Putting it all together Digestion Digestion I. Phylogenetic overview A. Invertebrates 1.intracellular digestion: a.

. Amoebapseudopods for phagocytosis-food vacuole prevents protists from digesting themselves lysosomes provide digestive enzymes b. Paramecium gullet / food vacuoles (right) c. Sponge collar cells (choanocytes) phagocytosis

Page 1

1. Extracellular digestion occurs outside of the cell, not within a food vacuole (enzymes are released into intestine to digest food.) a. Cnidarians have a digestive cavity with only one opening but allows them to ingest particles larger than one cell- gastrovascular cavity b. Earthworm muscular gizzard to grind food (mechanical digestion), crop to store food; With a true gut (first in roundworms) from mouth to anus B. Vertebrates 1. Bird has gizzard like a worm Why? (no teeth.) 2. Herbivoreshave a cecum- an area to house bacteria capable of digesting cellulose II. The organs of the Human digestive system A. Vocabulary Ingestion - taking food in Peristalsis rhythmic contractions of smooth muscle tissue so food passes through digestive syste Digestion break down into smaller pieces (mechanical or chemical) Absorption nutrients diffuse into cells (or actively transported) Alimentary canal: mouth to anus Accessory glands of digestive system: salivary glands, liver, pancreas, gall bladder

Putting it all together Digestion

Page 2

C. Metabolism/Nutrition 1. Basal metabolic rate- minimal number of kilocalories a resting animal required to fuel itself for a given time (Calorie daily usage = kilocalorie) 2. essential nutrients cannot be manufactured, so must be ingested a. essential amino acids 8 meth, val, phenyl, leuc, iso, lys, trypt, threo. b. essential fatty acids unsaturated with double bonds for membranes c. vitamins water soluble: C synthesis of connective tissue, B coenzymes Fat soluble:A eye function,D Calcium absorption, E cell membrane protection, K blood clotting d. minerals Calcium and phosphorus both needed in bone, Ca for nerves and muscle and phosphorus for ATP and nucleic acids Iron for ETC and hemoglobin in blood Metal cofactors Mg, Zn, Cu, Fe, Mn and others Na, K and Cl nerve function D. Mouth/Oral cavity teeth for mechanical digestion (ingestion-taking in food) Tongue creates food bolus saliva to moisten and lubricate food (parotid, sublingual, submandibular); neutralize acid in mouth salivary amylase initiates breakdown of starch and complex carbohydrates into smaller fragments (chemical digestion begins) stomach too acidic so amylase denatures in stomach chemoreceptors in mouth stimulate salivary response as can sight, sound or smell E. Esophagus palate elevates to prevent food from entering nasal cavity pharynx pressure against pharynx stimulates receptors to swallowing center in brain epiglottis folds over larynx to prevent food from going down trachea

Putting it all together Digestion

Page 3

esophagus connects pharynx to stomach; food moves by peristalsis rhythmic waves of muscular contraction (striated muscle at top of esophagus, smooth muscle further down, why?) cardiac sphincter controls movement of food to stomach opens in response to pressure of food F. Stomach - Thick-walled, muscular 1. epithelium lined with goblet cells which secrete mucus to keep the stomach from digesting itself (can hold 2 L of food/liquid) a. mucosa layer b. submucosa connective tissue rich in blood vessels and nerve tissue c. 2 muscle layers under submucosa 1 layer circular muscle and 1 layer longitudinal muscle which help with mechanical digestion 2.Primarily mechanical digestion occurs in the stomach 3.Stomach lining absorbs water, glucose and alcohol (not much else) 4.2 liters of HCl (parietal cells produce it) and other gastric juices produced each day 5. Acidic environment denatures proteins and fragments other types of food, kills bacteria (pH=2) 6.Pepsinogen (chief cells produce) - inactive form of pepsin which is changed to active form in presence of acid - Pepsin breaks down proteins into short polypeptides still very large molecules though so no protein absorption through stomach lining 7. Gastrin regulates HCl production in stomach and produce gastric juices (production stops if pH too low) 8. Pyloric sphincter regulates movement of food from stomach to small intestine food now a soupy mix called chime (acidic at this point) G. Pancreas 1. Produces pancreatic enzymes and helps to buffer acidity of chyme as is comes from stomach 2. All enzymes secreted as inactive precursor and later become active by other chemicals (enteropeptidase) once they leave pancreas (prevents it from digesting itself) enzymes from pancreas secreted into duodenum a. trypsin, chrmotrypsin, carboxypeptidase to digest proteins b. pancreatic lipase fats c. pancreatic amylase carbs 3. Islets of Langerhans a. produce insulin and glucagon to regulate amount of glucose in blood b. Low blood sugar glucagon produced (converts glycogen to glucose)high blood sugar insulin released (converts glucose to glycogen) thus lowering blood sugar c. If cells have plenty of glycogen and caloric intake exceeds calorie expenditure, excess usually stored as fat

Putting it all together Digestion

Page 4

H. Liver 1. Hepatic portal vein takes blood (and substance from lacteal glands) directly from small intestine to liver why? 2. Liver function Secretes bicarbonate to buffer chime Secretes bile to digest fats Carbohydrate metabolism stores glycogen Forms urea, detoxifies poisons, immune response, stores fats I. Gallbladder 1. Holds bile produced by liver secreted through bile duct into duodenum 2. Bile salts, water, cholesterol and other substance produced. Bile salts emulsify fats breaking them into smaller droplets for more surface area

J. Small intestine 1. 6 m long walls secrete enterogastrins (hormones that aid digestion by decreasing gastric motility and stimulating accessory glands to production) a. duodenum 25 cm chyme mixes with enzymes b. jejunum - .9 m and c. ileum remainder to large intestine which both absorb nutrients and water 2. mesentery holds small intestine in place loose connective tissue 3. To increase surface area for absorption a. villi microscopic fingerlike projections of epithelium b. microvilli folds in the cell membrane of the epithelial cells (on villi) c. lacteal gland (lymphatic system) absorb fats d. capillaries absorb sugars and amino acids 4. other enzymes produced and used in small intestine disaccharidases (maltase, sucrase etc) decrease in acidity allows them to function in small intestine

Putting it all together Digestion

Page 5

III.

K. Large intestine compact the solid refuse and reabsorb water, sodium, vitamin K Lots of bacteria exist here in symbiotic relationship. Bacteria provide enzymes to digest foods that host doesnt have (minor role in humans, large in herbivores) and/or produce vitamins (K, B12, biotin, folic acid) for host Nine hours for food to reach large intestine, 1-3 days in large intestine Hormonal control of digestion A. Glucagon and insulin 1. insulin produced when blood has lots of glucose, like after a meal, converts glucose to glycogen which is stored in liver 2. glucagon produced when blood sugar is low, converts glycogen back to glucose B. Calcium regulation 1. Calcium required for: blood clotting, bones and teeth, muscle function ,nerve activity 2. Parathyroid hormone (PTH) a. increases the rate of Ca, P and Mg absorption in the small intestine b. causes release of calcium and phosphate from bones tissue c. increases rate at which kidneys remove Ca++ and Mg from urine d. increase vitamin D production, because it is required for intestines to absorb Calcium C. Gastrin increases gastric juice production ( HCl, pepsinogen) a. produced by thinking about food, eating food, food entering small intestine (initially) b. shut off if pH too low in small intestine D. Secretin increases bicarbonate (HCO3) release from pancreas; decreases gastric motility to allow time for absorption -decrease in pH in small intestine is stimulus E. Cholectystokinin released by prescence of amino acids and fats in small intestine. - decreases gastric motility - stimulates gall bladder to contract - increases release of pancreatic enzymes