Engine Cycles

- Thermodynamics Supplement Internal Combustion Engines

Independent Properties
Simple Compressible Pure Substance
(Absence of motion, gravity, surface, magnetic, electrical effects)

States are defined by 2 independent properties

Example Superheated vapor: any two of P, v, T define the state (P, v), (P, T), (v, T) Saturated liquid, saturated vapor are in diff state but at same P, T In a saturated state, Press & Temp are dependent Saturated state: the following would define the state but not (P,T) (P, v), (v, T) (T, x), (P, x)

P-V-T Behavior of Low- and Moderate-Density Gases

PV = nR T , Pv = RT Ideal gas eqn ( R = 8.3145 J/mol K ) n=m M PV = mRT , Pv = RT (R = R M )
Pv Compressibility factor: Z = OR Pv = ZRT Unity for ideal gas RT (See next slide) Reduced properties

Ideal gas can be assumed at low and moderate densities

(See next slide)

T P Tr = , Pr = Tc Pc
Cubic eqn of state

Generalized compressibility chart

RT a P= 2 v b v + cbv + db 2

T-v Diagram of water (Opt)

Compressibility Factor for N2 (Opt)

N2
Ex. 3.8, 9

Work done at the Piston

W = Fdx = PAdx
Adx = dV W = PdV
1

dV : + W : + dV : W :

W2 = W = PdV
1 1

Work done during the process from state 1 to state 2 Integral can be: 1. Graphically or experimentally evaluated OR 2. Analytical evaluated when the P-V relation is known

Graphical Approach to Find Work

Work = Area in a P-V diagram

1

W2 = PdV
1

The First Law of Thermodynamics for a Control Mass Undergoing a Cycle

During any cycle a system (control mass) undergoes, the cyclic integral of heat is equal to the cyclic integral of work.

Q = W

The First Law of Thermodynamics for a Change in State of a Control Mass

Consider different processes between two states

Q = W
A, 1 C 2 B 1

(Q W ) depends only on the initial and final

states not on the path.

dE = Q W E2 E1 =1 Q2 1W2

Energy = +in

out

Conservation of Energy
Energy is present in various forms
E = Internal Energy + Kinetic Energy + Potential Energy E = U + KE + PE Internal r r 1 KE = mV V , PE = mgZ Energy 2 U dE = dU + d ( KE ) + d ( PE ) = Q W

r r mV V dE = dU + d 2 + mgdZ
2

U u= m

Net change in energy of the system is exactly equal to energy transfer as work or heat

m(V2 V1 ) E2 E1 = U 2 U1 + + mg ( Z 2 Z1 )=1 Q2 1W2 2

2

Thermodynamic Property Enthalpy

Consider a constant-pressure process with negligible kinetic energy and potential energy
1 1

Q2 = U 2 U1 +1W2 Q2 = U 2 U1 + P2V2 PV1 1 = (U 2 + P2V2 ) (U1 + PV1 ) 1 = H 2 H1

W2 = P(V2 V1 )

Enthalpy

H = U + PV h = u + Pv

Const-Vol, Const-Press Specific Heats

Recap 1st law of thermodynamics
Q = dU + W = dU + PdV Q = dH VdP

Definition of specific heats at const volume/press

1 Q 1 U u Specific heat at Cv = = = const volume m T v m T v T v 1 Q 1 H h Specific heat at CP = = = const pressure m T P m T P T P

For solids and liquids, specific heat reduced to:

dh = du + d ( Pv) du + vdP dh du CdT
Little volume change

C = Cv = C p

In general, u = u (T , v)

U, H, Cv, Cp of Ideal Gases

However, u ~ u (T ) for a low-density gas

(Confirmed by steam table)

It is known u = u (T ) for an ideal gas Similarly, h = h(T ) for an ideal gas

h = u + Pv = u + RT

Specific heats for an ideal gas:

du Cv 0 = dT du = Cv 0 dT dU = mCv 0 dT

dh C p0 = dT dh = C p 0 dT dH = mC p 0 dT

Specific Heats of Ideal Gases

Specific heats for an ideal gas are also functions of temperature only like internal energy and enthalpy
Cv 0 = Cv 0 (T ), C p 0 = C p 0 (T )

Specific heats for an ideal gas are related as follows: h = u + RT dh = du + RdT C p 0 dT = Cv 0 dT + RdT
C p 0 = Cv 0 + R

The Inequality of Clausius: Second Law

The inequality of Clausius: Q T 0 It is a consequence of the 2nd law of thermodynamics The equality holds for reversible cycles The inequality holds for irreversible cycles

Entropy
Q
T

A Property of a System
1 Q Q + 2 T A T B

Consider reversible cycles between 1 and 2 For a cycle along A and B:

=0=

For a cycle along C and B:

1 Q Q T = 0 = 1 T C + 2 T B 2 Q 2 Q Q = 1 : 1 T A T C T rev 2

path independent

We can thus define a property entropy like

Q dS T rev S 2 S1 =
2 1

Q T rev

Entropy

A Property of a System

Entropy: Thermodynamic property Therefore, once entropy is obtained for a reversible process, the same entropy can be used for an irreversible as long as thermodynamic states are the same Zero entropy 1. All pure substances in the (hypothetical) ideal-gas state at absolute zero temperature have zero entropy 2. However, it is not practically easy to define zero entropy (or reference state) so an arbitrary state is chosen for zero entropy. Water: Saturated liquid at 0.01C Refrigerants: Saturated liquid at -40C

Entropy of a Pure Substance

Extensive property S Intensive property s (specific entropy) At saturation s = (1 x )s f + xsg
= s f + xs fg

Temperature-entropy diagram Enthalpy-entropy diagram (Mollier diagram)

Entropy Change in Reversible Processes

Consider a heat engine on the Carnot cycle 2 Q 1 Q2 Rev. isothermal S 2 S1 = 1 =
T rev TH

Isentropic

S3 S 2 = 0
4

*Isentropic = Rev. adiabatic

Q 3 Q4 Rev. isothermal S 4 S3 = 3 = T rev TL Isentropic S1 S 4 = 0

Wnet area 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 1 th = = QH area 1 - 2 - b - a - 1

and TL th Similar argument for a refrigerator (see text)
th

TH

Entropy Change in Reversible Processes

Consider a reversible heat-transfer process
1 2: The change of state from saturated liquid to saturated vapor at constant pressure Heat transfer = area 1-2-b-a-1

s2 s1 = s fg =

h fg q 1 q2 = = T T rev T

2 3: The change of state from saturated vapor to superheated vapor at constant pressure Heat transfer = area 2-3-c-b-2
2

q3 = q = Tds
2 2

Entropy Change of An Ideal Gas

Let s start with the Gibbs equation.
Tds = du + Pdv For ideal gas, du = Cv 0 dT

P R = T v

Cv 0 R ds = dT + dv T v 2C v2 v0 s2 s1 = dT + R ln 1 T v1

Similarly,
R ds = dT dP T P 2 C p0 P2 s2 s1 = dT R ln 1 T P 1 C p0

Method of integration 1. Constant specific heat 2. Functional form known 3. Tabulated Standard entropy 0 T C p 0
sT =
T0

dT

Entropy Change of An Ideal Gas

In an isentropic process, s2 s1 = 1
T2 P R ln 2 = 0 T1 P 1
R C p0

C p0 T

dT R ln

P2 =0 P 1

When the specific heat is constant, this equation becomes:

C p 0 ln

Ratio of specific heats is defined as

Cv 0 C p 0 Cv 0 R 1 k 1 = = 1 = C p0 C p0 k k
k

T2 P2 = T1 P 1 T2 P2 = T1 P 1

k=

C p0

k 1 k

T2 v1 P v = or 2 = 1 T1 v2 P v2 1 Pv k = const

k 1

Ideal gas equation

Reversible Polytropic Process for an Ideal Gas

Polytropic process: PV n = const = P1V1n = P2V2 n In a polytropic process for an ideal gas,
P2 V2 = P V1 1 T2 P2 = T1 P 1
2
n

n 1 n

V2 = V 1

1 n

1 W dV 1 2 = PdV = const n 1 1 V P V PV mR(T2 T1 ) = 2 2 1 1= 1 n 1 n

2

for n1