Animal viius:

- eveiything goes in
- once the viius gets in you uissociate
- una ieplication takes place in the host cell. Noie viial una is maue. Nina is
useu to make co piotein.
- The ina of the host is useu to make the viius

Bacteriophage:
- virus that attach bacteria

lysogenic cycle

lytic cycle
- takes a little piece of the host DNA
- the viral particles infect other bacterial cells


RNA virus:
- Capsid with glycoproteins around it
- The whole virus goes in
- Capsid and viral genome enters the cell
- The RNA virus acts as a template
- mRNA is made and is used to make glycoproteins
- the template makes mRNA that is used as a template to make another
RNA strand
- +rna when the nucleic acids of the virus puts rna but also
- -rna virus the
- leaves the host cell as a new virus

+ stranded:
Iife cycIe of retroviruses:
- HV is an example of a retrovirus
- Reverse transcriptase uses RNA template to make DNA
- HV enters the cell, it has reverse transcriptase
- Makes a DNA strand, used to make a complimentary strand
- 1. The dna can get inserted into the DNA of the host cell (immune system
T Cells, lymphose cells). Doesn't kill the cell
- 2. Doesn't get incorporated and instead starts making more RNA, which is
packed and kills the cell
- the number of T cells goes down.

2erging viruses of the 21
st
century
- pandemic: world wide
- epidemic: localize but then spreads around the world


est cycIe of west niIe virus
Is positive, which 2eans the nucIeic acid of the dna can used for the rna as
weII?

-oIa virus
s a minus single stranded RNA virus.
Used to make a plus stranded mrna
Causes internal hemorrhage

SARS
s a plus ssRNA

Avian FIu
-ssRNA virus
similar to the 1918 spanish flu

Viroids
- prions: infectious proteins
- virus
- viroids: an infectious bacteria

ancer
- unlimited cell division
- cancer characteristics are passed to progeny
- cancer cells can metastasize
- cell types are important

Ioss of contact inhi-ition
- density dependent inhibition
- cancer cells keep dividint
- normal cells will stop dividint when they are all together

2etastasis
- se van a otra parte del cuerpo

two cancer ceIIs
- -reast cancer:
4

- -rain cancer

For2s of cancer:
- carcinoma: the most common cancers. Breast, colon, prostate
- sarcomas: solid tumors in muscle and bone
- leukemia: leukocytes, white blood cells
- lymphoma: cancers of lymphocytes
Iung cancer**
- Asians have the Iower incidence of cancer

The ceII cycIe
- G1 G2 S interphase cell
- Different checkpoints where the cell functions normally. f the genes that
do the checks, have problems, mutations occur
- G2 checkpoint to see if the DNA is undamaged and replication is
successfully completed
- M checkpoint- all chromosomes are attached to mitotic spindle
- G1 checkpoint- cell is adequate size. Dna undamaged, and nutrients are
sufficient.

2 checkpoint
- two proteins: cyclin that goes up and down and cyclin CDK (cyclin
dependen kinase)
- cyclin increases and joins CDK to form MPF (mitosis promoting factor)
- the protein is phosphorylated and goes through mitosis
- then the cyclin is degraded and you go back to the normal cyclin levels
and go around again
- if too much cyclin is produced, too many cycles are being produced.

inase: puts phosphates on to activate CDK

1 checkpoint
- if a cell receives a go-ahead signal at the g1 checkpoint, cell continues to
the cycle
- if it doesn't, the cell exits the cycle

ffects of activated MPF
- activated MPF
- phosphorylates chromosomal proteins, initiate m phase, nuclear lamins,
microtubule proteins, mitotic spindle, helps degrade cyclin; concentrations
decline
-
Tu2or supressors: enable to stop things, act like a brake pedal. Unless you
have two bad copies, then you wont be able to stop. Tumor suppressor genes
are RESESSVE
- enes
O p53: important to function for us not to have cancer
- light comes in protein kinases put phosphates on one another until finally the
last phosphate is p53 p53 is now activated and is a transcription factor for
WAF-1 [produces a protein called p21 that inhibits the cell cycle

Proto oncogenes:
- oncogenes turn into proto ontogenes
- oncogenes are Dominant. All you need is one bad one

Multiple hits- multiple suppressors


TeIo2erase
s in germ cells, sperms
f telomerase doesn't shut off, cancer appears, they keep reproducing

ancer treat2ents
W Surgery
W Radiation Therapy
W Chemotherapy- poison that kills cells
W mmunotherapy
interferon proteins produced against viruses [limited success]
immunotoxins antibodies attached to toxins
interleukins signaling molecules secreted by
lymphocytes
W Gene Therapy- replacement of good genes with bad genes

ancer prevention
- Diet, weight, physical activity
-

http://www.thetruthaboutgardasil.com/tag/pap-smear/

Hor2ones

Negative Feed-ack
- cartoon of a thermostat
4 muestra un ejemplo de homeostasis. Tiene un set point, si la
temperature sube del set point se activa para mantener ese set
point
- a variable (temperature) turns a response and counteracts

Positive feed-ack: a variable triggers a response that amplifies the initial











inds of hor2ones:
ater soIu-Ie:
- modified aminoacids: increase metabolic activities
- peptides: produced by the pituitary important for uterine contractions and
retention of water in kidneys
- proteins: insulin- decreases glucose in blood and glucagon- increases
glucose in blood
Fat soIu-Ies- Iipids
- steroids: testosterone produce sperm and estrogen [secondary sexual
characteristics] and progesterone increase uterine lining
- modified fatty acids: contractions

Mechanis2s of hor2onaI signaIing:
Water soluble: [transcription factors]
A hormone is released from an endocrine gland into the blood (could be another
gland)
Works its way to a specific cell in an organ
When it gets there a signal receptor helps it through
Have a cytoplasm response or go to the nucleus
Never get in

at-soluble
The hormone is released from an endocrine gland and goes right into the cell
through the plasma membrane, because it goes through the phospholipid
membrane
A signal receptor helps it through or can get involved in gene regulation by
getting involved with this protein

Process:
ater soIu-Ie:
1. Reception: a signal molecule binds to the receptor
2. Transduction -- Signal transduction pathway [how the water soluble
hormones to it]
3. Response activation of cellular responses

Fat soIu-Ie
1. Reception-- phosphorylation cascade (putting phosphates on in a
sequence)
2. into the nucleus
3. transcription factors
4. response

-Protein-oupIed receptors
- 7 polypeptides wrapped around
- have a receptor, where the molecule attaches.
- Then there is the G-protein (coupled with the receptor)
- the molecule goes into the activated receptor, and is activated by GTP
[that is converted to GDP]

Receptor Tyrosine kinases
The receptor is an enzyme
The single molecule comes in, and the monomers come together and form a
tyrosine receptor
Forms to monomers joined together to form a dimer
Dimer then becomes phosphorylated
Each one of these phosphates are set up for a different response

cAMP as a second 2essenger
the molecule comes in and sticks to the g protein coupled receptor
gets activated by GTP and gets converted into camp and acts as a second
messenger and then through the phosphorylation cascade

how is caIciu2 ion used as second
2essengers?

Hor2ones of the HypothaIa2us and Pituitary
Example of negative feedback: The hypothalamus have neuro-secretory cells
producing hormones
f the water levels in the cell are low, ADH is released [although is produced in
the hypothalamus] into the blood and the kidneys.

Alcohol and caffeine inhibits the hormones so you cant reabsorb the water into
your cells

Oxytosin is positive feedback: milk release
Stimuluscauses the posterior pituitary