Temperature [C] At 7.5m At 15.5m At 11.5m Outside canyon At 3.5m

45 40 35 30 25 South-West Ground North-East facade facade

2.3 Outdoor Pollution

Outdoor air pollution is a serious limitation for natural and hybrid ventilation in urban areas. The relative importance of different air pollutants and sources has changed with time and culture in the different geographical areas. Nowadays, the dominant sources of atmospheric pollution, in certain European cities, are motor vehicles and combustions of gaseous fuels. Outdoor pollution is associated with: Poor indoor air quality in buildings if combined with inadequate ventilation. Health problems may occur if a space is not properly ventilated and indoors pollutants concentration is high. All pollutants can cause serious health problems to the occupants like as respiratory and cardiovascular problems, dermal irritations, infections and intoxication that result in occupants discomfort and to a poor quality life. High humidity levels indoors may also provoke allergies and are linked to an increased concentration of micro organisms, mould and bacteria. In developed countries concentrations of indoor pollutants are very similar to those outdoors with the ratio of indoor to outdoor concentration (I/O) falling in the range of 0.7-1.3 Poor life quality. If identical health problems are experienced by a big percentage of the inhabitants, then we could speak about the sick building syndrome. Sick building syndrome is usually met in air-conditioned buildings but also observed in naturally ventilated buildings. It is a frequent phenomenon of all major cities of the western countries. In the case of sick building syndrome the peoples productivity is seriously affected. Damages to buildings and historic monuments. They can cause deterioration of materials and serious damage to equipment resulting in loss of services provided by the equipment or even release of harmful substances into the environment. According to World Health Organisation, the predominant outdoor pollutants are: sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, ozone, particulate matter, and lead. Guideline values are given for these pollutants (WHO 2000). Indoor pollutants include environmental tobacco smoke, particles (biological and nonbiological), volatile organic compounds, nitrogen oxides, lead, radon, carbon monoxide, asbestos, various synthetic chemicals and others. 2.3.1 Analysis of the outdoor & indoor pollutants concentration Indoor air quality in developing countries is an extremely serious problem. Experimental measurements of the indoor-outdoor pollutant transfer showed that the indoor pollutants concentration depends on several parameters: Outdoor pollutant concentration and ambient particle distributions Buildings openings Faade air tightness Ventilation rates

Wind speeds and wind angles

Figure 2.2: The Variation of Indoor per Outdoor Ozone Ratio as a Function of: a) Air Changes per Hour (CW Closed Window, POW Partially Opened Window, OW Open Window); b) Outdoor Concentration. Source: Natural ventilation in the urban environment, Series Editor M. Santamouris
1.0 . 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0

Indoor/outdoor ratio, I/O (-)

0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4

Indoor/outdoor ratio, I/O (-)

CW

POW

OW

1.0 0.9

I/O at 0,6 (vol./h) Weschler et al. 1989 I/O at 4,0 (vol./h) Weschler et al. 1989 I/O Shair et Heitner 1974 I/O=1-exp(-0.027*Co
0.762

)
0.609

I/O=1-exp(-0,027*Co

Hayes 1991 Weschler et al. 1989 Iordache 2003 Air changes per hour, ach (h )
2 4 6 8
-1

0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 12

I/O=exp(-0,379*Co
50 100 150 200

0,368

)
300 350 400 450

10

Outdoor concentration, Co (ppb)

250

Monitoring of the main outdoor pollutants (SO2, NO2, CO, O3, suspended particle matter, and lead) in large cities shows that: The mean level of sulphur dioxide and lead are equal indoor and outdoor. Ozone and nitrogen dioxide react with the building material and the building airtight ness: their concentration is lower indoors than outdoors when the building is airtight. The particle matter transfer depends on the particle size and the outdoor concentration of the pollutant. The indoor - outdoor pollutant transfer depends also on the windows opening, thus the building air-tightness; in the case of closing windows the transfer becomes more complex. 2.3.2 Ventilation strategies and guidelines to reduce exposure to outdoor pollutants Many guidelines have been developed to propose interactive design tools and ventilation strategies for naturally ventilated buildings in polluted urban areas. Pollution avoidance strategies in the building design that should be taken into consideration include: Location of vents on sheltered facades and positioning of central inlets at a sufficient height from emissions. Alternative solutions to natural ventilation as supply ventilation with filtration or exhaust ventilation, filtration

2.4 Noise Levels Ventilation Potential in Urban Areas

Noise is one of the most important considerations when designing openable windows thus for the potential of natural ventilation in urban sites. Noise is often considered as a restrictive parameter for the use of natural ventilation and the selection of air-conditioning systems instead. It is suggested that acceptable noise levels should not exceed 65 dB (A). High levels of noise and continuous background noise may provoke sleep disturbance, and have impact on peoples health, productivity and social life. Moreover, areas with noise levels more than 75 dB(A) are considered harmful as these can lead to hearing loss. Studies showed that inhabitants of the most urban areas are exposed to high noise pollution. Within the frames of the Fifth Programme it was stated that about 8% of the urban population is exposed to outdoor noise at a level 70 dB(A), while 11% is exposed at levels greater than 65 dB(A). In the case of naturally ventilated buildings or buildings with hybrid ventilation, noise is an important parameter to consider. Window opening provides the minimal sound insulation, thus many times noise exclusion and provision of adequate ventilation consist of two controversial functions. 2.4.1 Noise Levels in Street Canyons and Potential of Natural Ventilation Several studies have been undertaken to estimate noise levels in urban areas and their impact on the choice of ventilation strategies for buildings. Noise measurements were undertaken in the canyon streets in Athens with aspect ratios (height/width) varying from 1.0 to 5.0 and with a variety of traffic load, during September 2001. The aim of the analysis is to assess the vertical variation of noise levels along the building facades and the cooling potential of natural ventilation. The analysis comprises two parts, measured data of daytime traffic noise and simulations using a noise-level simulation package. Part 1 - Measurement data: The study of the measured data uses a linear regression analysis and shows that the noise levels in the urban areas depend on the canyon geometry and the traffic density; Attenuation of noise levels is noted with floor height above the street level The maximum value of noise attenuation is almost entirely a function of aspect ratio Traffic density thus noise levels increase with reduced street width Balconies may contribute to a noise reduction of 2-4 dB depending on floor height. Part 2 - Simulations: Three simulations were made and the simulation results were compared to the measured data. For the study, different street widths were assumed of 5m, 10m and15m respectively for a five storey building. The aim of the analysis was to assess the impact of the balconies to the reduction of the traffic noise levels at the four building levels: first floor, second, third and fourth floor for the three different street widths. The results showed that: The noise attenuation due to the balconies is around 2dB at first floor and

more than 3dB for the top floor. The geometry of the balcony, width and distance of the building faade as well as the solidity of the front of the balcony has an impact on the noise attenuation: for example narrower balconies do not have great impact on the noise levels as larger balconies may have. 2.4.1 Analysis of Noise Levels in Office Buildings Within the frames of the Research programme Smart Controls and Thermal Comfort (SCATS), surveys were undertaken in 25 office buildings of 5 European countries to assess the use of natural ventilation and noise limitations in urban areas. The results show that: Noise levels of 55-60dB can be accepted, though greater tolerance is observed in areas with open windows. The noise attenuation at an open window is accepted at 10-15dB, thus outdoor levels for acceptable comfort indoor conditions should be around 70dB. Window design is very critical when providing natural ventilation: Special glazing may contribute to a further 3-5dB reduction.

Figure 2.7: Potential for Natural Ventilation of Offices as a Function of Street Width and Height Above the Street. Configurations in which natural ventilation is possible are indicated (ok), as are those in which it is ruled out (not ok). Between these two extremes is a region in which there are possibilities for design solutions. Source Natural Ventilation in the urban environment

25 76 74 dB 72 Street width (m) 20

NOT OK

Design possibilities?

15

68 70 dB dB 0 5 10 15 20 25 Height above street (m) 30

OK
35

10

5 40

2.4.2 Noise Control Strategies for Natural Ventilation A number of noise control strategies for natural ventilation systems can be implemented in the building design. It is suggested that: With careful design, adequate airflow rates can be provided in buildings for good indoor quality and noise insulation The use of hybrid ventilation can convert the natural ventilation strategy a real possibility in areas where noise levels have previously prohibited such an approach.

Summary
The urban characteristics influence the cooling potential and efficiency of natural and hybrid ventilation: the reduced wind speeds, the high ambient temperatures, the increased noise levels and the outdoor pollution are restrictive parameters for the use of natural and hybrid ventilation in urban buildings. Knowledge of the air speed in urban sites is of high importance for the application of passive cooling techniques. The use of an algorithm that was developed within the frames of the URBVENT research programme is suggested for the prediction of wind speed in canyons at specific coordinates. Additionally, the careful location of vents and inlets, the use of filtration or the replacement of natural ventilation with hybrid ventilation offer solutions for naturally ventilated buildings that are located in high polluted areas. Noise levels in urban areas depend on the canyon geometry and the traffic density; additionally the building geometry i.e. number of floors, presence of balconies can contribute significantly to the noise attenuation. However, hybrid ventilation can be a solution for areas with increased noise levels: natural ventilation should not be used in sites with noise levels higher than 74 dB.

2.5 Self assessment Questions

1. Describe the sequence of calculations carried out by the algorithm in order to predict wind speed inside urban canyons. In which case the mean wind speed can be considered 0.5 m/sec? 2. Which parameters affect temperature distribution in urban areas? 3. Give the threshold lines of noise levels in urban areas where natural ventilation can be applied

Problems
1. What are the consequences of badly selected and located air inlets in naturally ventilated buildings in the urban environment? What is the optimum location of air inlets? 2. The wind speed (Vo) is measured 4.2 m/sec at 15m above ground. The orientation of the wind speed and urban canyon are given: Canyon orientation = 50 Wind (V0) incidence angle = 40 It is also calculated that L/W >20. Explain why there is wind circulation inside the urban canyon. Assuming that z0 is equal to 3 and the roughness length is given by the equation: z 2 = 0.1 hb2 / z 0 , calculate the wind speed up at the faade of the fifth floor (at height 1.5m from floor level of the fifth floor)

CHAPTER 3 Natural Ventilation Strategies to Enhance Airflows in Urban Environments

Learning Objectives After studying this section you should: 1. Understand the principles of the strategies that can be used to enhance airflows in naturally ventilated buildings in urban areas 2. Use equations to calculate airflows in different ventilation strategies when increasing the buoyancy stack pressure

Introduction
This chapter focuses on several alternative ventilation strategies and building constructions that can be used to enhance airflows in naturally ventilated buildings in urban areas. The use of natural ventilation in urban environment should take into account the lower wind velocity but also the noise and outdoor pollution. It is very important to consider other techniques than windows to enhance airflow in buildings. In many cases, the ventilation systems cannot rely on low-level inlets as these may be close to external pollutant sources i.e. traffic.

3.1 Balanced stack ventilation

The balanced stack ventilation schemes use both inlets and exhausts of air at different temperature: air is supplied in a cold stack (i.e., with air temperatures maintained close to outdoor conditions through proper insulation of the stack) and exhausted through a warm stack. This strategy is met in the traditional Iranian wind towers (bagdir) and the Arabian Asian wind catchers (malkaf) comprise examples of balanced stack ventilation. Figure 3.1: Top-down or balanced stack natural ventilation systems use high level supply inlets to access less contaminated air and to place both inlet and outlets in higher wind velocity exposures.

p5 p1 p2

p6

v ref

p w-inlet

p w-outlet

p inlet p4 p3 cool stack p internal

p exhaust

warm stack

Top-Down or Balanced Stack Ventilation

The equation for the pressure loop for example through the second floor of the figure above will be similar in form to the case of combined wind and buoyancydriven ventilation:
p s + p w = pinlet + pint ernal + p exhaust .

(1)

If air temperatures within the cold stack can be maintained close to outdoor levels, the stack pressure is determined by the indoor-to-outdoor air density difference and the height difference from the stack exhaust and the floor level inlet locations is given by the equation: ps = ( o i ) g z (2)

Airflow through each floor level will, therefore, be identical to that expected in the simpler single stack scheme if the airflow resistance of the supply stack (and its inlet and outlet devices) is similar to that provided by the air inlet devices in this scheme. The driving wind pressure is determined by the difference between inlet and exhaust wind pressure coefficients and the kinetic energy content of the approach wind velocity
2 p w = (C p inlet C p exhaust ) v ref / 2 .

(3)

The high location of the inlet assures a higher inlet wind pressure and insensitivity to wind direction. The location of the air-intakes in an above-roof position where the pollutant concentration is lower than the street level and the independency from air velocity and wind direction thus wind patterns remain independent from surrounding buildings, make this strategy very attractive for the urban areas. Balanced stack systems have been used in the UK for, apparently, over a century (Axley, 2001) although these commercially available systems have, until recently, been designed to serve single rooms rather than whole buildings.

3.2 Passive Downdraught Evaporative Cooling

The passive downdraught evaporative cooling (PDEC) scheme is the same scheme with the balanced stack ventilation system with the addition of evaporative cooling to the supply stack. Traditionally, evaporative cooling was achieved through water-filled porous pots within the supply air stream or the use of a pool of water at the base of the supply stack. In more recent developments, water sprayed high into the supply air stream cools the air stream and increases the supply air density thereby augmenting the buoyancy induced pressure differences that drive airflow. In the loop analysis of the passive downdraught evaporative cooling scheme, the increased moisture content must be accounted for. Two height differences must now be distinguished: za - the height above the room inlet location of the moist air column in the supply stack and zb - the height of the exhaust above this moist column.

Figure 3.2: Passive Downdraught Evaporative Cooling Stack Ventilation.

The air density in the moist air supply column, s , will approach the saturation density corresponding to the outdoor air wet bulb temperature more specifically, experiments indicate these supply air conditions will be within 2 C of the wet bulb temperature. Hence the loop equation describing the (time-averaged) ventilation airflow in this system becomes:

( pinlet + pinternal + pexhaust ) = ps + pw

where:
p s = [ o z b + s z a i ( z a + z b ) ] g

(4)

(5) (6)

p w = (C p inlet C p exhaust

) v
2

2 r

For a quantitative measure of the impact of this strategy, let us consider a case similar to that one discussed above for wind and buoyancy induced natural ventilation, but with a cool moist column height that equals the stack height of 10 m (i.e., z a 0 m and z b 10 m ). If the outdoor air having the temperatures of 25 C and humidity of 20 % RH (i.e., with a density of approximately 1.18 kg/m3) is evaporatively cooled to within 2 C of its wet bulb temperature (12.5 C), its dry bulb temperature will drop to 14.5 C while its density will increase to approximately 1.21 kg/m3 and relative humidity to 77%. If internal conditions are kept just within the thermal comfort zone for these outdoor conditions (i.e., 28 C and 60 % RH), using an appropriate ventilation flow rate given internal gains, then internal air density will be approximately 1.15 kg/m3. Consequently the buoyancy pressure difference that will result will be:

kg kg kg m ps = 1.18 3 (0 m) + 1.21 3 (10 m) 1.15 3 (0 + 10 m) 9.8 2 = 6.4 Pa m m m s Without the evaporative cooling (i.e., with za 10 and zb 0 m ): kg kg kg m ps = 1.18 3 (10 m) + 1.21 3 (0 m) 1.15 3 (10 + 0 m) 9.8 2 = 2.9 Pa m m m s

(7)

(8)

Thus, in this representative example, evaporative cooling more than doubles the buoyancy pressure difference while, at the same time, providing adiabatic cooling. 3.2.1 Example The School of Slavonic and East European Studies (SSEES) building of University College London comprises an example where passive dowdraught cooling is used. The building is located in a central area of London with high ambient temperatures and increased noise levels and pollution. Initial studies showed that natural ventilation strategy would not achieve acceptable thermal comfort and the night time ventilation efficiency was reduced due to the urban aspects. Therefore, the natural ventilation cooling capacity was enhanced with chilled water coils for extreme weather conditions. The air is entering the building to all floors through a three sided light well in the centre of the building. The air is cooled by chilled water coils that are located around the top of the light well. The air is exhausted through stacks on the curved and double faade sides of the building (figure 3.3) Figure 3.3: The School of Slavonic and East European Studies (SSEES) Building of University College London.Example of Passive Downdraught Evaporative Cooling (Source: IJV Volume 3, 4 March 2005)

3.3 Double Skin Faade

The double skin faade system consists of two glass skins placed in distance so that air flows in the intermediate cavity. The ventilation of the cavity can be neutral, fan supported or mechanical. Apart from the type of the ventilation inside

the cavity, the origin and destination of the air can differ depending mostly on climatic conditions, the use, the location, the occupational hours of the building and the HVAC strategy. The glass skins can be single or double glazing units with a distance from 15cm up to 2 metres.Usually, solar shading devices are placed inside the cavity. (Haris Poirazis, 2004) Potential advantages and disadvantages of the application of double skin facades, typologies of the system and technical description of the systems components are studied within the research programme BESTFACADE. Compared to conventional office buildings with large glazed facades, this system provides the follows advantages: Thermal buffer zone that reduces heat losses and enables passive thermal gain from solar radiation Solar preheating of ventilation air, thus reduced heating demands Sound protection e.g. at locations with heavy traffic mainly during window ventilation Additional shading and protection of shading devices Energy savings if the design is well adapted to the climatic conditions Enables natural ventilation. Individual window ventilation is almost independent of wind and weather conditions mainly during sunny winter days and the intermediate season Night cooling of the building by opening the inner windows Potential disadvantages of double skin facades can be: Poorer cross ventilation and insufficient removal of heat from the offices during windless periods when ventilation is provided mainly by natural ventilation Overheating in the occupied spaces during the summer months Higher investment and cleaning costs Risk of noise-cross talk via the faade from one office to the other and/or from one level to the other. It is very important the double skin faade to be well designed with the correct type of ventilation and adapted to the climatic region; otherwise overheating or energy inefficiency may be experienced.The space within the skin two skins should be well ventilated either by natural, mechanical or hybrid ventilation. According to the origin and destination of the supplied air into the cavity the double skin facades can follow into the following sections: Outdoor air curtain, when the air comes from the outside and is immediately rejected to the outside - Figure 3.3 (1) Indoor air curtain, when the air circulates from the inside and returns to the inside- Figure 3.3 (2) Air supply, where fresh air is supplied into the building throug the external skin- Figure 3.3 (3)

 Air exhaust, the air is comes from the inside of the room and is exhausted from the building faade - Figure 3.3 (4) Buffer zone, the faade is made airtight. The cavity comprises a buffer zone between the internal and external skin. - Figure 3.3 (5) Figure 3.3: Configurations of Double Skin Facades According to The Origin and Destination of The Supplied Air Into The Cavity Source: Double Skin Facades for Office Buildings-Literature Review, Division of Energy and Building Design, Department of Construction and Architecture, Lund University, 2004, Harris Poirazis

Double faades can be used for solar assisted stack ventilation or balanced stack ventilation.

3.4 Solar-Assisted Ventilation

The solar assisted ventilation technique increases the difference between the internal and external temperature by heating the air in the ventilation stack, thus it increases the buoyancy-stack pressure. Solar energy is used to heat the air usually stored into hot air solar collectors. This technique is very useful for naturally ventilated buildings in urban areas where the wind speed thus the corresponding airflows into the occupied areas are reduced. The pressure losses for a solar collector depend on the inlet (pi) distributed (pd), and exit (pe) pressure losses:
p s = pi + p d + p e p p Depending on the position of the control damper, i or e include the control damper pressure losses. The stack pressure is: p s = 0T0 [1 / Te 1 / Ti ] gz ,

(9)

(10)

Where Ti is the inlet air temperature of the collector, usually equal to the indoor temperature, Te is the exit temperature of the collector (Awbi 1998):

Te = A / B + (Ti A / B ) exp[ BwH /( e c p q v )] ,

A = h1Tw1 + h2Tw 2

B = h1 + h2

(11) (12) (13)

Where h1, h2 are surface heat transfer coefficients for internal surfaces of the collector W/m2K Tw1, Tw2 are surface temperatures of internal surfaces of the collector (C) w is the collector width (m) H is the height between inlet and outlet openings (m) e is the air density at exit, (kg/m3) cp is the specific heat of air (J/(kg.K)) qv is the volumetric air flow rate. (m3/s) Figure 3.4: Solar Collector Used as: a) Ventilator, b) Heater.

e p Te Wall Glass d p Tw2 h2 Tw1 h1 Ti Ti Outdoor air To<Ti Ti (a) (b) Te

i p

The principle of solar collector is applied into the following systems: Trombe walls, double faades or solar chimneys. A Trombe wall forms a large solar collector, consisting of a wall that acts as thermal mass, combined with an air space of 50-100mm, insulated glazing and vents. It can be used for ventilation or for heating. A solar chimney is placed on the south or south-west faade of the building. Air is extracted through a vertical shaft because of the temperature difference between the upper and lower parts of the shaft. To enhance the solar radiation thus the airflows shafts may be glazing surfaces.

3.5 Fan AssistedVentilation

Fan assisted ventilation is used when natural ventilation cannot be provided by stack effect, or airflow rates thus natural forces are insufficient to meet comfort and IAQ requirements. This can be met in urban environments with reduced wind speeds or due to window design and climatic characteristics. In this case, natural

ventilation is supported by fans. Such fans may be installed either on stack ducts, in walls or windows.

Summary
This chapter describes five alternative strategies that can be used in the urban context to enhance airflows in naturally ventilated buildings and cope with increased levels of noise and outdoor pollution. These techniques include the following schemes: balanced stack ventilation, passive downdraught evaporative cooling, double skin faade, solar assisted ventilation and fan assisted ventilation. All strategies are based on the increased temperature difference of the inlet and exhaust air thus the increase of the buoyancy stack pressure. When natural ventilation cannot be provided by stack effect, then natural ventilation can be supported by fans. Usually in these techniques, the inlets of air are located at high level where outdoor pollutant concentration is low and wind pressure is increased. Double skin facades can also provide extra sound insulation in indoor areas.

3.6 Self Assessment Questions

1. Describe 3 ventilation strategies that are used to enhance airflows in naturally ventilated buildings and are based on the stack effect. 2. Why the use of the balanced stack ventilation system offers advantages in urban areas? 3. Describe the main advantages that double skin facades offer as a solution to the constraints of the urban environment

Problems

1. Describe using sketches two methods by which natural ventilation can be enhanced in the urban environment 2. Using the basic equations for the calculations of the buoyancy pressure difference ps in the case of balanced stack ventilation and evaporative cooling explain the increase of the stack pressure in the second methodology

CHAPTER 4 Evaluation of the Natural & Hybrid Ventilation Potential in Urban Environments
Learning Objectives After studying this section you should understand: 1. The potential of natural ventilation in urban areas 2. The impact of natural ventilation on IAQ according to the external pollutants concentration 3. The potential of night ventilation in urban areas 4. The efficiency of hybrid ventilation systems in urban areas

Introduction
This chapter evaluates the use of natural and hybrid ventilation in urban buildings. The evaluation of the different ventilation configurations is based on studies that have been carried out in real urban canyons with different characteristics. This section is split into 2 parts: the first part is focused on the potential of natural ventilation and indoor air quality of urban buildings versus the external pollutants concentration. This part also presents the night cooling capacity with regard to the heat island effect and the reduced wind speeds in urban areas. The second part describes the potential of hybrid ventilation in urban sites. However, only a minor number of real urban buildings with hybrid ventilation systems are known in the literature.

4.1 Natural Ventilation and IAQ

Indoor air quality was studied in several office and school buildings. All buildings are naturally ventilated and the analysis showed that: The air change rate is the determining factor for air quality in naturally ventilated buildings. The greater the supply of external air, the greater the presence of external pollutant indoors in the urban environment. Concentration of indoor pollutants (sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide) is higher in naturally ventilated buildings in polluted urban areas than in air-conditioned ones. In some cases though, indoor pollutants concentration may be higher in air-conditioned buildings if transfer of combustion products from heating boilers in the occupied spaces occurs via the ventilation system. Apart from the ventilation strategy used, the indoor air quality depends on the use of the building. For example, in school buildings the indoor air quality inside the classrooms is strongly related to the number of occupants and their activities. In the case of reduced wind speeds cross ventilation with two or more windows into the occupied space can provide adequate airflows and better indoor air quality. Cross ventilation seems more efficient than single sided ventilation under calm conditions (very low wind speed). Night ventilation can result in daytime temperature reduction up to 2.5C under free floating conditions and 1C under air conditioned operation in buildings of the urban context. However, the cooling potential of night ventilation for a specific building is a function of many parameters: the building design and materials, climatic conditions, site layout, applied air flow rate, efficient coupling of air flow with the thermal mass of the building and assumed operational conditions.

4.1.1 Evaluation of Natural Ventilation and Night Cooling in Urban Areas The performance of natural ventilation in the urban environment was assessed in real urban canyons through field measurements. The measurements included simulations of the air flow processes for ten different canyons in which wind speed and temperature data were collected in a number of field measurements in the framework of the POLIS European research project. The analysis focused on single-sided and cross-ventilation configurations for a typical building zone with a window opening in each canyon facade. Additionally the performance of nightventilation techniques in urban areas was simulated for the same reference building, various simulations have been performed under controlled and freefloating operation, when single-sided and cross ventilation are considered, during the night period. It has been found that: The potential of natural ventilation techniques in urban canyons is seriously reduced with the decreased wind speed inside the canyons. Air flow reduction may be up to 10 times than the flow that corresponds to undisturbed ambient wind conditions. The potential of night techniques is significantly reduced due to the increase of air temperature and the decrease of wind velocity inside canyons Figure 4.1: Air Change Rate for Single Sided and Cross Ventilated Buildings in Ten Urban Canyons (Geros et al., 2001).
80 70 Difference of the air flow (in ACH) 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
0.2 0.4 17.8 12.6 3.0 2.5 4.2 2.2 10.0 2.9 1.6 2.6 Omirou 34.6 34.9 27.4 60.0 52.9 Single Sided V entilation Cross Ventilation 69.3

3.2

Ippokratous Solonos Kavalas The effect of the increased ambient Papastratos ValaoritouLondon due K odrou heat temperatures of M avromihali to the Giannitson island effect on the effectiveness of stack night ventilation strategies for office Urban Canyon buildings were also studied by Kolokotroni et al. (2005). Real air temperature measurements, carried out in London in 1999/2000 to quantify the London Urban Heat Island Intensity, were used to perform a

Eu

parametric analysis on the cooling demand and potential for night cooling ventilation for typical offices. The study was applied by using a thermal and air flow simulation tool specifically designed for London office in SE England. Two representative weeks were studied, one with extreme hot weather and one with typical hot weather in the centre of the London heat island as well as in a rural reference site. The results showed that the increased urban temperatures due to the heat island effect can be taken into account for night cooling as they result in significant deviations.

4.2 Evaluation of Hybrid Ventilation

Hybrid ventilation in urban areas is highly affected by a number of urban parameters like as canyon geometry and layout, wind and temperature distribution inside canyons, pollutant concentrations, external noise, and solar access. Therefore, effective design of hybrid ventilation in urban buildings requires a good understanding of the urban climate characteristics. However, a few experimental and theoretical studies on urban buildings with hybrid ventilation are known in the literature. Some measurements of hybrid systems were carried out in office and educational buildings within the frames of the research programme Annex 35 (Hybrid Ventilation in New and Retrofitted Office Buildings, IEA) The buildings are located in urban areas with moderate levels of air and noise pollution and the main ventilation strategy is stack effect with fan assistance. The analysis shows that the strategy has very high cooling potential providing good indoor air quality and thermal comfort. Additionally the building energy consumption was kept in satisfactory levels. Other monitoring in residential buildings in the streets canyons of Athens under the RESHYVENT European project shows that under calm conditions with wind speed lower than 0.5m/sec hybrid ventilation is more efficient than natural ventilation with regard to ACH values. 4.2.1 Performance of Hybrid Ventilation Systems The performance of two different hybrid ventilation systems was examined within the research programme RESHYVENT: the first configuration comprised a mechanical exhaust system and the second one a hybrid ventilation system that was developed for the purposes of the European project RESHYVENT. Two demand controlled strategies were developed for the RESYVENT hybrid system, the first one was based on occupant detection and the second one on CO2 levels. The analysis included yearly simulations for four European climates (Athens, Nice, Stokholm and Trappes) building and HVAC toolbox. The analysis showed that both control strategies have better performance regarding the indoor air quality and electrical consumptions of the fan compared to the mechanical exhaust system because they optimize the use of natural ventilation mode. Detailed description of the analysis of the two hybrid ventilation systems is included in chapter 6.

Summary
The evaluation of the natural ventilation performance in real urban canyons shows that indoor air quality in naturally ventilated buildings depends on various parameters like as: the air change rates, the concentration of indoor pollutants, the use of buildings and the different configurations of natural ventilation. The potential of natural ventilation and night cooling is reduced in urban areas due to the increased ambient temperatures and the reduced wind speeds. However, studies in the London area showed that the increased urban temperatures due to the heat island effect can be taken into account for night cooling as they result in significant deviations. Limited data on real buildings with hybrid ventilation systems exists in the literature. Studies on various urban canyons show that hybrid ventilation can have high cooling potential providing good indoor air quality and thermal comfort although the urban constraints.

4.3 Self Assessment Questions

1. Which natural ventilation configuration is more appropriate in urban buildings under calm wind conditions 2. What parameters affect indoor air quality in naturally ventilated buildings? 3. How the urban environment influences the cooling potential of night ventilation

Problems
1. What are the advantages of hybrid ventilation in urban buildings when compared a. to natural ventilation and b. to mechanical ventilation 2. Describe techniques to reduce peak air temperatures in naturally ventilated buildings

CHAPTER 5 A Methodology to Calculate The Optimum Openings for Naturally Ventilated Buildings Located in UrbanCanyons
Learning Objectives After studying this section you should: 1. Be able to understand and describe the function and principles of the methodology developed for the best practice design of naturally ventilated buildings in urban areas 2. Be able to use the methodology in order to calculate optimal openings in naturally ventilated buildings

Introduction
When designing naturally ventilated buildings, it is very important to be able to calculate optimal openings to achieve the required airflows for acceptable comfort levels. Several tools have been developed to estimate the natural ventilation potential and the passive cooling potential of urban buildings versus the climatic characteristics of a location. This chapter presents a methodology for the best practice design of naturally ventilated buildings in urban canyons. This methodology was developed within the frames of the research European programme URBVENT and is based on the principle of a recurrent neural network model. The designer can use this tool for the calculation of airflows in buildings, alternatively with a given database of airflows; the tool can be used for the calculation of the optimum opening.

5.1 Description of The Methodology

The methodology is based on the principle of a recurrent neural network model; it provides the designers with database of different parameters and then an interpolation of the results is required. For example, the tool calculates the airflows in naturally ventilated buildings under specific: canyon characteristics openings of a building geometrical and operational characteristics of the building.

Alternatively, the designer can obtain a large database of airflows for buildings configurations and search the database for the corresponding optimum openings. Neural network model A neural network model is based on establishment of empirical laws obtained starting from an experimental data base. Practically this model can be seen as a black box establishing the link between input variables which influence the studied phenomenon, and an output variable corresponding to the value that we seek to predict. Figure 5.1: General Outline of The Model INPUT S

Neural network

ACH

5.2 Architecture Scenario and Databases

The models used in the methodology are based on two architectural configurations: the single-sided ventilation scenario and the stack-induced ventilation scenario. The scenarios were supplied by the Instituto de Engeharia Mecnica and obtained from simulations on AIOLOS and COMIS softwares. A database of air change rates is obtained through simulations using the validated tools: AIOLOS and COMIS. Two databases have been created, one for singlesided and another for stack induced ventilation by varying the size, location of the openings, wind speed and temperature difference between the indoor and outdoor environment. The databases are included into the library of the developed model. Single Sided Ventilation A matrix of 15 million values formed the database for single sided ventilated rooms. The model is represented by a small room with one external opening on one faade. Figure 5.2: Single-Sided Ventilation Room

h W M X

H L

Stack Induced Ventilation A matrix containing 2.6 million values is used as the database for stack induced ventilated rooms. The model is represented by the same small room shown in figure 5.2, but it was inserted into a multi-storey building and the stack effect was induced by a single external opening in the faade and a chimney linking the room the roof of the building. Figure 5.3: Multi-Storey Building with Stack Induced Ventilated Rooms.
Chimney External Opening

Room under study

Number of stories : 1-5

5.3 Tool for Calculations of ACH or Openings

5.3.1 Single Sided Scenario In the case of a single sided ventilated room the tool can be used as follows: Calculation of ACH For the calculation of air change rates the network requires as inputs the values of external temperature, the wind velocity, the room volume, the height of the opening top of the window, the height of the opening bottom of the window and the width of the window. After been trained according to correspondent values of air change per hour for the rooms, it can simulate new inputs and predict the value the air change rate per hour for the single sided ventilated room (figure 5.1,4).
External temperature
Room volume

Wind speed

X, H, W

Neural network

ACH

Figure5.4: Architecture of the model of calculation of ACH for single sided ventilation. Then a graphical interface was developed in order to make it easy for users to use the model (figure 5.5). Figure 5.5: Graphical Interface to Calculate ACH.

Calculation of The Optimal Opening For the calculation of optimal openings the network requires as inputs the values of external temperature, the wind velocity, the room volume, the height of the opening bottom of the window, the height of the opening top of the window and the value of the Air Change Rate per hour. After been trained according to correspondent values of air change per hour for the rooms, it can simulate new inputs and predict the width of the window for the single sided ventilated room (figure 5.6). Figure 5.6: Architecture of The Model of Calculation of W for Single Sided Ventilation.

External temperature

Wind speed

Room volume

H, X

ACH

Neural network

Figure 5.7 Graphical Interface to Optimise The Opening.

5.3.2 Stack Induced Scenario In the case of stack induced ventilation the tool can be used as follows: Calculation of ACH The techniques used are identical to these for single-sided ventilation: For the calculation of the air change rate the network has inputs the values of external temperature, the room volume, the height of the opening top, the height of the opening bottom of the window and the width of the window, the diameter of the chimney, the useful area and the floor level of the room in the building. Then the network can predict the value the Air Change Rate per hour for the natural ventilated room with stack effect. Calculation of the Optimal Opening For the calculation of the optimal opening, the network has as inputs the values of external temperature, wind velocity, room volume, the height of the opening bottom, the height of the opening top of the window, the value of the air change rate per hour, the diameter of the chimney, the useful area and the floor level of the room in the building. Then the network can predict the width of the window for the natural ventilated room with stack effect Figure 5.8: Graphical Interface to Calculate ACH.

Validation of The Software The airflows that were predicted by the developed tool were compared with real experimental data in order to compare the models accuracy. The comparison was carried out for both architectural scenarios that are used in the model; the single sided case and the stack induced configuration; the calculated values are very close to the experimental values. Therefore the model can be considered reliable and can be used by designers to predict airflow rates or to size openings for naturally ventilated buildings in urban areas.

Summary
The size of openings or the calculation of airflows is of high importance when designing naturally ventilated buildings in urban areas. A methodology for the best practice design of naturally ventilated buildings in urban canyons was developed within the frames of the research European programme URBVENT. It is based on the principle of a recurrent neural network model; it provides the designers with database of different parameters and then an interpolation of the results is required. The methodology is based on two architectural configurations: the single-sided ventilation scenario and the stack-induced ventilation scenario. The database of the air change rates that is included in the tool is obtained through simulations using the validated tools: AIOLOS and COMIS. For both architectural scenarios, and inputs as the values of external temperature, the wind velocity, the room volume, the height of the opening bottom of the window, the height of the opening top of the window and the value of the air change rates, the network calculates the optimum size of openings. Alternatively, when the size of openings is known the methodology can be used for the calculation of the required airflows.

5.4 Self Assessment Questions

1. Describe the principle on which the methodology for the best practice design of naturally ventilated buildings is based 2. 3. Which two ventilation configurations the methodology uses? 4. What are the inputs required from the tool when calculating the optimal openings of a building

Problems

1. Describe using a sketch the procedure of the tool to calculate the airflows in naturally ventilated buildings 2. Calculation of optimal opening of a naturally ventilated room (single sided) using the software

CHAPTER 6 Performance of Hybrid Ventilation in Urban Environments Through Experimental Data

Learning Objectives After studying this section you should: 1. Be able to provide advantages or disadvantages of hybrid ventilation systems against natural ventilation in urban buildings 2. Describe principles and components of hybrid ventilation systems used in urban buildings 3. Understand the performance of hybrid ventilation systems versus indoor parameters, outdoor parameters and different control strategies

Introduction
This chapter presents the impact of the urban environment on hybrid ventilation systems. The analysis is based on the results of experimental and theoretical analysis in real urban buildings. It consists of two parts: the first part gives the comparison among different ventilation configurations: natural ventilation, hybrid ventilation and mechanical ventilation through monitoring in real urban canyons. The comparison examines the different methodologies in terms of air change rates and shows the advantages of hybrid ventilation over natural ventilation under specific climatic conditions. The second part describes two hybrid ventilation systems; the pilot system and the RESHYVENT system that was developed during the unanimous research programme. This part presents the performance of the systems against indoor parameters, outdoor parameters and different control strategies.

6.1 Comparison of Hybrid Ventilation, Natural Ventilation and Mechanical Ventilation

Air-exchange rates and air exchange efficiency were monitored and compared for different ventilation systems, under two specific urban canyons of Athens, during summer 2002. The compared ventilation systems comprised natural ventilation, infiltration, mechanical and hybrid systems. Natural ventilation comprised single-sided and cross ventilation configurations. In case of single-sided ventilation, openings were considered either, from the canyon or, the rear canyon facade. Cross ventilation experiments were studied with two or more openings placed at the front and back canyon side. Mechanical systems comprised one or two fans in inlet or extract modes. Hybrid ventilation systems focused on fan-assisted natural ventilation, where supply and extract fans were used to enhance pressure differences by mechanical fan assistance. The fans were installed in the facades adjacent to the canyon or the rear facades operating in inlet or extract mode in conjunction with natural ventilation. The configurations that were monitored during the analysis are described in the following table: Figure 6.1: Hybrid Ventilation Systems Monitored During Summer 2002 In Athens (Where (a) Refers To Canyon Faade And (b) To Rear Canyon Faade)(Niachou et al., 2005)

(b)

(a)

(b)

(a)

1. Mechanical Exhaust (a) and Natural Ventilation (b).

2. Mechanical Inlet (a) and Natural Ventilation (b).

(b)

(a)

(b)

(a)

3. Natural Ventilation (a) and Mechanical Exhaust (b).

4. Natural Ventilation (a) and Mechanical Inlet (b).

(b)

(a)

(b)

(a)

5. Mechanical Exhaust (a) and Natural Ventilation (a).

6. Mechanical Inlet (a) and Natural Ventilation (a).

(b)

(a)

(b)

(a)

7. Natural Ventilation (a) and Mechanical Exhaust (a).

8. Natural Ventilation (a) and Mechanical Inlet (a).

(a)

(b)

(a)

(b)

9. Natural Ventilation with more than one windows (a,b) and Mechanical Exhaust (b).

10. Mechanical Exhaust (a) and Natural Ventilation with more than one windows (b).

(a)

(b)

(a)

(b)

11. Mechanical Exhaust (a,b) and Natural Ventilation (b).

12. Mechanical Exhaust (a), Mechanical Inlet (b) and Natural Ventilation (b).

The experiment was conducted along the tracer gas method during which tracer was injected inside the rooms, with internal fans used to homogenize its internal concentration and when the internal fans were turned off the tracer gas decay was measured.

Results & Conclusions The comparison of the different ventilation systems showed that: Natural cross ventilation results in higher ACH values than single-sided natural ventilation. Hybrid ventilation is associated with rather lower ACH than natural crossventilation, but slightly higher ACH under single-sided ventilation or calm conditions. However this does not mean that hybrid ventilation may not be of use during the summer days when natural ventilation is not an effective means of cooling, either due to low winds or due to high ambient temperatures. Hybrid ventilation has an advantage over natural under windless conditions Hybrid ventilation provides higher air-exchange rates in comparison with single-sided ventilation. In most cases, there is also an improvement relative to natural cross ventilation. Figure 6.2: Estimated Air Exchange Rates (h-1) for Natural (SingleSided) And Hybrid Ventilation Experiments at A3 apartment, Under Calm Conditions Based on Single-Zone (1,2) And Multi-Zone (3) Methods (Niachou et al., 2005)
10

Natural Air Exchange Rates (h-1)

8 6 4 2 0 1 2 3 1

Hybrid
max 75th percentile av erage 25th percentile min

Methdologies

6.2 Performance of Two Different Hybrid Ventilation Systems

Within the RESHYVENT research programme, the performance of two hybrid ventilation systems was assessed: the pilot ventilation system and the RESHYVENT hybrid ventilation system. The analysis of the systems efficiency was performed for different urban situations, having aspect ratio (H/W) equal to 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5 and 3, and for climates of eleven different European cities.

6.2.1 Pilot Ventilation System The pilot ventilation system consists of: Demand control strategy based on the indoor air quality levels. Different control functions have been introduced and are based either on the indoor CO2 or on the TVOCs concentrations. Low-pressure system supported by wind and buoyancy: An asymmetric and non-ideal flow controller is used. Non-ideal means that no compensation for other faade leaks is included in the flow controller model. Only the actual characteristic of the controller is considered. The asymmetric controller has a separate flow rate for negative flow-directions. The resulting flow is temperature compensated according the relation of air densities at actual and test conditions. Balancing Supply and Exhaust: Two supply/exhaust fans have been used with a corresponding performance of 795m3/h at 0 Pa pressure difference. The fans are installed on the zone external walls facing the rear and the front canyon faade. The fans are reversible and they operate on both extract and intake mode according to the specific case study. Figure 6.3: A representation of the pilot hybrid ventilation system with two inlet/extract fans installed at the two external building walls. An inverse operation of the fans is considered on the right photo (Niachou and Santamouris, 2005)

Supply fan Exhaust fan

Exhaust fan Supply fan

6.2.2 RESHYVENT Hybrid Ventilation System The system consists of self-regulating air inlets, DC fan, motorized damper, flow meter, central control unit, CO2 sensors and ductwork. The demand control of the ventilation system is based on monitoring of CO2 in rooms. There is a CO2 sensor and a self-regulating air inlet in each room. The self-regulating inlets are usually positioned above windows. These inlets are able to maintain a constant flow rate for the pressure difference across the facade higher than 1 Pa. The hybrid ventilation system was simulated to operate when the CO2 concentration in the apartment increased to 1200 ppm. The exhaust fan is used when the air exhaust through the duct is lower than the demanded flow.

Pressure-dependent grilles of the system were also simulated in order to realize better the canyon effect. The pressure-dependent inlet grilles have the following characteristics, when the pressure difference is above 1Pa: Qv=CPn and C=25.96dm3/s per 1 Pa , n=0.50 The inlet grilles are considered full open between 0 Pa and 0.5 Pa. Above 0.5 Pa the inlet grilles start to control and there is not longer a standard relation between pressure and airflow. The ventilation system is examined either with natural or hybrid exhaust mode. In the natural ventilation exhaust mode, the exhaust airflow rate from the duct is affected by the natural driving forces. When the exhaust flow rate through the duct is lower than the demanded flow rate, then the fan starts to operate. A minimum of 21dm3/s is considered for the air exhaustion through the duct. Figure 6.4: Representation of The RESHYVENT Hybrid Ventilation System For Moderate Climates (Niachou and Santamouris, 2005)

6.2.3 Results & Conclusions The performance of the two hybrid system was assessed considering the following parameters: Canyon Geometry Canyon Layout Outdoor Urban Air Characteristics Indoor Pollutant Emissions Building Leakage Demand Control

Pilot System Impact of Outdoor Urban Conditions The system performed better when wind direction was towards the building walls without local obstructions around it, rather than, when the wind blows towards the obstructed building walls. The absolute minimum total ventilation rates were observed, either for windless conditions, or for wind directions parallel to the canyon axis. Impact of Outdoor Urban Air Characteristics TVOCs levels in urban areas reach 1.5ppm. Greater ventilation supply and exhaust rates were required for increased TVOCs concentration. The better IAQ levels were related with strong natural driving forces (wind and temperature difference) and better outdoor air characteristics. Demand Control Strategies Different control strategies for the opening of inlet/exhaust fans were studied. Higher ventilation rates (supply, exhaust and total) were observed when demand control based on the indoor TVOCs levels instead of the CO2 concentration. Figure 6.5: (h-1) Based On Indoor (1) CO2 Levels and (2) TVOCs Levels under Different Outdoor Urban Conditions (Niachou and Santamouris, 2005)
Demand Control CO2 and TVOC

3.0

Mean Hourly Air Exchange Rate (1/h)

2.5 2.0 1.5

CO2

TVOC
max

75th percentile

TVOC

TVOC
average

Ventilation Configuration 1.0 25th percentile CO2 CO2 Pilot system: A comparison analysis has been performed considering that the min 0.5 inlet/extract fans in the pilot ventilation system operate in reverse modes. Namely, the supply fan is considered at the canyon faade and the inlet fan at the rear 0.0 canyon wall.
1 2 1 2 1 2 Ventilation Supply Figure 6.5: Mean Hourly Values Ventilation Exhaust Of Supply, Exhaust And Total Ventilation Total Ventilation Rates

In terms of air change rates, the system performed better for wind directions towards the mechanical supply fan. The better indoor air quality is expected in the system with the mechanical supply from the rear canyon walls, due to the increased pollutant concentrations at front canyon facades due to traffic.

RESHYVENT system Impact of Canyon Geometry and Pressure Pifference The performance of the hybrid ventilation system when operating in natural exhaust ventilation mode is associated with the wind effect that is the dominant driving force in canyons with lower aspect ratios (regular or avenue canyons). Stack effect is maximum in deeper canyons (H/W greater than 2), when the average height of buildings is increased. Under the combined wind and stack effect, then the air exhaustion through the duct depends on the dominating natural driving force. From the estimated pressure differences across canyon facades with the natural exhaust ventilation system, it was found that the majority of pressure differences range between 0Pa-1Pa for all canyon geometries. The smaller the aspect ratio of canyon is, the maximum % of values between 0Pa-1Pa becomes. Thus, the range between 0Pa-1Pa becomes of high interest for pressure-dependent or self-regulated air inlets when installed at canyons facades and the ventilation exhaust system operates in natural mode. Impact of CanyonLayout Between canyons with and without surrounding obstacles at the rear building walls, higher exhaust flow rates were estimated with the natural exhaust system in canyons without local obstructions at the rear external walls. Due to the reduced wind effect, the hours of operation of the exhaust fan and the fan energy are increased in canyons with local obstructions around the buildings. Impact of outdoor urban air characteristics The performance of the system was studied against three different outdoor TVOCs concentrations, 0.5mgr/m3, 1mgr/m3 and 1.5mgr/m3 respectively. In all cases the indoor TVOCs levels should not exceed the value of 3 mgr/m3, above which discomfort is expected (Molhave et al., 1992). A better IAQ was observed when the control of the inlet grilles was based on TVOCs rather than when was based on CO2. With the appropriate control of the inlet devices, it is possible to improve the effectiveness of the hybrid ventilation system, so as to meet indoor IAQ, without increasing the demanded flow rates of the system. Thus, the energy cost for heating or cooling will be reduced when IAQ is achieved with the minimum required flows. Impact of Building Leakage The impact of the building leakage on the efficiency of the ventilation system was studied considering different leakage classes (0.6, 2.5 and 5h-1@50Pa). It has been found that when the building leakage is increased, then the introduced airflow through the inlet grilles is reduced, as a result of the increased infiltration rates. Impact of Different Control Strategies A number of different control strategies were applied for the operation of the inlet grilles based either on the indoor air quality or thermal comfort:

 CO2 control The inlet grilles start to control when indoor CO2 concentration exceeds 1200ppm. TVOCs control The inlet grilles open, when indoor TVOCs levels exceed 3mgr/m3. CO2 & TVOCs control The inlet devices will open when CO2 exceeds 1200ppm or TVOCs is above 3mgr/m3. Passive cooling If indoor air temperature is above 26oC and the ambient air is colder than the indoor air, then the inlet grilles open. Passive cooling & CO2 control Combined control based on passive cooling (26oC) and CO2 control (1200ppm). Passive cooling & TVOCs control Combined control based on passive cooling (26oC) and TVOCs control (3mgr/m3). The following figure shows the calculated % of hours within a year period, when indoor air quality levels are perceived, namely, when indoor CO2 concentration is lower than 1200ppm and TVOCs is less than 3mgr/m3. Figure 6.6 Estimated % Of Hours, When Indoor Air Quality Is Perceived With Different Control Strategies With Natural And Hybrid Ventilation Exhaust Systems, For Athens Reference Year (Niachou and Santamouris, 2005)

CO2

TVOC's

CO2 & TVOC's

Passive Cooling

Passive Cooling &CO2

Passive Cooling &TVOC's

Percentage of hours (%)

100 80 60 40 20 0

Natural

Hybrid

Figure 6.6:

Summary
This chapter evaluates the performance of hybrid ventilation; first by comparing hybrid ventilation with natural and mechanical ventilation and secondly by examining two different hybrid ventilation systems; the pilot system and the RESHYVENT hybrid system. The comparison of natural, mechanical and hybrid ventilation shows the advantage of the hybrid system over natural ventilation under windless conditions. Additionally, under low wind speeds natural cross ventilation offers better airflows in indoor areas than single sided configurations. The analysis of two hybrid ventilation systems; the pilot and the RESHYVENT one, shows that the systems performance depends on various outdoor and indoor parameters: the canyon geometry and layout, the ambient air, the indoor pollutants concentration, the building leakage and the control strategy.

6.3 Self Assessment Questions

1. Describe different components of hybrid ventilation systems 2. How the ventilation rates in urban buildings vary based on the control of the TVOCs levels and CO2 concentration? 3. Describe the operation of the inlet grilles of the RESHYVENT system based on IAQ and thermal comfort

Problems
1. How natural and hybrid ventilation affect the airflows in urban buildings. Under which circumstances hybrid ventilation has an advantage over natural ventilation? 2. Describe different strategies using hybrid ventilation to optimize indoor air quality in urban buildings

CHAPTER 7 Recommendations for the Use of Natural and Hybrid Ventilation Systems in Urban Buildings
Learning Objectives After studying this section you should: Be able to suggest design guidelines for the use of natural or hybrid ventilation systems in urban canyons considering different ventilation parameters

Introduction
This chapter presents a set of guidelines for the application of natural and hybrid ventilation in urban canyons. The ventilation strategies in buildings are determined to optimize energy use while maintaining acceptable comfort levels. Therefore, the guidelines take into consideration four parameters according to different ventilation concepts. The four parameters include: Maximization of the natural driving forces Consideration of thermal comfort Improvement of Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) Energy consideration

7.1 Maximisation of The Natural Driving Forces

The ventilation strategies when considering the maximization of the natural driving forces in urban buildings include: Optimization of the stack effect by using high vertical differences between ventilation supply and extract, especially in canyon configurations, where wind effect is very low. Location of the supply fans or pressure-dependent air inlets at building facades where wind effect is expected to be at maximum. Use of self-regulated grilles at shielded canyon facades in order to ensure a constant flow rate independently of the pressure differences across the facades. Optimization of wind effect by using effective window airing from the windward facades without causing draught problems to occupants. Designing inlet grilles for canyons facades, in accordance of small pressure differences, especially between 0Pa-1Pa. Use of wind and solar technologies in natural and hybrid ventilation systems to enhance wind and stack effect (solar chimneys, wind catchers, etc). Ventilation extract should de designed carefully in accordance with air intakes in order to facilitate the recirculation of air inside the building and should exhaust air in places where it is not dispersed easily. Minimisation of downdraughts in case of stack ventilation by locating airflow exhausts at high level

7.2 Consideration of Thermal Comfort

The ventilation strategies to enhance thermal comfort in the urban buildings include: Use of natural ventilation with the avoidance of draughts and excessive air temperature gradients. Use of natural ventilation in warm climates mainly for night ventilation during summer period or during intermediate seasons.

 Use of hybrid ventilation based on temperature control instead of natural ventilation under excessive ambient temperatures. Use of self-regulating grilles in order to avoid the draft risk, especially in cold climates.

7.3 Improvement of IAQ

The ventilation strategies when considering to improve the indoor air quality in urban buildings include: Use of demand control ventilation in order to achieve the best indoor air quality levels with the minimum energy cost. Use of source control, when necessary, in order to ensure the indoor air quality without increasing demanded flow rates. Ensure that the minimum demanded flow rates will meet IAQ levels, when high indoor pollutant emissions are expected. Consideration of TVOCs control or combined TVOCs with CO2 control, especially in the urban environment. Location of air inlets near the building facades which are less exposed to outdoor pollution sources in order to enhance the possibility of using outdoor air without filtering. Control of ventilation intakes in order to avoid the ingress of polluted air during periods of peak traffic load.

7.4 Energy Consideration

The ventilation strategies when considering energy savings in the urban canyon include: Minimization of airflow rates; thus minimization of cooling/heating, without sacrificing indoor air quality (in terms of CO2), by designing mechanical exhaust systems with minimum demanded flow rates based on occupancy scheme. Use of natural driving forces, wind and stack effect, especially during the periods when heating or cooling is not needed. Use of low-energy fans with contemporary control mechanisms (air flow control, pressure drop and frequency control) at canyon facades, where wind effect is seriously reduced, in order to achieve demanded flow rates with minimum energy cost. Use of hybrid ventilation with heat recovery in cold climates to achieve demanded ventilation rates with the minimum energy cost for heating. Use of demand control strategy to ensure indoor air quality with minimum use of fan energy and without increasing demanded flow rates.

Summary
A set of guidelines is suggested for the application of natural and hybrid ventilation in urban buildings. The guidelines take into consideration four parameters according to different ventilation concepts, a. the maximisation of the natural driving forces, b. the thermal comfort, c. the improvement of IAQ and d. energy issues. When considering the maximization of the natural driving forces in urban buildings it is of high importance to ensure a constant flow rate and increase the stack and wind effect with various design methods. The avoidance of drafts is of high importance when considering to enhance the thermal comfort in urban buildings. Hybrid ventilation can also provide acceptable indoor temperatures over natural ventilation during excessive hot periods. Control strategies over indoor pollutants and flow rates can improve indoor air quality. Additionally the exposure of inlets to outdoor pollution should be prevented. A combination of design selections, like as the use of heat recovery, the use of low-energy fans and the use of demand control ventilation are suggested when considering to save energy.

7.5 Self Assessment Questions

1. Define different parameters to consider when designing a ventilation system in urban areas 2. Give some design guidelines to enhance stack effect in urban buildings 3. Describe solutions to provide good IAQ while obtaining minimum energy costs

Problems
1. What advice would you give the building designer about how to design the building to make best use of natural ventilation