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REPAIR BASIC-1

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INTRODUCTION The word plastic is used to describe a wide range of nonmetallic materials. Which are made from cellulose, oil, coal, natural gas and salt. in every case there are compounds of carbon (O) and hydrogen (H). Oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), chlorine (Cl) and sulphur (S) may also be present. Oil, together with natural gas, is the most important raw material for plastic production. Plastic has become a household word since molded resins have been developed to replace many of the metal and wood items that make our modern lives functional. This type of material first became familiar to us around 1870, when celluloid was first developed. Then a stronger plastic was developed in 1909, when phenol and formaldehyde were mixed to start the family of phenolics. Today they are still in use especially, for aircraft interior parts. The earliest airplanes were generally designed of non metallic construction. The framework was formed from spruce or bamboo and the surfaces were covered with cotton or linen. Later the fuselages were made of welded steel tubing Trusses. So in order to reduce the drag, the framework was covered with fabric for smoother aerodynamic shapes. In the 19205 the Lockheed Company in California developed a molding process by which thin sheets of wood were formed in heated concrete molds and glued together under heat and pressure. This was one of the first practical applications of what we now call composite. Airplanes constructed in this way became world famous for their high strength, low weight, and aerodynamic form. Aluminum alloys have replaced wood veneer as the standard material for the skin of airplanes, because of their higher strength and adaptability to mass production. Sheets of alloy are formed and riveted together into aerodynamic shapes. In the Iatter part of the 1 970s we find that aircraft construction uses many of the innovations of the 1 920s through 1 940s but with new and improved materials. Instead of wood strips, we use layers of glass fiber. Casein, glue has been replaced with some of the synthetic resins such as epoxy resin. Rigidity has been achieved by the use of honeycomb structure. In a modern aircraft you will find many kinds of composites and plastics. For example: honeycomb, laminated glass fiber, or molded plastic parts. Composite and plastic are two of the more dynamic aspects of aviation design. Every day brings about new developments in adhesives, sealants, fillers, or any other items of composite and plastic.

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WHAT IS MEANT BY THE WORD COMPOSITE? In it simplest form, composite does exist, when any two or more pieces of material are joined together by bonding and the strength will be carried-over through a chemical rather then a mechanical bond. Parts with uniform material are not described as a composite. For example: plastic foils plastic sheets acrylic plastic windows plastic hoses plastic pipes etc.

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HOW PLASTICS ARE CREATED? In this drawing you can see a set of twins. They can act as a model for the synthesis of polymers. Each pair of Mickey Mouses in the row represents a molecule of one of the most important gaseous hydro-carbons in the manufacture of plastic, ethylene. In the second row you can see how they have Iet go one pair of hands and joined up with their neighbors to produce a Iong chain. In a chemical reaction the Mickey Mouses are monomers and the chain would be a polymer.

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POLYMERIZATION

POLYCONDENSATION Polycondensation was used and partly under-stood, even earlier. The most famous product was Bakelite, so named by Baekeland, the Belgian chemist, who made it commercially soon after 1910. Polycondensation is a chemical reaction between two similar or dissimilar basic units which have at Ieast two functional groups. lt gives rise to the elimination of small, low molecular weight by-products such as water, hydrochloric acid, etc. The most important commercial polymers are made in this way. For example: phenol-formaldehyde (Bakelite) resins (typical thermosets) polyamides (nylon) polyester. Production of polyester- and polyamid fibres is also done by polycondensation. The polyester fibre or the polyester resin is produced by combining the two monomers glycol and adipin acid. The fission product wiIl be water. There is another way of producing polyester by polycondensation of glycol and terephtal acid. The polyester macromolecule has build in benzol rings. 8

The polymerization process has been generally understood since about 1930. Polymerization is a chemical reaction, generally carried out in the presence of a catalyst, which combines small molecules (monomers), containing a double bond, into Iong chain molecules. The double bond is opened up thereby making valency bonds available for Iinking with its neighbouring monomer molecule. No by-products are produced. The monomer molecules may, for example, be: ethylene polymerising to polyethylene (PE) styrene polymerising to polystyrene (PS) vinylchloride poly-merising to polyvinyl-chloride (PVC) Different unsaturated (ie. with a double bond) components can be polymerised together (copolymerised) For example: styrene/acrylonitrile copolymer (SAN) acrylonitrile/butadiene/styrene copolymer (ABS) In addition there are two other types of reactions used to make polymers, or giant molecules.

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Plastics fali into three classification: Thermoplastic Thermoplastics are Polymers n which the molecules are held together by weak secondary bonding forces soften when they are heated and so they are called thermoplastics. Thermoplastic foils, sheets, plates can be formed into different shapes by applying temperatures of about 100C 200C centigrade. This can be done over and over again. This is a Iist of thermoplastics used in aircraft industry. polyethylene PE polyvinylchloride PVC polystyrene PS polypropylene PP polycarbonate PC polyamide PA polyethersulphone PES polyimide P1 polytetrafluorethylene PTFE polymethylmethacryleat PMMA acrylonitrilbutadienestyrene ABS Thermosetting Plastics which are not softened by heat are known as thermosets. The monomeric material of which thermosetting plastics are made are mixed together at 0w temperatures and they are extruded, molded or pressed at higher temperatures. They undergo a chemical polymerization (molecular change) when heated and they become hard. Reheating, however, will not reverse the process as it does with thermoplastics, and once cured they remain in the hardened shape. Bonded structure, as we think of it in aircraft construction, is normally a Iaminated composite using thermosetting resins. There are six types of thermosetting resin currently in use with reinforcement. The most common thermosetting resin is epoxy resin. The other thermosetting resins are: polyester, vinyl ester, phenolics, polyimides and bismaleimides. Polyester resins Are the cheapest, have good properties at normal temperatures and are widely used for large components, like boats, and volume production. Vinyl ester resins Have a composition, and hence a cost of properties, between those of polyester and epoxy resins.

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Thermosetting (continuation) Phenolic resins Have lower mechanical properties but retain them to high temperatures and on burning do not produce toxic smoke. Polyimides Can withstand the highest temperatures of any thermoset and the latest version can be processed as easily as epoxy resins. Bismaleimide resins Are the latest development for aircraft and are designed to withstand the hot-wet conditions, in which epoxy lose strength, without incurring the extra cost of polyimides.

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Elastomer The third group of plastic materiaIs is called elastomer. If the molecules in a polymer are Iinked together by a small number of valency bonds so that a loose network is formed then a rubber- Iike material is formed called an elastomer, and this will have more elastic properties than a simple thermoplastic. For example: silicon rubber tires seals sealing compounds

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Adhesive A substance used to bond two or more surfaces together. Most adhesives form a bond by filling in the minute pits and fissures normally present even in very smooth surfaces. Adhesive bonds are economical, distribute the stress at the bonding point, resist moisture and corrosion, and eliminate the need for rivets and bolts. The effectiveness of an adhesive depends on several factors, including resistance to slippage and shrinkage, malleability, cohesive strength, and surface tension, which determines how far the adhesive penetrates the tiny depressions in the bonding surfaces Adhesives vary with the purpose for which they are intended. Such purposes now include the increasing use of adhesives in surgery. Synthetic adhesives, used either alone or as modifiers of natural adhesives, perform better and have a greater range of application than the natural products. Most of them form polymers, huge molecules incorporating large numbers of simple molecules to form strong chains and nets that link surfaces in a firm bond. Thermosetting adhesives, which are transformed into tough, heat-resistant solids by the addition of a catalyst or the application of heat, are used in such structural functions as bonding metallic parts of aircraft and space vehicles. Thermoplastic resins, which can be softened by heating, are used for bonding wood, glass, rubber, metal, and paper products. Elastomeric adhesives, such as synthetic or natural rubber cements

For example: Adhesives join dissimilar metals without the hazard of producing galvanic corrosion couples. Adhesives join metals with less energy than needed to produce bolted, riveted or welded joints. Adhesives can provide the strength of welding joints with out the disadvantages of the welding process (damage of surface coating, corrosion, energy requirement). Adhesives are the ideal joining material, and often the only one, to make metal to plastic or metal to GFRP joints. Adhesives can provide noise reducing as weli as some temperature barrier functions. Adhesives distribute stresses uniformly over entire bonded area; in contrast to bolts and rivets there is a minimal stress concentration. Adhesives produce invisible joints. This is important in cases where thin decorative skins of metal structures are given strength by supporting elements, such as frames, honeycombs, and bars. Adhesive assembly lines are fast, silent and environmentally sound. Structural adhesives are designed to make joints that can bear both a static or dynamic load. AlI other adhesives may be classified as non-structural. Nonstructural adhesives include most household glues, hot-meld adhesives, rubber and other thermoplastics. 13

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Types of load Adhesive joints may be subjected to four basic types of load illustrated below: Most structural adhesives are formulated to have excellent tensile and shear strength. To a much lesser degree they exhibit peel and cleavage properties. In fact, the purpose of a well-engineered joint is to give as little exposure as possible to peel and cleavage stress. The design should be such that most of the load is distributed over the joints as a tensile or a shear load. Adhesive Joint Design Lap joints Angle Joints Rods and Tubes Sheet Reinforcement Importance of the thickness of the adhesive The thickness of the adhesive is important to the shear strength. By increasing the thickness of the adhesive the shear strength of the bonding will be reduced. The optimum bond line thickness is in the range of 0.1 -0.2 mm. In very thin bond lines there is a risk of incomplete filling of the joint due to contact between high points on the joint surfaces.

Kinds of adhesives There are 4 different kinds of adhesives CONTACT ADHESIVES SOLVENT ADHESIVES DISPERSION ADHESIVES RESIN ADHESIVES

CONTACT ADHESIVES The atmospherical pressure will press two solids together, if there is no air between the two plane parallel surfaces.The reason for this adhesive force is the atmospherical pressure. The barometric pressure is 1 bar iON/cm2. For a contact area of 100cm2 a tensile force of 1000 N is needed to pull the two surfaces apart. Contact adhesives work the same way by using the atmospherical pressure. SOLVENT ADHESIVES Solvent adhesives contain plastics or resins dissolved in a solvent. The solvent has to evaporate to cure the adhesive. DISPERSION ADHESIVES Dispersion adhesives contain resins dissolved in a water solution, such as wood glue or wood paste. RESIN ADHESIVES Resin adhesives cure by chemical reaction. Containing two or more components. 14

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FILM ADHESIVES Film adhesives are similar to prepregs. They are used for bonding metal to metal, sandwich core to skin and GFRP, AFRP and CFRP. Adhesives are available as unsupported and supported films. Supported films contain a knitted nylon carrier. Film adhesives are supplied on a release paper backing, in rolls with polythene interleaving to protect the adhesive in storage and when being handled; these coverings must be removed before the adhesive can be used. Heavy rolls should be stored on a horizontal mandrel passed through the tube core on which the roll is wound. This will avoid the risk of local thinning of the film under the full weight of the roll. The film adhesive has to be cured under a curing cycle, in accordance with the Structural Repair Manual. The film adhesive has to be stored under refrigeration at 18C. FOAMING ADHESIVE FILM A foaming adhesive film is an adhesive in sheet form which expands during the curing cycle, to fill gaps and adhere strongly to all parts of the structure with which it comes into Contact. It is mainly used for the repair of honeycomb sandwich panels as a honeycomb core splice and as an edge- filling. The foaming adhesive is designed for use in conjunction with structural adhesive films and prepregs. Therefore it has to be cured under a curing cycle, in accordance with the Structural Repair Manual. Foaming adhesive films have a limited shelf life at room temperature, therefore they should be kept under refrigeration at -18C.

PLASTIC FOAMS Plastic foams are produced with either closed or open (interconnected) pores and as either preformed rigid sheets or as fluids for injection inyo cavities. Most thermoplastics and some thermoset resins can be foamed but the materials commonly used for aircraft components are polyvinyl chloride PVC, and polymethacrylimide. Polystyrene was used for some experimental aircrafts, and polyurethan is also available. The choice of the material has to be considered by the performance of the foam in a fire, in terms of the fire resistance and the toxicity of the smoke. Also the compressive strength and the density of the foam core has to be considered.

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THIXOTROPIC AGENTS Some plastic resins are extremely sensitive to temperature changes. At 15C they may be as thick as molasses, while at 30C they may run like water. And since heat is used as a curing agent, These resins may tend to run off of any vertical or near vertical surface before they have a chance to cure. In order to eliminate this problem, we can add a thixotropic agent. There are two of them commonly used in aircraft maintenance: micro- balloons and aerosil. MICRO- BALLOONS Micro balloons are made of hollow phenolic balls with a range of diameter from about ten to three hundred microns. Under the microscope, each micro- balloon is seen to be a perfect sphere. In applying this agent, epoxy or polyester resins are mixed as directed, and the micro-balloons are gently folded in, using care not to beat or crush them. A paste of light consistency is made up and trowled onto the surface where it cures into a hard, light-weight filler. This can be filed or sanded to the required contour. AEROSIL Aerosil is a very light, white powder, which is a product of combustion. Aerosil is used as a thixotropic agent. You can find it in combination with resins, lacquers, and even in tooth paste and sauce you can find it. 17

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RESIN ADHESIVES The resin ensures the cohesion of the composite material. Thermosetting and thermoplastic are the two main types of resin used as matrix. The selection of the applicable type of resin to be used for element buitd-up or repair execution is based on the study of various parameters. Nevertheless, it must be recalled that most of the mechanical performances of a composite are given by the fibers and their orientation. THERMOSETTING RESINS When mixed with the specified hardener and cured, the thermosetting resin sets in a given form. The hardening is not reversible. Epoxy and phenolic resin are the two main types of resin used for composite structures. Epoxy resin for external components due to their good mechanical properties. Phenolic resin for cabin furnishing due to their fire resistance and low toxicity.

POLYMER RESINS The mechanical properties of plastics (polymers) can be improved drastically by adding fibres but for a composite to perform well the fibres must be bonded together so that they act as a team. The choice of polymer is important. The main features of a good polymer are It must have the correct mechanical properties It must coat every single fibre and bond well to them It must be fairly easy to use Polymers are combined with the fibres by melting or by using a liquid polymers (resins) that can be hardened (cured) Melting is used to produce injection moulded articles such as bodies for electrical equipment or mass produced components but requires expensive machinery and moulds. Fibre reinforced components can be fabricated by using a liquid polymer, usually referred to as a resin. They are cured by addition of a hardener or catalyst, by application of heat or by a combination of both. The four most commonly used resins in fibre reinforced composites are Polyester resin

THERMOPLASTIC RESINS When heated thermoplastic resin becomes plastic. After cooling, the resin sets and hardens in a given form. The hardening is reversible. Thermoplastic resins are not currently used on composite structures.

Epoxy resin Vinyl ester Phenolic resin We shall be using epoxy resin which accounts for the majority of aircraft repairs. 19

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EPOXY RESINS (EPOXIDE RESINS) Epoxy resins are used in high tech composites because their mechanical properties are superior to those of polyesters. They are however much more expensive. They too are viscous liquids but cure by a different process which requires more accurate mixing. RESINS AND HARDENERS The amount of hardener added is critical because using the wrong amount would result in one of the following Unreacted resin in the final cured resin Unreacted hardener in the final cured resin Both of these conditions would result in a weak product, and in extreme cases the epoxy would remain sticky. RESINIHARDENER RATIOS There are hundreds ofepoxy resin systems on the market and each requires a different resin hardener ratio. Some are as low as 10:1 and others as high as 1:1 (eg Araldite D1Y adhesive). The manufacturer will supply exact details of the mixing ratios. COLD AND HOT CURE Many epoxy resins will cure at room temperature, but many require a high temperature to cure properly. Even room temperature resins can be heated to speed up the curing time and to improve the properties of the cured resin.

EPOXY HARDENERS Polyesters are cured by a chain reaction. That means that you only need a small amount of catalyst to start the reaction and then it will continue by itself So the amount of catalyst needed to cure the resin is not critical. Epoxides are cured by linking together the resin molecules and hardener molecules. This means that exactly the right number of hardener molecules must be present to get the best properties from the cured resin. So what is the correct number of hardener molecules? It seems that there must be ohe active hardener group for each epoxide group on the resin. Unfortunately epoxides are complicated molecules and it doesnt work out exactly like that The only way to find out how much hardener to add to a resin is to ask the manufacturers and they always state the correct resin/hardener ratio on the data sheet for each resin.

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RESIN HARDENER RATIOS Manufacturers normally state how many grams of hardener have to be added to 100g of resin. This figure is often referred to as phi, or parts per hundred of resin. For instance the data sheet might say: Recommended resin/hardener ratio = 100 : 60 by weight This means that 1 00g of epoxy resin requires 60g of hardener for complete cure, If, however, you are measuring out the resin and hardener by volume, the ratio may change because of the different densities of the two materials. In this case the ratio may be 100 : 65 by volume. Resin/hardener ratios vary immensely from as low as 10 phr to as high as 150 phr for normal use. Of course 100 phi means that you mix equal proportions of resin and hardener just like the epoxy adhesives that you buy as a household glue.

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HARDENER CALCULATIONS Once you know the resin/hardener ratio for the system that you are using you must be able to work out the amount of hardener that you will need for any given amount of resin. You will rarely be using exactly 100 g of resin. CALCULATIONS KNOWING THE FINAL WEIGHT If you are going to produce a laminate using,say, 35g of woven glass fibres you know that the final weigbt after the resin and hardener are mixed should be 35g. So how much of that 35g is resin, and how much is hardener? Answer: Resin/hardener ratio = 100:90 Weight of resin needed = (100/190) x 35 = 18.6g Weight of hardener needed = (90/190) x 35 = 16.4g The matrix have two main functions, to keep the fibers in position, and to distribute and transmit the loads to the fibers. The fibers and the matrix thus have a complementary role. The epoxy resin family is the only type of resin used for structural parts on aircraft. Due to different processes and different chemical compositions, the properties of epoxy resin can fluctuate. The main properties are: Good mechanical properties Medium to good toughness Low to medium service temperature NOT Valid for interior (Airbus Standard) Phenolic Resin Properties: Poor to medium mechanical characteristics Low to medium toughness Medium to high service temperature Valid for interior furnishing Phenolic resin presents lower performance than epoxy resin except for the service temperature.

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EPOXY

PHENOLIC

OTHERS BMI can be blended with Epoxy. PEEK PEI are valid for injection.

General

Used for structural Not valid for interior

Valid for interior

Mechanical Properties Toughness Service Temperature

GOOD Medium to good Low to medium

Low to medium Low to medium Medium to high

Under research BMI PEI,PEEK Low high BMI PEI,PEEK High Medium

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EPOXY RESINS CHARACTERISTICS Adhesion Epoxies have high adhesion to metals, glass, and ceramics. they can be formulated to give mixes of low viscosity with improved wetting, spreading, and penetrating action. The variety of functional groups also provides good affinity between metals and plastics. For example, epoxies are in use for bonding of copper to phenolic laminate in printed circuits. Cohesion When the resin is properly cured, the cohesive strength within the glue line is so great, and adhesion of the epoxy to other materials so good, That failure under stress often occurs in one of the adherents rather than in the epoxy or at the interface. This happens with glass and aluminium as well as with weaker adherents such as concrete or wood. 100% Solids Unlike the phenolics and some other resinous adhesives, the epoxies cure without releasing water or other condensation by-products. This makes it possible to bond the epoxies at only contact pressures, or with no pressure at all. Also, since there is no water to remove and no volatile solvents, the epoxies are convenient for the assembly-line bonding of impervious surfaces such as metal or glass. Resistance to Moisture and Solvents Epoxies are insensitive to moisture. Their resistance to solvents is also outstanding and accounts for their rapid advance in the coatings field. They are effective barriers to heat and electric current. Low Shrinkage The epoxies cure with only a fraction of the shrinkage of vinyltype adhesives such as the polyesters and acrylics; consequently less strain is build into the glue line, and the bond is stronger. Also, the epoxy do not pull away from the glass fibres as polyesters do. The shrinkage can be reduced to a fraction of 1% by incorporation of silica, aluminum, and other inorganic fillers. Can be Modified The properties of epoxy adhesive can be changed by selection of base resin and curing agent, alloying the epoxy with another resin, or compounding with fillers. Can be cured at Ambient Temperatures Adhesives curing within 5 mm at room temperature or lower temperatures can be formulated by selection of special curing agents. Resistance to Wide Temperature Range Epoxies can be formulated for continuous service in high temperature environments (in excess of 500 F).

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THE MAIN DISADVANTAGES OF EPOXIES ARE: Toxicity Some epoxies and diluents are known to cause dermatitis. Some amina curing agents are toxic. Good housekeeping is the best preventive measure. The cured epoxies are not deleterious to health. Low Pot and Shelf-life Most two component adhesive formulations must be mixed shortly before use. Some film and tape adhesives must be stored at low temperature for extended life, partially offsetting their advantages of convenience and reliability. Moderate to High Cost Epoxies are not cheap; however, their cost in a thin bond line is hardly a factor in the overall cost of the assembled product in most industrial applications. The term epoxy resin usually refers to an intermediate molecule which contains at least two reactive epoxy groups. The most common epoxies used in adhesives are derived from bisphenol A and epichlorohydrin (bis-epiresins) and are usually cured with reactive hardener containing primary and/or secondary amine groups.

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SURFACE WETTING AND ADSORBTION Surface wetting is probably the most important thing for bonding. -Factors with positive effect on surface wetting: Removal of surface contamination Viscosity reduction through application of heat Viscosity reduction by solvent or diluent addition Time Pressure -Factors with negative effect on surface wetting: Fingerprints left on adherent surfaces Residues not removed from the adherent surfaces Glue lines not properly aligned Working at too low temperatures Wrong kind of surface pretreatment -Two important aspects for a durable adhesive joint are: Mechanical hooking Surface wetting Mechanical hooking, as illustrated below, takes into account that the adhesive must penetrate into cavities before cure, otherwise the entrapped air will reduce the strength of the adhesive joint. The smaller the contact angle the more the liquid spreads over the surface, and vice versa. A complete surface wetting should be expressed by a contact angle of = 0. The phenomenon of surface wetting is frequently expressed with the contact angle that is formed between a droplet of a liquid (adhesive) and a solid (substrate).

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Pretreatments for bonding When ever a bonding is to be carried out, the condition of the bond surfaces must be considered. They are likely to be contaminated with materials which would affect the performance of the joint. Surface preparation will normally be necessary. Surfaces are prepared by one of the following pretreatment procedures listed below. Degrease only. Degrease, abrade and remove loose particles Degrease and chemically pretreat. Care must be taken to avoid contaminating the surfaces during or after pretreatment. Contamination may be caused by fingerprints by cloth which are not perfectly clean by contaminated abrasives by sub standard degreasing or chemical solutions by other work processes taking place in the bonding area. Particularly to be excluded are oil vapours from machinery, paint and mould release agents from spraying operations. When the pretreatment has been carried out, it is good practice to bond the surfaces as soon as possible. Should the bonding operation be delayed, the surface properties may be preserved by priming the bond surfaces immediately after pretreatment. For normal work the removal of all traces of oil and grease from the surfaces to be bonded is essential.

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DREGREASING METHODS Suspend in halocarbon solvent vapour in a vapour degreasing unit. The unit may be include a compartment to enable initial washing in the liquid solvent. Immerse successively in two tanks each containing the same halocarbon solvent 1,1,1- trichloroethane. The first tank acts as a wash and the other as a rinse. Brush or wipe the joint surfaces with a clean brush or cloth soaked in clean halocarbon solvent. Allow the solvent to evaporate completely from the joint surfaces. Certain plastics and rubbers are attacked by trichioroethylene and 1,1,1trichioroethane. These materials may be degreased with isopropanol or detergent solution. Scrub the joint surfaces in a solution of liquid detergent, or, for metal only, immerse with a suitable alkaline cleaner. Wash with hot clean water and allow to dry thoroughly by using hot air. The principal halocarbon solvents are trichloroethylene and 1,1,1- trichloroethane. Trichloroethylene is the dominant halocarbon solvent for vapour degreasing. 1,1,1-trichioroethane is the standard halocarbon solvent for immersion and manual degreasing. Safety precautions must be observed where halocarbon are in use. 30

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THE WATER BREAK TEST The water break test is a simple method of determine wether the surface to be bonded is clean. It is best suited to metals. Apply distilled water to the surface. If the water film does not break up into droplets, the surface may be free of contamination. Uniform wetting of the surface by distilled water indicates that it will probably be likewise wetted by adhesive. It must be born in mind that certain plastics, even when clean, may not be wetted by distilled water but will be wetted by adhesive. ABRADING Light abrasion of the surfaces gives a better key to the adhesive than does a high polish. Freshly abraded surfaces usually have a better affinity for the adhesive. Abrasion treatment must be followed by a further treatment to ensure complete removal of loose particles. There are three methods in use Repeat the degreasing operation. Lightly brush with a clean soft brush. Blow with a clean, dry, filtered compressed air blast.

METAL SURFACES Remove surface deposits preferable by blasting with sharp grit. If a grit blast unit is not available or the metal is too thin to withstand blast treatment, then clean the joint surfaces with abrasive cloth or waterproof abrasive paper. Wetting the abrasive paper assists removal of contaminants and reduces dust. Dry if necessary and remove all loose particles. Surfaces coated with paint which does not offer high adhesion should be stripped; otherwise the strength of the joint will be limited. The surface preparation described above, i.e. degreasing alone or degreasing followed by abrasion and removal of loose particles, is sufficient for most adhesive work. But to obtain maximum strength a chemical or electrolytic pretreatment may be required. For example anodising of aluminium alloys. PLASTIC SURFACES Remove the surface layer of plastic surfaces to ensure elimination of all traces of release agent. As with metals, abrasion by grit blasting is in general a good method. The alternative is to use abrasive cloth or paper. After abrasion, remove all loose particles. Removal is best carried out by method 2 & 3 above. The use of degreasing liquids on certain plastics could affect the surfaces to be bonded.

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LAMINATES With wet lay up moulded laminates it may be possible to design the laminating process so that one layer of peel ply is placed at the surface to be bonded. The ply becomes part of the laminate on curing. Just prior to bonding, tear off the peel ply and the surface is ready for bonding.

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