1

Taylor Series for Functions of a Real Variable

1 Overview

In this chapter, we shall consider series where the n
th
term is a function of x. We are particularly
interested in the study of Taylor Series. Historically, these series arose when people wanted to
obtain greater accuracy of the tabulated values of the trigonometric, logarithmic and exponential
functions. We shall see that the elementary functions mentioned above can be expressed as a
series (of functions) and by using the corresponding polynomials, we can obtain estimated values of
these functions to any desired degree of accuracy.



2 Power Series

In this section we shall introduce some basic definitions and examples for an understanding of
Taylor series.

Definition 2.1 (Formal power series)

A series of the form

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) L K + + + + + =

=
n
n
n
n
n
a x a a x a a x a a a x a
2
2 1 0
0
(*)

is called a formal power series centred at a. In the expression (*), the a
n
s and a are constants
(independent of x) and x is a variable whose domain at the moment may be any set of real numbers.

Example Recall that the geometric series

K K + + + + + =

=
n
n
n
x x x x
2
0
1

converges to
x 1
1
if 1 < x and diverges otherwise. Hence we can say that the series

n
x defines
a function on ( ) 1 , 1 , mapping each x
0
to the value where

n
x converges to.

Example The series

L K + + + + +
n
x n x x ! ! 2 ! 1 ! 0
2


diverges for all non-zero x since n!x
n
does not tend to zero as n . (why?)

Example The series

K +
|

\
|
+
|

\
|
+ =
|

\
|

=
2
0
4
1
4
1
1
4
1 x x x
n
n


2
converges when 1
4
1
<
x
(i.e. when 4 1 < x or, equivalently, ) 5 3 < < x , hence this series
defines a function mapping each ( ) 5 3 < < x x to the values

=
|

\
|
0
4
1
n
n
x
.




3 Taylor Polynomials

Definition 3.1

Let f be a function defined in a neighbourhood near a and has finite derivatives f , f , f , ,
( ) n
f at a x = . Then the polynomial

( ) ( ) ( )( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
k
k
k
a x
k
a f
a x
a f
a x a f a f x P + +

+ + =
! ! 2
2
K

( ) n k is called the k
th
order Taylor polynomial generated by f at x = a.

Remark

1. When the function f has derivatives of all orders at x = a, there is a Taylor polynomial ( ) x P
n

generated by f for every non-negative integer n.
2. The (k
th
order) Taylor polynomial ( ) ( ) ( )( )
( )
( ) K +

+ + =
2
! 2
a x
a f
a x a f a f x P
k

( )
( )
( )
k
k
a x
k
a f
+
!
satisfies the following ( ) 1 + k conditions:
( ) ( ) a f a P = ; ( ) ( ) a f a P = ; ( ) ( ) a f a P = ; ;
( )
( )
( )
( ) a f a P
k k
= .
It means that the polynomial ( ) x P
k
matches f and its first k derivatives at x = a.

Example Find the Taylor polynomials ( ) x P
n
generated by ( )
x
e x f = at a = 0.

Solution Since
( )
( )
x n
e x f = for all 0 n , so
( )
( ) 1 0 =
n
f for all 0 n . Thus

( )
! ! 2
1
2
n
x x
x x P
n
n
+ + + + = K .

Example Find the Taylor polynomials ( ) x P
n
generated by ( ) x x f cos = at a = 0.

Solution For ( ) x x f cos = , we have

( )
( ) ( ) x x f
k k
cos 1
2
= ,
( )
( ) ( ) x x f
k k
sin 1
1 1 2 + +
= ( ) 0 k .

Hence
( )
( ) ( )
k k
f 1 0
2
= ,
( )
( ) 0 0
1 2
=
+ k
f . In this case ( ) ( ) x P x P
k k 1 2 2 +
= ( ) 0 k where
( ) ( )
( )
( )

=
+

= =
k
j
j j
k k
j
x
x P x P
0
2
1 2 2
! 2
1
.
3
Note that the polynomial ( ) ( ) ( ) x c x P
n n
=
2
converges to x cos as n . (see Fig. 1)



From figure 1, we see that (in this case) the Taylor polynomials seem to converge to the function
x cos as + n . If f has finite derivatives of all orders at a x = , it is natural to ask whether the
following series (called the Taylor series generated by f at x = a)

( ) ( )( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) K K + + +

+ +
n
n
a x
n
a f
a x
a f
a x a f a f
! ! 2
2


converge for values of x different from a x = ? If so, does it converge to the value f(x)? We shall
answer these questions in the next section.


Definition 3.2 The Taylor Series generated by f at 0 = a is called the Maclaurin Series.

i.e. The Maclaurin Series generated by f is

( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
K K + + +

+ +
n
n
x
n
f
x
f
x f f
!
0
! 2
0
0 0
2
.


Example The Maclaurin Series generated by x cos is

( )
( )
|
|

\
|
+ + =

=
L
! 6 ! 4 ! 2
1
! 2
1
6 4 2
0
2
x x x
k
x
k
k
k
.

Example Find the Taylor series generated by x cos at the point 2 = a .

Solution
For ( ) x x f cos = we have

( )
( ) ( ) x x f
k k
cos 1
2
= ,
( )
( ) ( ) x x f
k k
sin 1
1 1 2 + +
= .
At the point 2 = a ,

( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
k k k
f a f 1 2
2 2
= =
and

( )
( )
( )
( ) 0 2
1 2 1 2
= =
+ +

k k
f a f .
4
The Taylor Series generated by x cos at 2 = a is ( )
( )
( )

0
2
! 2
2
1
k
k
k
k
x
.

Example What is the Maclaurin Series generated by ( ) ( )
3
1 x x f = ?

Solution ( ) ( )
3
1 x x f =
( ) ( )( )
2
1 3 x x f =
( ) ( )( )( ) x x f = 1 2 3
( ) ( )( )( ) 6 1 2 3 = = x f

and
( )
( ) 0
4
= x f . Hence
( )
( ) 0 = x f
n
for all 4 n .

The Maclaurin Series generated by f is:
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
K K + + +

+ +
n
n
x
n
f
x
f
x f f
!
0
! 2
0
0 0
2

= ( )
3 2
! 3
6
! 2
6
3 1 x x x + +
=
3 2
3 3 1 x x x +
= ( )
3
1 x which is equal to ( ) x f for all values of x.



4 Taylors Theorem and the Estimation of Remainder

In the last section, we asked when a Taylor Series generated by a function can be expected to
converge to a function. In this section, we answer the question with a theorem named after the
English mathematician Brook Taylor (1685 1731).

Theorem 4.1 (Taylors theorem)

If f and its first n derivatives f , f , f , ,
( ) n
f are continuous on [ ] b a, (respectively [ ] a b, )
and
( ) n
f is differentiable on ( ) b a, (respectively ( ) a b, ), then there exists a ( ) b a c , such that

( ) ( ) ( )( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
1
1
2
! 1 ! ! 2
+
+

+
+ + +

+ + =
n
n
n
n
a b
n
c f
a b
n
a f
a b
a f
a b a f a f b f K .

Corollary 4.2 If f has derivatives of all orders in an interval ( ) ( ) 0 , > + a a , then for each
positive integer n and for each ( ) + a a x , ,

( ) ( ) ( )( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( ) x R a x
n
a f
a x
a f
a x a f a f x f
n
n
n
+ + +

+ + =
! ! 2
2
K

where ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
1
1
! 1
+
+

+
=
n
n
n
a x
n
c f
x R
for some ( ) x a c , (or ( ) a x, ).

Note: The function ( ) x R
n
is called the remainder of order n. In fact,
5

( ) ( ) ( ) x P x f x R
n n
=

where ( ) x P
n
is the Taylor polynomial generated by f at a x = . ( ) x R
n
is therefore the error in the
approximation of ( ) x f (by ( ) x P
n
) near a x = . When ( ) 0 x R
n
as n , for all x in some
interval around a x = , we say that the Taylor series expansion for ( ) x f converges to ( ) x f on that
interval and write

( )
( )
( )
( )

=
=
0
!
k
k
k
a x
k
a f
x f .

Example Show that the Taylor series generated by ( )
x
e x f = at 0 = a converges to ( ) x f for
every real value of x.

Solution Since ( ) x f is infinitely differentiable on R, Taylors theorem leads to

( ) x R
n
x x x
x e
n
n
x
+ + + + + + =
! ! 3 ! 2
1
3 2
K

where ( )
( )
1
! 1
+
+
=
n
c
n
x
n
e
x R for some c between 0 and x.
Since
x
e is an increasing function on x,


x c
e e < < 1 if 0 > x
and 1 <
c
e if 0 < x .

Thus
( )
( )
( )

>
+

<
+
<
+
+
0 when
! 1
0 when
! 1
1
1
x
n
x e
x
n
x
x R
n x
n
n

and ( ) 0 0 =
n
R .
Finally, as
( )
0
! 1
lim
1
=
+
+

n
x
n
n
for every x,
we have ( ) 0 lim =

x R
n
n
for every value of x. Therefore

=
=
0
!
k
k
x
k
x
e
= K K + + + + + +
! ! 3 ! 2
1
3 2
k
x x x
x
k
.

For the sake of future reference, we summarize the method of estimation (as appeared in the
previous example) as the following theorem:


Theorem 4.3 If there are constants M and r such that
( )
( )
1 1 + +

n n
Mr t f for all t between a and x,
inclusive, then the remainder term ( ) x R
n
in Taylors theorem satisfies the inequality
6
( )
( )! 1
1
1
+

+
+
n
a x r
M x R
n
n
n


Furthermore, if these conditions hold for every n and all the other conditions of Taylors theorem
are satisfied by ( ) x f , then the series converges to ( ) x f . Using this theorem, we can show that the
Maclaurin series for x sin and x cos converges to x sin and x cos respectively for all x.

(Reading Assignment: Read P. 666 P.667 (Ex. 2, Ex. 3) of Thomas and Finneys Book to see why
it is so.)

Now suppose that for functions f and g, each of their Taylors series converge to itself, then the
Taylor series for ( ) x f and ( ) x g is the sum of the Taylor series for ( ) x f and ( ) x g and it converges
to ( ) ( ) x g x f + .

Example Find the Maclaurin series for x cosh .

Solution
2
cosh
x x
e e
x

+
=

=
=
0
!
n
n
x
n
x
e , ( )

=
0
!
1
n
n
n x
n
x
e
( )
( )

= + =
0
2
! 2 2
1
cosh
n
n
x x
n
x
e e x .

Here are some examples of how to use the Theorem (4.3) to estimate truncation error.

Example Calculate e with an error of less than
6
10

.

Solution Using

=
=
0
!
n
n
x
n
x
e with x = 1,
we have
( ) 1
!
1
! 3
1
! 2
1
! 1
1
1
n
R
n
e + + + + + + = K ,
with ( )
( )! 1
1
1
+
=
n
e R
c
n
, 1 0 < < c .
As 3 1 < <
c
e , therefore
( )
( )
( )! 1
3
1
! 1
1
+
< <
+ n
R
n
n
.

By experiment we find that
6
10
! 9
1

> , while
6
10
! 10
3

< . Thus we should take ( ) 1 + n to be at least
10, or n to be at least 9. With an error of less than
6
10

,

718282 . 2
! 9
1
! 3
1
! 2
1
! 1
1
1 + + + + + = K e .

7
Example For what values of x is the approximation ( )
( ) ( )
! 5
2
! 3
2
2 2 sin
5 3
x x
x x + not in error
by more than
6
10 5

?

Solution
Because the Taylor polynomials of order 5 and of order 6 for x 2 sin are identical, so the error is not
greater than
! 7
2
7
7
x
. (why?)
Solving the inequality
6
7
7
10 5
! 7
2

<
x
,
we get
59106 . 0 10 5 ! 7 2
7 6
<

x ,
or rad. 29533 . 0 < x



5 Applications of Taylor Series

Definition 5.1

The Maclaurin Series for the function ( ) ( )
m
x x f + = 1 is called the Binomial Series.

For ( ) ( )
m
x x f + = 1
( ) ( )
1
1

+ =
m
x m x f
( ) ( )( )
2
1 1

+ =
m
x m m x f
M

( )
( ) ( )( ) ( )( )
k m k
x k m m m m x f

+ + = 1 1 2 1 K

Hence, the Binomial Series is the series

( ) ( ) ( )
K
K
K +
+
+ +

+ +
k
x
k
k m m m
x
m m
mx
!
1 1
! 2
1
1
2


Note that if m is an non-negative integer, it is a polynomial. Otherwise it is infinite. Hence, it can be
considered as an extension of the Binomial Theorem.


Theorem 5.1 If { }
n
a is a sequence such that (i) 0 >
n
a ; (ii) n a a
n n

+1
, and (iii) 0
n
a .
Then
( ) ( ) K + =

=
+
3 2 1
1
1
1 a a a a
n
n
n
converges
and
( ) ( )
1
1 1
1
1 1
+

= =
+
<
k
n
k
n
n
n
n
n
a a a .
Furthermore, ( ) ( )

= =
+

1 1
1
1 1
n
k
n
n
n
n
n
a a and
1 + k
a has the same sign.
8
We shall not prove the above theorem but note that it is useful in the calculation of errors.

Example Use the binomial series to estimate 25 . 1 with an error of less than 0.001.

Solution Consider the binomial series expansion for ( )
m
x + 1 with
4
1
= x and
2
1
= m .
We have
K + |

\
|
|

\
|
|

\
|
|

\
|
+ |

\
|
|

\
|
|

\
|
+ |

\
|
+ = |

\
|
+
3 2
2
1
4
1
! 3
2
3
2
1
2
1
4
1
! 2
2
1
2
1
4
1
2
1
1
4
1
1

4 4 4 4 4 3 4 4 4 4 4 2 1
K
first term after the alternates
32768
5
1024
1
128
1
8
1
1 + + + =

If we approximate 25 . 1 by
128
1
8
1
1 + , the error is less than
1024
1
(By Thm. 5.1). Thus
1171875 . 1
128
1
8
1
1 25 . 1 = + is within
1024
1
of the exact value and thus has the required
accuracy.

Apart from approximating a function, Taylor series can be applied to solve problems of various
nature.

Example Use Taylor series to express the polynomial ( ) 1 2 3
2 3 4
+ + + + = x x x x x P in terms
of powers of ( ) 1 x .

Solution First, simple calculation shows that ( ) 8 1 = P , ( ) 17 1 = P , ( ) 32 1 = P , ( ) 42 1 = P ,
( )
( ) 24 1
4
= P and
( )
( ) 0 1 =
n
P for 5 n .

Hence, ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
4 3 2
1
! 4
24
1
! 3
42
1
! 2
32
1 17 8 + + + + = x x x x x P
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
4 3 2
1 1 7 1 16 1 17 8 + + + + = x x x x .

The following examples illustrate how we can use Taylor series method to evaluate limits.

Example Evaluate
1
ln
lim
1

x
x
x
.

Solution Let ( ) x x f ln = , ( ) 1 = x x g .
( ) x x f ln = ( )
x
x f
1
= ( )
2
1
x
x f = ,
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
n n n
x n x f

= ! 1 1
1
.

Hence
( )
( )
( ) ( )

=
+ =
1
0
1
1
!
1
ln
n
n
n
x R x
n
f
x
( ) ( ) x R x
1
1 0 + + =
9
so
( )
( )
( ) 1
1
1
ln
1

+ =
x
x R
x
x

( )
( )
( )
( )
2
2
1
1
! 2
= x
c f
x R
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) 1
! 2 1
2
1
=

x
c f
x
x R


which tends to 0 as 1 x .

Hence
( )
( )
( ) 1
lim 1
1
ln
lim
1
1 1

x
x R
x
x
x x

1 0 1 = = .


Example Find
( )
2
0
1
lim
x
x e
x
x
+

.

Solution ( ) x R
x
x e
x
2
2
2
1 + + + =
where ( )
3
2
! 3
x
e
x R
c
= .

Now
( ) ( )
2
2
2
2
1 1
x
x R
x
x e
x
+ =
+
. As
( )
0 lim
2
0
=

x
x R
x
.
Hence
( )
2
1 1
lim
2
0
=
+

x
x e
x
x
.



10
FREQUENTLY-USED MACLAURIN SERIES

=
= + + + + + =

0
2
1
1
1
n
n n
x x x x
x
K K , 1 < x
( ) ( )

=
= + + + =
+
0
2
1 1
1
1
n
n n n
x x x x
x
K K , 1 < x

=
= + + + + + =
0
2
! ! ! 2
1
n
n n
x
n
x
n
x x
x e K K , < x
( )
( )
( )
( )

=
+ +
+

= +
+
+ + =
0
1 2 1 2 5 3
! 1 2
1
! 1 2
1
! 5 ! 3
sin
n
n n n
n
n
x
n
x x x
x x K K , < x
( )
( )
( )
( )

= + + + =
0
2 2 4 2
! 2
1
! 2
1
! 4 ! 2
1 cos
n
n n n
n
n
x
n
x x x
x K K , < x
( ) ( )
( )

= + + + = +
1
1
1
3 2
1
1
3 2
1 ln
n
n n n
n
n
x
n
x x x
x x K K , 1 1 < x

=
+ +

+
=
|
|

\
|
+
+
+ + + + = =

+
0
1 2 1 2 5 3
1
1 2
2
1 2 5 3
2 tanh 2
1
1
ln
n
n n
n
x
n
x x x
x x
x
x
K K , 1 < x
( )
( )

= +

+ + =
0
1 2 1 1 2
1
5 3
1
1 2
1
1 2
1
5 3
tan
n
n n n
n
n
x
n
x x x
x x K K , 1 x


BINOMIAL SERIES

( )
( ) ( )( ) ( ) ( )
K
K
K +
+
+ +

+

+ + = +
k m
x
k
k m m m
x
m m m
x
m m
mx x
!
1 1
! 3
2 1
! 2
1
1 1
3 2

=
|
|

\
|
+ =
1
1
k
k
x
k
m
, 1 < x
where
m
m
=
|
|

\
|
1
,

( )
! 2
1
2

=
|
|

\
| m m
m
,

( ) ( )
!
1 1
k
k m m m
k
m
+
=
|
|

\
| K
for 3 k .

NOTE. It is customary to define
|
|

\
|
0
m
to be 1 and to take 1
0
= x (even in the usually
excluded case where 0 = x ) in order to write the binomial series compactly as

( )

=
|
|

\
|
= +
1
1
k
k m
x
k
m
x , 1 < x .

If m is a positive integer, the series terminates at
m
x and the result converges for all x.