1

ADVANCE MANUFACTURING
TECHNOLOGY
UNIT I
Hot machining, Machining of Plastics, Unit heads, Plastics cooling, electro
forming, Surface Cleaning and Surface Treatments, Surface Coatings, Paint Coating
and Slushing, Adhesive Bonds, Adhesive Bond Joints, Adhesives, Surface Coating for
Tooling, Graphite Mould Coating, Vacuum Mould Process.
Introduction, Types of Composites materials, Agglomerated Materials, Reinforced
materials, Laminates, Surface Coated Materials, Production of Composite
Structures, Fabrication of particulate composite Structures, Fabrication of
reinforced Composite, Fabrication of Laminates, Machining, Cutting and
Joining of Composites.
UNIT II
Introduction, Polymers, Polymerization, Addition of Polymers, Plastics, Types of
plastics, Properties of Plastics, Processing of Thermoplastic Plastics, Injection
Moulding, Extrusion Process, Sheet forming processes, Processing of
Thermosetting Plastics, Compression Moulding, Transfer Moulding, Casting of
Plastics, Machining of plastics, other processing methods of plastics
Introduction, casting, thread chasing, Thread Rolling, Die Threading and Tapping,
Thread Milling, Thread Measurement and Inspection
UNIT III
Theoretical basis of metal forming, classification of metal forming processes,
cold forming, hot working, Warm working, Effect of variables on metal forming
processes, Methods of analysis of manufacturing processes, Open Die forging,
Rolling Power Rolling, Drawing, Extrusion.
UNIT IV
Introduction, Product Application, Limitation of Die Casting, Die Casting
Machines, Molten metal Injection systems, I lot chamber machines, Cold chamber
machines, Die casting Design, Design of Die casting Dies, Types of Die casting
Dies, Die design, Die material, Die Manufacture, Die Lubrication and Coating,
Preheating of Dies, Vacuum Die Casting, Recent trends In Die Casting Process.
Definition, Cost accounting or costing, Elements of costing, cost structures, Estimation of
cost elements, Methods of estimating, Data requirements of cost estimating, Steps in
making cost estimate, Chief factors in cost estimating, Numerical examples,
calculation of machining times, Estimation of total unit time.
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UNIT-I
Hot machining, Machining of Plastics, Unit heads, Plastics cooling, electro forming, Surface
Cleaning and Surface Treatments, Surface Coatings, Paint Coating and Slushing, Adhesive Bonds,
Adhesive Bond Joints, Adhesives, Surface Coating for Tooling, Graphite Mould Coating, Vacuum Mould
Process.
Introduction, Types of Composites materials, Agglomerated Materials, Reinforced materials,
Laminates, Surface Coated Materials, Production of Composite Structures, Fabrication of
particulate composite Structures, Fabrication of reinforced Composite, Fabrication of
Laminates, Machining, Cutting and Joining of Composites.
1.1 HOT MACHINING
A considerable percentage of the parts of up-to-date machinery are made of heat
resisting stainless steels, heat-resisting super alloys and similar materials. This is due
to the increased production of machines operating at high loads, pressures, speed and
temperatures, as well as in chemically active media.
The machining of work pieces of such materials, by conventional methods, is
extremely difficult and many cases, impossible. Very low cutting speed and feeds will
have to be employed, resulting in heavier loads on machine bearing and sides. Also, it
will be quite a problem to correctly select cutting tool materials, tool life or tool
geometry. Heat-resistant materials contain considerable amount of alloying elements,
have a tendency to weld onto the cutting tool, loose very little of their strength, even
when heated to temperatures as high as 800
o
C, have a very high shear strength,
combine high tensile strength with high toughness, are susceptible to considerable
work-hardening and have low thermal conductivity. All these features lead to the
development of high cutting forces, and temperature, and to intensive cutting tool
wear. In addition, the surface finish obtained in machining is poor. Consequently,
tools for machining heat- resistant materials should be very carefully sharpened and
lapped. Tool geometry should be properly selected.
To overcome these problems, entirely new machining methods have been developed.
Some of these : ECM, EDM and USM have already been discussed. The method of
Hot Machining basically consists of applying localized heat, ahead of cutting tool,
to reduce the shear strength of the work piece metal (thus improving its
machinability), and to permit the easy formation of the cutting chip. The chip is
usually produced in the form of a long smooth chip with lessened shock to the tool.
The application of correct amount of heat, in the required place, is of maximum
importance. Hence, the type of heat and its application needs to be studied with care.
Heating of the work piece also influences tool wear. Therefore, heating in the cutting
process improves machinability; when the increase in tool life, due to the reduction of
the work done in cutting, is greater than the detrimental effect of the high temperature
on the tool, leading to increase wear. It has been established that the temperature
interval in machining with heating of the work piece should be taken 35 to 40
o
C lower
than the temperature interval for annealing and aging.
The heating temperature depends upon the cutting speed and the rate of feed, since the
amount of heat generated in cutting increases with the speed and feed. Thus in truing
a particular grade of stainless steel, heating temperature is:
3
> 500
o
C at cutting speed of 19m/min
= 350
o
C at cutting speed of 300m/min
= 230
o
C at cutting speed of 375m/min
Advantages:
1. The process is economical and in many cases has reduced the operating costs.
2. Production gets increased.
3. Good surface finish can be obtained, superior to that obtained on these materials at
room temperature.
4. Little evidences any adverse micro structural change.
1.1.1 Heating devices: The work piece can be heated by various methods of
heating as high-frequency induction heating or electric arc heating devices mounted
on the carriage, by resistance heating with the application of an electric current in the
cutting zone, by flame heating, by Plasma arc heating. Sometime, the blank is
preheated in a furnace before being loaded into the machine tool.
1.2 UNIT HEADS
Basically a unit head is a power operated slide with provisions for advancing different
types of cutting tools to the component. Unit heads are mounted on Standardized
bases. A unit head consists of a cast iron body which houses the gears driven from the
motor to rotate the spindle. The body has longitudinal movement along the base
which is affected from the main motor through a lead screw and nut.
Fig 1.1 Unit Head
The idle motions are carried out with the help of a traverse motor and its electrical
brake. Depths of cut and various intermittent motions are controlled by a series of trip
stops secured to the head. While a dead stop can be used to ensure the accuracy of
cutter depth. The longitudinal movement of the head can be actuated also through the
rotation of a plate or cylindrical cam, or when required for arduous duties, by
hydraulic power.
The Unit Head has opened up avenues of multiple- operation machines for the
completion of components which would need a line of machine tools, each of which
would need to be fully tooled and manned. Also inter stage handling and storage has
been eliminated.
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It is possible to load one or more components and not to remove them from the fixture
on the machine until the completion of a wide range of operations. On the completion
of the machining of these parts, the heads can be dismantled from the bases, and these
with the bases, passed into stores until required for the machining of other
components. The Unit Heads have made considerable headway in the production of
medium to large- scale components.
Advantages:
1. Unit heads allow for maximum versatility.
2. They can be mounted and remounted in a variety of positions on standard
interchangeable bases.
3. High production rates, along with consistent high accuracy.
4. Number of handling times reduced.
5. Less floor space needed for machines and for spring.
6. Operators more fully employed.
7. Physical efforts of operators reduced.
8. Good economical recovery rate.
The unit head is available in a wide range of sizes. Power rating of driving motors
ranges from about 0.2kW to 22kW, with spindle speeds from 41 to 200 rev/min, and
with feeds of 0.025 to 3.50 mm/ rev.
Each unit head needs a control panel and such panels can be housed in separate
cabinets or enclosed within a standard base. When a machine setup includes several
heads, a combined control board can be enclosed within the framework of the base.
The majority of the unit heads are designed for boring, broaching, chamfering,
counter boring, countersinking, drilling, end milling, face milling, gage milling,
reaming, and sawing, shot-facing, tapping, thread rolling and turning. The front faces
of most of the heads are provided with means to allow the fixing of multiple-spindle
drilling heads, to permit the drilling of more than one hole simultaneously. The
versatility of drilling unit heads has been discussed under art.
1.3 PLASTIC TOOLING
Certain types of non-cutting tools are made nonmetallic materials including plastics.
The most common materials are epoxide resins, because of their better mechanical
properties (excellent properties when loaded in compression) than other plastic
materials.
Epoxide resins are more costly than any other tool material. But they are lighter then
other materials, being 1/4
th
weight of Zinc alloys and less than 1/4
th
weight of cast
iron. Also the cost saving due to the reduction in time and labour involved in marking
plastic tools outweighs the material cost. Other properties of plastics have been
discussed. Reinforcing with fiberglass can increase their tensile strength.
Epoxide resins can be poured, cast, laminated or moulded into intricate shapes with
negligible shrinkage and finish with a minimum amount of surface finishing.
Consequently, the greatest saving in cost is obtained with tools of complex shape, for
which the cost of machining and final finishing will be very high.
Compared with any of the tooling metals, plastics are soft and have a much shorter
life than comparable tools in steel. It is not economical, therefore, to use plastic tools
when: tool shapes are conventional, the component material is thick and quantities
and large. Faulty handling too can damage plastic tools, more easily.
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1.3.1 Applications:
Plastic tools are being used in many industries:
1. For drilling jigs, routing jigs and fixtures for assembling, brazing and welding. In
the majority of cases inserts are provided to prevent endure wear.
2. In plastic industry for the production of moulds for both thermosetting and
thermoplastic materials, for vacuum forming and for the injection blow moulding
of polythene products.
3. In foundries for the production of patterns and core boxes. The entry orifice of the
latter is normally fitted with a hardened steel insert to counteract the abrasive
affect of the blown sand.
4. Metal forming tools for drop hammers, hammers blocks multipart press tools,
piercing punch plates, rubber press tools, spinning chucks and stretch press
formers. Most of these tools can be given extra support by the inclusion in the
mould of metal or fiber glass frames or supports.
5. Plastic tool also offer many advantages where short runs and prototypes are
required or where a set of tools is required very quickly.
General tapers and blending radii assist in producing a strong tool. The thickness of
component metal should rarely exceed about 1.5 mm while radii less than 4.75 mm
are to be avoided.
The metal formed by plastic tools includes:
Aluminum alloys, brass and other copper alloys, mild steel, nimonic, stainless steel
and titanium.
1.3.2 Production of plastic tools: Plastic tools can be produced by two methods: by
Casting and building up reinforced layers of resin and glass fiber. The casting process
is used for the production of tools of large mass, such as forming dies and punches.
Selected fillers are added to the resin to reduce the cost of the mass and provide the
properties required in the tool. Inserts and supports can be embodied in the casting to
provide strength where required. Casting is least time consuming and the more
reproducible of the two methods.
1.4 MACHINING OF PLASTICS:
Plastic can be machined, but in most cases, machining of plastics is not required.
Moulding and forming methods can obtain acceptable surface quality and dimensional
accuracy. However, there are certain plastics like PTFE (Polytetra fluoroethylene)
which are sintered products and are not mould able by usual techniques, as they do
not melt. For such thermo stable plastics machining is a viable alternative to
moulding.
The machining of plastics (by operation such as turning, drilling and milling) has
special features due primarily to the structure of the material. It also depends upon
the binder upon the binder and the filler and the method of moulding the component.
For example, the machining of thermosetting plastics allows optimum cutting
variables and tool geometry to be employed because these do not soften on heating,
whereas thermoplastic resins soften under heat. The permissible maximum
temperature in the cutting zone is 160
O
C for thermo-setting resins and only 60
O
C to
100
O
C for thermoplastics.
Special features of the machining of plastics are:-
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1. The tendency of certain plastics to splitting.
2. High elasticity (40 times as much as that of steels). Therefore, they must be
carefully supported, to avoid their deflection during machining.
3. Non-homogeneous structure of the material, with components of different hardness.
This results in poor surface finish after machining.
4. Plastics have a strong abrading action on cutting tools.
5. Their low thermal conductivity results in poor heat dissipation from the cutting
zone and in over-heating of the cutting edges.
6. The intense dust formation, especially for thermosetting plastics, makes it
necessary to use special dust -removing devices.
7. The hygroscopic of plastics excludes the use of liquid cutting fluids. Compressed
air is commonly used for cooling.
8. Reinforced plastics are very difficult to machine.
Plastics can be machined with H.S.S. and cemented -carbide tools. In machining a
plastic material with a filler of glass, quartz or mica type, a satisfactory tool life can
be obtained only with carbide -tipped tools. Only diamond tools are suitable for
turning high-strength plastics of this type. The strength of cast parts of laminate
plastics is 40 to 50 percent less than that of the parts made by compression moulding.
Therefore, higher cutting speeds and feeds can be used in their machining than for
strong thermo-setting plastics. The main trouble in turning laminated plastics is the
peeling of the surface layer.
The cutting variables are also influenced by the life of cutting tool which is subject to
abrasive wear in machining most engineering plastics. Dulling of the cutting tool
leads to a poor surface finish and to breaking out of the material at the points the
cutting tools enters and leaves the cut. This makes it necessary to use more keenly
sharpened cutting tools for plastics. The need for sharp cutting edges follows from
the high elasticity of plastics.
The selection of cutting variables is also influenced by the low heat conductivity of
the plastics, since; in machining the tool may be within a closed volume (as in
drilling) with no cooling facilities. This may lead to charring of the machined surface.
The cutting tool angles for machining plastics are made somewhat different than those
of tools for ferrous and non-ferrous metals. The rake angles are positive and relatively
larger. Because of the visco elastic behavior of thermoplastics, some of the local
elastic deformation is regained when the load is off. Therefore tools must be made
with large relief angles (20
0
to 30
0
).
Abrasive machining of plastics has many advantages over machining with metal
cutting tools. These include the absence of splitting and crack formation, and the
better surface finish that can be obtained.
In grinding, the contact between the wheel and the surface being ground, should be as
short as possible, to avoid burns. Organic glass is commonly ground with coated
abrasive, applying an ample amount of water as a coolant. If possible, however,
grinding should be replaced by polishing with a felt, broadcloth or flannel wheel
charged with lapping paste, the process is known as Buffing. The buffing wheels
are of diameter 250 mm, 40 to 60 mm wide and of speed 2000 rev/min. Medium and
fine lapping pastes are used as the buffing compound for plastics. Laminate fabric
base, asbestos-fiber and glass -fiber laminate can be cut with abrasive wheels (SiC) of
grain size 24 to 46 and with a 5% emulsion as the cooling fluid.
1.5 ELECTRO- FORMING
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Electro-forming is a process of precision metal parts that are usually thin in section,
by electro-deposition on to a form which is shaped exactly to the interior form of the
product & which is subsequently removed
In the process, a slab or plate of the material of the product is immersed into
electrolyte & is connected to the positive terminal of a low voltage, high current d.c
power. So it becomes an anode. A correctly prepared mandrel or a pattern of correct
Shape & size is immersed at some distance from the anode &is connected to the
negative terminal. The mandrels are made from variety of materials both metallic &
non-metallic. If the material is non-conducting, a conductive coating must first be
applied to perform electroplating. The mandrel should poses mirror like finish. When
the circuit are closed metal ion are removed from the anode, transported from the
electrolyte towards the cathode and deposited there. After the deposition the master is
removed or destroyed. A metal shell is confirms exactly the masters. It may take
hours or day to deposit of sufficient thickness. The thickness of electroforms ranges
from0.25-25 mm. The processes very much simple electroplating with the diff. That
where is the electroplating, the deposit stays in place (on the cathode), in
electroforming, it is stripped from the form, the electroformed products are typically
from nickel, iron, copper, and more recently from copper-tin, nickel, cobalt and
nickel,
1.5.1 Advantages:
1. Low plant cost, cheap tooling & absence of heavy equipment
2. Low labor operating cost
3. The process can be designed to operate continuously throughout day and night
4. Electro deposition can produce good dens deposit, and compared with casting,
electroforming offers high purity, freedom from porosity with the homogeneous
structure these important quality are seldom obtained to such a degree in machine
parts, stamping or forging
5. There is no restriction the internal complexity of electro-forms and this
advantage eliminates in many instances, the costly joining processes.
6. The process has no equal for the reproduction of fine or complex details
7. The use of inserts has widened the application of the process. Metal inserts are
attached to or are embedded in a wax or fusible alloy master, &, when the master
is melted, the inserts remain attached to the electro-form.
8. A high quality surface finish is both obtained on interior &external surfaces of
the electro forms. Accuracies as close as .005 mm
9. complex thin walled parts can be produced with improved electrical
properties
10. Shell-like parts can be produced
11. Quickly &economically
1.5.2. Mandrels:
The mandrels, the mould or the matter, is the most expensive item in the process of
electro-forming. Mandrels can be made of several metallic &non-metallic materials
the metallic materials are aluminum, brass, and carbon steel. a common feature of
these mandrels is their oxide formation film which facilitates their separation from
electro form with out any surface treatment.
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Depending on shape of electro form mandrels are of three types-permanent; semi
permanent & expandable
1.5.2.1 Permanent mandrels
These mandrels are usually made of metals or glass or rigid plastics .the surface of
non-metallic mandrels is made conductive by metalizing by electro-forming or a
chemical deposition technique. For close tolerances work such as gear &gauges,
stainless steel is recommended. Such materials can be used indefinitely, with a
minimum treatment to preserve the smooth surface. Adhesion is minimized by the
application of thin coating of a parting compound
1.5.2.2. Semi-permanent mandrels
for straight sided components or components which have several cuts up to about .
013 mm, semi permanents mandrels are used .these are made of steel with fusible
coating, compounded usually made from wax &graphite .,to remove electro-form the
fusible layer is melted &after removal , mandrels is cleared & rebuilt
1.5.2.3. Expendable mandrels
For complex electro-form are made from
(1) Plaster, which after electro-forming are removed by breaking.
(2) Plastic resins &fusible alloys which are melted.
(3) Aluminum & zinc which are dissolved chemically
(4) Brass
Plastic resins are commonly used for decorative work where tolerances are wide
without undercuts. The surface finish of mandrels made from fusible metal alloys can
be removed by electroplating a layer of copper .025 to .050 this copper layer is
dissolved from electroform after fusible alloy is melted
1.5.3 Applications
1. Moulds & dies feature high in the list. Moulds for the production of artificial
teeth rubber 7 glass products, & high strength thermosetting plastics are now
commonplace. The moulds can be made with undulating parting lines which have
made a considerable impact upon the production of thermoplastic toys &
novelties.
2. Radar 7 electronic industries radar wave-guides, probes, complicated grids
screens 7 meshes can be produced easily
3. Spline, thread & other types of form gauges
4. Cathode for e c m & electrodes for E D M
5. Electro-formed core boxes with inbuilt heating elements.
6. Electro-formed precision tubing, parallel & tapered formed to different shapes
to eliminate the need for bending which the bore.
7. Electrotypes floats bellows, venturi tubes, fountain pen caps, reflectors, heat
exchanger parts honey comb sandwich, parts for gas appliances 7 musical
instruments, radio parts , filter & dies .
1.5.4 Electro-Forming Is Particularly Used For:
1. High cost metals
2. Low production quantities
3. Quantity of identical parts, for example a multi impression mould
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4. The possibility of using a single master for production of a number of electro-
forms
5. Where as intricate female impression is required, son that it would be much
easier to produce a male form
1.6 SURFACE CLEANING AND SURFACE TREATMENTS
During the manufacture of virtually all metal; parts, filling, fine metal chips , pieces
of chips , remnants of wastage or abrasive grit may get into holes or channels of
parts . Also oil, dirt, grease, scale, and other foreign materials remain affected to
the main part surface the purpose of surface cleaning &getting rid of all above
materials is two fold firstly they may get into holes or channels of part.
Subsequently, in operation finished goods they may be carried by lubricants into
the bearings, where they may lead to overheating & premature wear of the
bearing & even to breakdown of the whole machine. This can be properly
avoided by cleaning. Thorough cleaning of parts is essential for high quality of
their performance.
The second purpose of surface cleaning is to prevent corrosion, & to combine a
decorative appearance with protective coating. All metals will oxide & corrode, when
expose to certain environments, unless protected with an air thrust. Before application
of any protective coating, it is essential that the surfaces of the part be prepared by
proper cleaning to good adhesion. Various surface cleaning methods are:
1.6.1 CHEMICAL CLEANING METHODS
1.6.1.1 Alkaline Cleaning: In this method dipping them in aqueous solution of
alkaline silicates, caustic soda, or similar cleaning agents cleans parts. Some type of
soap is added to aid in emulsification. Wetting may be added to the solution to help in
thorough cleaning of the parts. The method satisfactorily removes grease &oil. The
cleaning action is by emulsification of oils & grease. Special washing machines are
employed in lot &mass production. Washing m/c may be of single, two or three
chambers types.
(a) In a single chamber washing m/c, washing chamber is equipped with a bank of
pipes with nozzles. A pump delivers the cleaning fluid, drawn up from main tank to
the pipes. The nozzles are arranged so that the part or unit is washed from all sides
simultaneously with powerful streams of fluid. The parts may be transferred in
washing machine by chain conyver. The cleaning fluid is heated by a steam coil of 60
to 80, & therefore parts ejected from the machine dry fairly soon.
(b) A two-chamber washing machine has two washing chambers. The parts are
cleaned in first chamber & then rinsed of washing solution in the second chamber.
(c) In three chamber machines third chamber is used for drying.
1.6.1.2. Solvent Cleaning: Small parts are cleaned of oils, dirt, grease, and fats by
dipping in commercial organic solvents, such as naphtha, acetone, carbon tetra
chloride. The parts are then rinsed once or twice in a clean solution of same solvent.
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The vapors of these solvents are toxic & therefore require ventilation. The method is
particularly suitable for aluminum, brass, lead, which are chemically active & might
get attacked by alkaline cleaners
1.6.1.3. Emulsion Cleaning: In this method of cleaning, the action of organic solvent
is combined with that of an emulsifying agent. The solvent is of generally of
petroleum origin & emulsifying agent, which are soap or a mixture of soap &
kerosene oil, include nonionic polyesters, high molecular weight sodium, amine salts
of alkyl aryl sulphonetes, acid esters of polyglycerides, glycerols & polyalcohols.
Cleaning is done either by spraying or dipping the metal parts in solution & then rinse
& drying. The method is suitable for parts & aluminium, lead or zinc while are
attached by alkaline solution
1.6.1.4. Vapor Degreasing: Vapor Degreasing is a similar process, except that the
solvent vapors are used as the cleaning agent. The solvent is heated to its boiling point
and the parts to9 be cleaned, are hung in its vapors. The vapor condenses on the
surface of the parts wash off the oil and grease.
1.6.1.5. Pickling: The process is used to remove dust or oxide scale from surface of
components. The parts are filled in a tank filled with an acid solution, which is 10 to
12% of sulphuric acid in water, & is at temp from 65 to 85 C. the solution acts to
loosen the hard scale from the components surface & removes it. The acid solution
should not react with metal while from the scale. For this an inhibitor agent is added
to9 the solution. Pickling process only removes oxide scale.
1.6.1.6. Ultra- Sonic Cleaning: Very dirty small parts, especially those of intricate
shape with hard-to-access inside surfaces, are difficult to clean in ordinary washing
facilitates. Such parts are cleaned much more efficiently by ultra sonic cleaning
method. The method is effected in three stages prelimary, ultrasonic, & rinsing of
parts in a clean washing medium (kerosene, trichloroethylene)
Ultrasonic energy is produced by a high frequency generator, which feeds high
frequency electric energy to transducers that transforms electric energy into inaudible
sound energy. The transducers are fixed to the bottom or the sides of a stainless steel
tank designed to afford the optimum acoustic conditions. High velocities are imparted
to particles of cleaning liquid in the tank. Cavitations bubbles of microscopic
dimensions are formed on the surface of the components. The cleaning action is done
by formation of bubbles, which practically blast all contaminants from all types of
components in seconds, penetrating every crack or crevice & removing all loose parts.
The cleaning liquid includes water, water based solutions, mild acid & caustic soda,
which are thermostatically controlled to operate at temp of about 45 C. The
effectiveness of this method is 99%.
Rinses are required in all cases to ensure through removal of cleaning agent before
coating. After being washed, machines parts are dried carefully. This is done by
compressed air.
1.6.1.6.1 ADVANTAGES
1. The process can be manned easily by trained labour.
2. The process reduces the time element.
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3. The process produces cleaner surfaces & eliminates many manual operations
& the quality hazards.
4. The cleaning of intricate assemblies after final assembly can reduce testing
time.
1.6.1.6.2 APPLICATIONS
The process can be used in all types of engineering factories, cafes, dairies, hospitals,
& hotels & by manufacturing jewellery. Components, which have been cleaned by the
process, include ceramics, cutlery, electronic equipment, machine tool equipment,
watch parts.
Other components, which need to be scrupulously cleaned, include air craft, ball race
assemblies, engine components, fuel gauges, gas turbines, gears, glass components,
hydraulic devices, jet engine parts, refrigerator parts, satellite components, & parts for
semi conductors, teliprinters parts.
1.6.1.7 Surface Polishing: Mechanical polishing of pressed or extruded metal
products & many such articles is by using a wide range of wire brushes or mops,
in conjunction with specially blended greases & oils the two non mechanical
techniques are chemical polishing & electrolyte polishing. Chemical polishing
has made greater advantages due to increased use of aluminum for a variety of
applications. Electrolyte polishing has made less progress, because it is more
expensive to install.
(a) Chemical Polishing
In the process, the metallic objects are immersed in bathtubs of selected acids. During
process certain amount of metal; mainly peaks are dissolved, producing a bright
surface with out the formation of etched pattern. For chemical polishing of aluminum
alloys the most successful of the solution used contain phosphoric, nitric acid,
sulphuric acids. Production cycle consist of following steps
(1) Immerse for 1 to 3 min at 100 C.
(2) Remove & rinse in hit water to remove the viscous film formation.
(3) Rinse in a mixture containing equal amount of water & I, 42 sp. Gr. Nitric acid at
Room Temperature
(4) If anodizing required, rinse in cold water.
(5) If lacquering is called for, rinse in cold water
The resultant surface finish is of order of .45 to .50 with a high reflection factor of
88%.
1.6.1.7.1 ADVANTAGES
1. The process is comparatively cheap, with low operating cost
2. The equipment has along life.
3. It is very suitable for delicate, thin walled, embossed.
4. Both the inside & outside surfaces are cleaned easily
5. The process can be combined with barrel polishing to reduce time & cost.
6. The process can be included in aluminum anodizing cycle
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7. Improved reflectivity usually is obtained.
(b) Electrolyte Polishing
The principle of electrolyte polishing is the same as that of ECM. a surface layer of
the work piece is removed by anodic dissolution of the metal , leaving the component
with a highly polished surface . This depleting process is known as
ELECTROLYTE POLISHING
When a metallic component is immersed in electro polishing electrolyte, the current
line leads from surface peaks, tangentially, causing a higher current density on the
peaks than on valleys. Thus greater metal dissolution takes place on peaks to take
smoother surface than on valleys. This viscous film protects the micro valleys from
the action of current but permits minute peaks to dissolve. The rate of metal removal
is 3 to 10 microns.
A wide range of metals & alloys can be electro typically polished, but the main
industrial uses of the process are for polishing of alloys & stainless steel, copper
alloys, nickel, & aluminum alloys.
1.7 CLEANING AND FINISHING OF FORGINGS
1) Removal of oxide scales: A thin layer of scale which is caused by contact of
heated steel with air is formed on surface of steel forgings. Amount of scale depends
upon the forging temperature & length & time of operation. The simple way to
remove the scale is by employing steam or compressed to blow away the scale.
2) Cleaning by pickling: Process is used to remove hard scale from surface of
forging. It consists of immersing the forgings in a tank filled with an acid solution,
which is 12 to 15 % concentrate of sulphuric acid in water. The acid solution should
not react with clean metal while removing the scale. For this an inhibitor is added to
solution.
3) Tumbling process: Process is used to remove the scale & for general cleaning of
the forgings. The forging along with abrasive materials such as coarse sand or small
particle is placed in barrel. The tilted barrel is rotated at low speed s. the forging &
abrasive roll over themselves. This action loses the scale from surface of forging &
removes it along with affecting a general cleaning of forging.
4) Blast cleaning: Process consists of directing a jet of sand, grit or metallic shots
against the forging. The blast force is obtained from compressed air or centrifugal
force through suitably designed apparatus. This process removes the scale & a smooth
surface finish is imparted to the forging.
1.7.1 CLEANING AND FINISHING OF CASTING
After casting is solidified & cooled down sufficiently in an expandable mould, the
first is freezing the casting from mould. The operation is called as SHAKE OUT
OPERATION since a great deal of heat & dust are involved in this operation, the
operation is usually mechanized. Shake out is usually done by means of vibratory
13
knockouts, jolting grids & vibrators. The mould is intensively jolted & broken up.
After shaking the casting out of mould, it is conveyed to the fettling shop for cleaning
and finishing. The process consists of following operations core removal, cleaning
of surfaces, and removal of gates, risers & fins.
1) CORE REMOVAL OR CORE KNOCKOUT: This operation is also done
manually. Hampering & vibrations will loosen & breaks up cores. Stationary 7
portable vibrators are employed for this purpose. To knockout from heavy engines, it
is disadvantages to use air drills. Removal of cores by hydro blasting is more sanitary
process keeping in view dust problems. The operation consists of breaking up &
washing out the cores with a jet of water delivered at a pressure of 25 to 100 mm.
2) CLEANING OF SURFACES: The process involves the removal of all adhering
sand &oxide layer & produces a uniformly smooth surface. Mechanical methods are
employed for this purpose, since cleaning by hand with wire brush is tedious & costly.
I) Tumbling: This method is used for cleaning & light casting. The Castings are
loaded into a tumbler or barrel along with white iron picks. Rotation of barrel causes
casting & jack stars to tumble. Jack stars abrade the surface of casting &also abrade
surface of one another. This operation removes adhered sand & oxide scale from the
surface of the casting. The rotational speed of barrel is 30 rev/min.

Ii) Sand Blasting and Shot-Blasting: This method is widely used to clean surfaces of
light, medium & heavy castings. In these machines, dry sands or shots is blown by
stream of compressed air against the surfaces of casting. The impact of abrasive
particles traveling at a high speed, on the surface removes adhering sand & oxide
layer. Velocity of abrasive particles leaving the nozzle of m/c ranges from 35 to 75
m/s & pressure 0.7 MPA
iii) Airless Shot Blasting: In this shots are hurled on the surface of casting by a fast
rotating paddle. For harder castings, the shots are made up of white iron, steel,
whereas for softer non ferrous castings, these are made up of copper, bronze, glass or
mild iron,. The wheel rotates at 1800 to 2500 rev /min. The velocity of shots striking
the surface is about 60 to 72 m /s.
Iv)Hydro Blasting: This is most effective surface cleaning method. Here two
operations are accomplished simultaneously core knockout & surface cleaning.
Casting are placed on a rotary & stationary table & high velocity jets containing about
15% sand & 85 % water under a pressure of 10 to 20 mpa . The jet velocity can be up
to 100 m/s.

v) Removal of Gates and Risers: Gates, runners, risers, and spure can be removed
before or after cleaning operations. In brittle materials, these are simply broken off
from the castings. in more ductile materials , following the following methods are
used to remove them power hacksaws , band saws , disk type cutting edges , abrasive
cut of edges , flame cutting with an oxyacetylene cutting torch & arc cutting for heat
resistant steels which are not amiable to gas cutting .
14
vi) Powder Cutting: Process by which risers & gates can be easily removed from
castings made of oxidation resistant alloys. Preheated iron powder is introduced in
oxygen stream. This burning iron then attacks the metal riser by a process of fluxing
& oxidation.
vii) Some minor defects defected may sometimes be repaired by welding without
affecting the function of finished castings.
viii) Finished castings are subjected to various heat treatments to modify mechanical
properties or reduce residual stress.
1.8 SURFACE COATING:
The various surface coating on machine parts are used for protective, decorative, wear
resistant and processing purpose. The different types of surface coatings used for this
purpose are: metallic coatings, phosphate coatings, oxide coatings and plastic coatings
etc.
1. Electro deposited coatings: This process of coating also known as
electroplating, comprises preparation of the surface to the plated, plating itself, and
degreasing of the surface. The part to be electro-plated is made the cathode and the
metal to be deposited is made the anode and both are placed in a tank containing an
electrolyte. The process is carried out at a voltage of 10 V (D.C.) and current density
of upto 10A/dm. When the circuit is closed, metallic ions from the anode migrate to
the cathode and get deposited there. Some characteristic of electrodeposited coatings
as given below:
a) Copper plating: Used for masking of steel parts from carbonization a case of
hardening heat treatment, plating for improved running- in of plated surfaces as an
under layer for multi-layer coatings. Coating thickness: 5 to 25m.
b) Chrome plating: Wear resistant protective and decorative coating. It result in
improved retention of lubricant and lower co-efficient of friction. Coating thickness:
30 40m.
c) Cadmium plating: Coating for protection against corrosion of steel in moist
atmosphere (marine corrosion) and for improved running in of mating surfaces.
Plating thickness: 15 m.
d) Nickel plating: Undercoat of chrome, corrosion protection for steel, wear qualities
and for decoration. Plating thickness: upto 25m.
e) Lead plating: Resistance to chemical corrosion.
f) Zinc plating: Low- cost protection of steel and iron against atmosphere corrosion
and fro decoration. Plating thickness: upto 15m.
g) Silver plating: Electrical contacts. Good anti galling and seizing qualities at high
temperature. Plating thickness: 2.5 to 12.5m.
15
h) Tin plating: Coating for protection against weak acidic media, non-toxic
protection in food, for subsequent soldering and for masking in nitriding. Plating
thickness: 3 to 12m.
i) Gold plating: Infrared reflectors, electrical contacts, jewellery.
j) Borating: High hardness coating.
k) Lead-indium plating: Electro-deposit of lead on a silver plated surface followed
by indium plating forms a satisfactory bearing surface.
l) Phosphating: Anti-corrosive coating. Plating thickness: 0.5 - 1m.
m) Brass plating: Brass plating is frequently used as a base for bonding rubber and
rubber like materials to the metal. It improves appearance, provides soldering surface,
which is abrasive resistant. Since brass tarnishes (it is satin yellow to bronze initially
and when turns to black to green on exposure), it must be covered with lacquer, when
used for decorative purposes. Brass plating is used on steel, zinc aluminium, and
copper plate.

1 8.1 Electro-less plating: The method of plating differs from the conventional
method of plating that is electro-plating, in that no external source of electricity is
used in the process. The plating is obtained with the help of chemical reaction. For
example, for nickel plating, a metallic salt of nickel, nickel chloride is reduced with
the reducing agent, such as sodium hypophosphate. Nickel metal so obtained is
deposited on the work piece. Nickels are two most commonly used metal, for this
process.
1.8.1.1 Advantages:
1. This process can be used for plating non-conducting materials such as plastic
and ceramics.
2. This process does not produce hydrogen embitterment.
3. Cavities, recesses and inner surface of tubes can be plated successfully.
4. The coating has excellent wear and corrosion as compared to electro-plating.
1.8.1.2 Disadvantages
The process is costlier as compared to electro-plating. Some times; some portions of
the base of a work piece are not to be electro-plated for decorative purpose or for the
sake of economy. This is known as blacking out. For this the complete base is
prepared for electro-plating. The base is heated to 100c. Paraffin wax is applied to
the portion to be black out and then the work piece is completely cooled. After that
the electro-plating is carried out.
Electro-plated parts are usually dull and posses little or no metallic luster. To provide
finish, shine and luster to the electro-plated parts, mops and compos finish them.
The mop should be moved slowly over the surface to avoid removal of any portion of
electro-plated layer, the final finish/colors be obtained by mopping with chalk.
Compos, which contain abrasive, should not be used with soft metals.
16
1.8.2. Phosphate coating: A coating for steel as a preparation for painting, adhesive
bonding or rust proofing. The process involves the chemical development of a film,
which contains ferrous insoluble phosphate of manganese and ferrum, or ferrum and
zinc, by treatment with a dilute acid phosphate solution. Depending on the phosphate
structure and the method of surface preparation, the phosphate film may be from 2 to
15 m thick. A rapid phosphating process is known as bonderizing. Phosphate
coating can also be used for non-ferrous and light metals.
1.8.3. Oxide coating: Oxide coating of steel parts is done for decoration, rust
proofing and to obtain low friction surface. The coating is obtained by thermal,
chemical and electro-chemical methods.
The thermal method involves heating the part in air, steam or molten nitre. An oxide
film 1m thick is formed on the part surface: the film color varies with the process
temperature. Heating in the air serves to form thin oxide films on electrical
components.
The chemical methods include alkaline and acidic oxidation. In the first method steel
parts are treated with a hot concentrated solution of caustic alkali containing oxidants.
In the second method, solution contains ortho-phosphoric acid and oxidants. The
acidic oxidation is much quicker as compared to alkaline oxidation and provides a
stronger oxide film with improved corrosion resistance. The oxide films on steel parts
are (0.8 - 3m) and porous, and therefore do not reliably protect the parts from
corrosion. Their corrosion resistance can be increased by subsequent varnishing.
The chemical methods are used to oxidant parts made of aluminium, manganese
copper, zinc and their alloy. The field of the process application is the manufacture of
instruments, tools and consumer goods.
Electro-chemical oxidation of the parts is made of ferrous and non-ferrous metals and
alloy is carried out in solutions of caustic alkali. The parts being processed form an
anode. The process runs at lower temperature and requires less chemical agents than
the chemical alkaline oxidation. Prior to treatments of parts, these are cleaned of
corrosion spots and degreased, and after oxidation they are rinsed in water. Decorative
oxidation takes from 30 to 40 min; corrosion resistant films require upto 1.5 2
hours for their formation.
1.8.4. The coating of nickel cobalt, zinc- cadmium and tin lead is obtained by
methods, which are called thermo electro- plating or thermo-diffusion. The latter
consists in that individual metals are successively deposited on the parts and in the
course of subsequent heating these diffuse and form plating of some alloy. Nickel
cobalt plating increases hardness, zinc-cadmium plating upgrades corrosion resistance
and tin-lead plating reduces porosity and improves appearance.
1.8.5. Plastic coating: Plastic is used as decorative, anti-corrosive, and anti-friction
coatings. These are applied in liquid and powder form. The primary materials used are
thermo-plastics such as: polyethylene, polypropylene, polyamide, polyvinyl butyral,
polyurethane, fluroplastic and caprolactum etc. these are used in form of fine powders
which on heating. Change to plastic state. The coast thickness ranges from 0.15 to
0.35 mm. before coating the parts are heated to 180- 300c depending on the plastic to
be used. The treatment itself lasts from 2 to 5 s. plastic coating makes it possible to
use carbon steels or non-ferrous metals.
17
1.8.6. Metallization: Metallization means spraying molten metal with the aid to
compressed air. The metal particle moving at a speed of 100 to 150m/s strike the
surface of a part being coated and adhere to it, thus forming a layer of strong, finely
porous metal coating. The layer has a fairly high compressive strength, even though it
is brittle. The coating thickness varies from a few hundredths of an mm to 3-4 mm.
parts after being coated can be turned and ground. The method is used to obtain
decorative, protective, antifriction and heat-resistant coatings, to restore worn out
parts and correct defects of castings. The metal being sprayed is melted OA flame
(gas metallization) or by electric arc (electro-metallization). The initial material is
metal wire. Sometimes uses are made of equipment operating on metable powders.
The surface to be coated is cleaned of oil and oxides. Sand blasting and rough turning
is employed for better adhesion of the metal being sprayed to the surface.
1.8.7. Anodizing: Anodizing or anodic coating is a process of providing corrosion
resistant and decorative films on metals, particularly aluminium. The process is the
reverse of electro-plating, in that the part to be coated is made anode, instead of
cathode, as in electro-plating. When the circuit is closed, a layer of aluminium oxide
is formed on the anode (aluminium) by the reaction of aluminium with the electrolyte.
The layer of aluminium oxide on the surface is highly protective.
There are two process used for anodizing.
1.8.8) Chromic acid process: In this process, 3% solution of chromic acid is made as
the electrolyte at a temperature of about 38C. This process is applicable only to those
aluminium alloys containg not more than 5% copper or a total alloy content of more
than 7%. The process produces a light yellow colour.
1.8.9) Sulphuric acid process: The electrolyte is 15 to 25% solution of sulphuric
acid. The process is applicable to aluminium alloys containg more than 5% copper or
a total alloy content of more than 7%. The process produces a light yellow colour.
This process shall not be applied to parts having joints or recesses in which solution
may be retained. Normal anodized coatings are 0.0050 to 0.0075 mm thick.

1.8.10) Hot- dip coatings: Many metal parts are used for making food containers due
to the non-toxity of tin. To remove the excess tin, the sheets are passed through rollers
after these come out of the bath.
(i) Zinc coating: Giving a coating of zinc is called Galvanizing. One method of
doing so is by electro-plating. In the hot dip method, the parts or steel sheets are
fluxed by immersing them into a solution of zinc chloride and hydrochloric acid.
After that they are dipped into a molten zinc bath. Again, to remove excess zinc, the
sheets are passed through rollers after they leave the bath. Galvanized steel sheets
(and more recently, also one sided galvanized sheet) find increased use in automotive
and appliance industry in addition to their use for roofing.

(ii) Lead coating: Load- coated sheet provides anticorrosion properties in some
media. Where tin coated and zinc coated sheets can not resist corrosion. However,
lead coated sheets cannot be used for food applications, because lead is toxic. An
alloy of 15% to 20% tin and the remaining lead can also be used for this coating. Lead
coating method is also called terne coating.
18
(iii) Aluminum-coating: Aluminum coated sheets can resist corrosion by hot gases.
Due to this, these are suitable for heat exchanges, automotive exhaust systems and
grill parts etc.

1.8.11. Conversion coatings: These are the coating produced when a film is
deposited on the base material as a result of chemical or electro-chemical reaction.
Many metals particularly steel, aluminium and zinc can be conversion coated. The
coatings can be phosphate coatings, chromate coatings oxalate coatings. After
degreasing and cleaning in alkali, the part is soaked in suitable acid bath, for example,
for chromate coatings, in chromic acid bath.
Conversion coatings are obtained for corrosion protection, prepainting and decorative
finish. Another important application of this coating is as a lubricant carrier in cold
forming operations, such as wire drawing.
Oxides that form naturally on the surface of metals are a form of conversion coating.
Oxide coatings discussed above and also anodic coatings fall under the category of
conversion coatings.
19
Bicycle wheel rim plating plant process chart
The rims are loaded on the fixture. The fixture can carry upto twenty rims at a time
and after the loading is done, the robot is switched on which takes control of the
whole process. The rims undergo various processes before being unloaded for use in
body assembly shop. The various process of electroplating of the rims is as in the
table below:
Table 1.1 Various process of electroplating
S.
No.
Process
sequence
Chemical concentration Temperature
(Deg. Celsius)
Density
(Deg. Be)
Checking
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
Kerosene oil
cleaning
Abrasive
cleaning
Water rinse
Soak cleaning
Water rinse
Electro cleaning
Water rinse
Acid dipping
Water rinse (1)
Electro cleaning
Water rinse (ii)
Acid dip
Water rinse (ii)
Acid dip
Water rinse (ii)
Semi-bright Ni
plating(ii)
Tri-Nickel
plating
Bright Nickel
plating
Drag out
Water rinse (iii)
Chrome plating
Drag out
Drag out
Water rinse (iv)
Unloading of
the rim
M.T.kerosene oil 100%
Surclean-504-70-80cc/lit.
NAON-80-100-80 ltr
Running water
Steelex 80-10gm/ltr
Running water
Ginbond- 808
80-100gm/ltr
Running water
HCI 30-40%
Running water
Ginbond- 808
80-100gm/ltr
Running water
Sulphuric acid 10-15%
Running water
Nickel sulphate
250-300gm/ltr
Nickel sulphate
250-300gm/ltr
Nickel sulphate
250-300gm/ltr
D.M.water tank
Running water
Chromic acid
275-325gm/ltr
D.M.water tank
D.M.water tank
Running water
Room
60-80
Room
60-80
Room
60-80
Room
Room
Room
60-80
Room
Room
Room
45-55
45-55
45-55
Room
Room
40-50
Room
Room
Room
-
8-10
-
8-10
-
8-10
-
8-10
-
8-10
-
8-10
-
18-25
18-25
18-25
-
-
24-30
-
-
-
Once daily
Once daily
-
Once daily
-
Once daily
-
Once daily
-
Once daily
-
Once daily
-
Once daily
Once daily
Once daily
Once daily
-
Once daily
Once daily
Once daily
-
Nickel plating: is done as a protective coating as it has excellent adhesive properties
which form good base fro chrome plating.
Chrome plating is corrosion resistant and also enhances the looks of the component.
20
1.9 PAINT COATING & SLUSHING:
Metals parts are painted to protect their surfaces against corrosive action of
surrounded medium & also to improve their appearance. The process of coating with
paints & varnishes is carried out on 3 stages:
1. Preparation of the surface to be coated.
2. Painting.
3. Drying with finishing.
Preparation for painting consists in cleaning & degreasing surfaces. The surface so
prepared is then primed for better adhesion of the subsequently deposited coating. Use
is made of oil varnish, oleo vituminous, water-soluble & nitro soluble primers. The
prime surface is then trited with a filter, whose layer should be as thin as possible. Oil
varnish filters & quick drawing proxylin filter are commonly used. The clearance
surfaces are painted & the preparation for painting consists in cleaning and degreasing
the surfaces, priming, luting, and smoothing down the luted surfaces with emery
clothe.
1.9.1 METHOD OF PAINTING:
Following are the methods of industrial painting:
a) Brush painting: the brush painting is used in piece & small lot production. It is
done by hand & is slow cumbersome method, where quick drawing paints are used.
The method requires minimum of eq. But max. Of labour. The point losses are upto
5%.
b) Spray painting: The method consists in applying fluid paint in the atomized form.
This method is the most common & productive, but requires premises equipped with
exhaust devices & spraying eq. There are various ways of painting:
i) Mechanical spraying: in this method paint is delivered to spray gun by pump.
ii) Air spraying: the paint I sprayed by jet of compressed air, which carries the paint
mist to the surface being painted. The method is capable of coating 30-80 mt sq. Of
surface/hour but losses is high 40-50%.
iii) Airless spraying: in this method paint heated to 70-90C IS FORCED through a
nozzle at pressure of 2-4 n/mm sq. the production rate can be 50-200mtsq. Of
surface/hour & paint losses are amt. to 25-50%.
iv) Electrostatic spraying: in this method a negative charge delivers paint, which
gets on to the surface of charge metal part being painted. The charging is provided by
high voltage const. current source. Setting up metal screens behind the parts can also
use the method for non-metallic parts. The paint losses are less than 5%. The method
makes it possible to improve working condition to provide for fairly high
productivity.
c) Dip coating: this coating is used in automatic production. The method consists in
dipping the parts suspended from chain conveyor, in bathtub. The method is used in
large lot and mass prod. For painting parts of simple shape. The paint losses are 5%.
21
1.9.2 ADHISIVE BONDS
Adhesive joints can be made by applying adhesive in thin layer b/w the connected
parts. They are fastening metallic as well as non-metallic (textile laminate, foam
plastic) materials.
1.9.2.1 ADVANTAGE: -
(1) Reliable connection of parts made of very thin sheet materials.
(2) Dissimilar metal can be joining.
(3) The process is used to reduce production cost
(4) It ism used to lessen the mass of parts.
(5) Highly skilled labor is not required to bonding.
(6) The process provides for tight and corrosion free joints.
(7) Smooth bonded surface.
(8) Exterior surface remain smooth.
(9) Only low temp are involved so absence of stress or their lower
concentration.
(10) Heat sensitive material can be joined easily without any
damage.
(11) Complex assemblies can be at low cost.
(12) Adhesive contribute towards the shock absorption and vibration.
(13) It can tolerate the thermal stress of different expansion and contraction.
(14) Because the adhesive bonds the entire joint area, good load distribution and
fatigue resistance are obtained.
(15) The joints are sufficiently strong in shear and with stand with dynamic
and variable load.
(16) Compared to welded soldered and riveted joints, adhesive bonded parts have
uniform spread stresses and do not tend to warp.
(17) The process is very fast.
1.9.2.2 DISADVANTAGE: -
1. Comparatively low operational temp. (Maximum up to 100c fort most
adhesive).
2. Low resistance to tear off.
3. Reduce strength of some adhesive in the course of timing (ageing).
4. Tendency to creep, if subjected to long-standing and heavy load.
5. The need of extended polymerization time.
1.9.2.3 APPLICATION: -

Adhesive have particular develop in air craft industry: the appearance of honeycomb
structure is due to this method. The method is used in uncritical structure such ask
control surface in aircraft body. In machine tools, adhesive are employed to bond
carriage-guide ways to beds, and in automobile industries to fasten the friction lining
to clutch- disk brake bands. Adhesive bonds are also used in appliance and c
consumer goods fields and also sealing, vibration damping and insulating etc.
22
1.9.3 ADHESIVE BONDED JOINTS: -
Adhesive-bonding of is affected on following types of surfaces:-
(1) In cylindrical type of surfaces, for example, placing bushings into the holes in
the housing types and parts discs onto the shafts, coupling pipes together, fitting
plugs and fastening lining to brake blocks.
(2) On flat surface, for example, lap-type joining of sheet parts with one or two
straps and so on.
Typical adhesive bonded joints are shown in figure: -
Fig. 1.2 Main type of adhesive bonded joint
The strength of joints is dependent on the amount of clearance it which is normally
kept at 0.05 to1.5mm.with increased clearance the strength of joints decreases, as the
length of overlapping is increases the force need to break down teethe joints increases
asymptotically approaching a certain limit. Surface rough ewes of the parts bonded
should be held to within 6.3 to 1micro meter. Increase in curing time has a favorable
effect on the strength of adhesive-bonded joints. With cold curing the strength grows
continuously over a long period of time, the strength of bonded with old curing
adhesive increases if the polymer process is accompanied by heating. Heating also
greatly reduces the curing time.
1.9.3.1 Making an Adhesive Bonded joints
An adhesive-bonding process comprises the following steps:
(1) Preparation of part surfaces.
(2) Preparation and application of the adhesive.
(3) Assembly of parts under a pressure of determined by the grade of adhesive.
(4) Heating of assembly product.
23
Fig. 1.3 Hand Pneumatic Injector
The surface to be bonded must be cleaned and degreased. Cleaning is done with
wiping wastes, brushes or in sand blaster. The substance used for degreasing is:
acetone, trichloroethylene, carbon tetra chloride and other organic solvents.
Aluminum alloys parts are prepared by pickling, where necessary the surface to be
joined is machined to obtain a surface finish to provide a better holding if the
adhesive.
Adhesive are prepared in special polychloroethylene or metallic containers; the will
be chrome plated or varnish with silicone. Hot curing adhesive can be stored in
container for a long time. Cold curing adhesive are prepared just before the uses there
pot life is30 to 40 min.
The method of application on an adhesive is depending upon its viscosity. Liquid
adhesive, tat can be applied with brushes and sprays are uses most commonly. Some
grades of adhesive are convenient to apply with spatulas, roller or injectors.
The adhesive can be spread in a thin layer (0.1 to 0.2mm) with a bristle brush or a
spatula. To prevent frothing the adhesive must be applied moving the brush in one
direction.
In hand pneumatic injectors, compressed air is supplied through an inlet connection.
The air extrudes the piston by means of piston through nozzle having a dia. of 1mm.
After the application of adhesive the parts are assembled in special fixture and
clamped by means of lever mechanism, spring or pneumatic clamping devices.
Clamping force must ensure a unit pressure of 0.05to 1MN/m2.
Lastly heat is heat is effected in cabinets equipped with electric or gas heater. The
heating temp. and the curing temp depend upon the composition of adhesive for
intake a heating temp. of 150 to 160 c and a curing time is1.5 h is needed for a cold
curing adhesive base on epoxy resin. For a hot curing adhesive based on epoxy resin,
a curing time of 3 to 4h at 150 to 160 or 1.5 to 2h at180 to 190c is recommended.
Adhesive should be chandelled very care fully as their constituents are toxic. The
work therefore should be done with gloves on, under proper exhaust ventilation.
1.9.4 ADHISIVES: -
There is large variety of adhesive available for bonding with metal and metal with
non-metallic materials. They can be classified into the following main group:
(1) Adhesive Based On Epoxy Resins: -
The available epoxy resin based adhesives are both cold and hot curing. These are
used to cold and hot joining of metal ceramics plastic wood and other material.
In cold curing adhesive a curing element such polythene polyamide
98 to10 parts by mass) or hexamethyldiamine (20 parts by mass) is added to 100parts
by mass of resin. Maleic anhydride (40 parts by mass) is added as a curing agent to
the resin in making hot curing adhesive. There various epoxy resin are used as given
below with the curing given within the brackets: -
Epoxy (room temp. cure, 16to32c)
Epoxy (elevated temp. cure, 93 to 177c)
Epoxy nylon (121to 177c)
Epoxy phenoilic (121 to177c)

24
(2) Phenol-Resin Based Resins: -
Various compounds modify these. Curing take place 150cwith the joined component
held against each other. Phenol polyvinyl acetate is available readymade without
subsequent introduction of curing agent. These adhesive can sustain temp. Up to 100
c. phenolic rubber and phenolic resin based adhesive s modified by organic solvent
polymer or silicon compounds feature high temp. resistance Phenol formaldehyde
issued to bond foam plastic textile laminate. The common adhesive in this group are:
Neoprene-phenolic (135-177c)
Niotrile_phenolc (135-177c)
Butryl-phenolc (135-177c)
(3) Polyurethane Adhesive: -
These adhesive have resistance to temp. up to 100 to 120 c and same strength as
polyvinyl acetate adhesive.
(4) Special Grade Adhesive: -
These are used to high temp. Resistance and poses high shearing strength.
1.9.4.1 Bonding Plastic Parts: -
The above-discussed adhesive and special purpose adhesive is used to bond plastic
parts. For many thermoplastic these solvent serve as a adhesive, or example dichloro
ethane for organic glass, benzol for polystyrene, acetone for viniplast etc. the scope of
automation for adhesive-bonding process is the application of adhesive to the mating
surfaces, assembly and accurate location of the parts bonded, and subsequent curing.
Adhesive can be applied with roller and feed with injector into the clearance b/w the
mating parts; dipping the mating parts into it is also practicable.
1.10 SURFACE COATING FOR TOOLING: -
In almost every type of production tooling the most desirable feature to have is a very
hard surface on allow strength but tough body. Toughness is needed to survive
mechanical shocks that are impact loading in interrupted cuts. Shocks occur in even
continuous chip formation process, when the counters the localized hard spot. The
example of such tooling include metal cutting tools rock drills, cutting blades, forging
die, screw for extrusion of plastic and food products and saw mills and so on. Other
application include parts of earth moving machinery, valves and valves seat for diesel
engines and many such parts involving high heat application and in general
application requiring wear resistance. The various techniques employed for this
purpose are discussed below: -
1.10.1 Hard Facing: -
It is the technique of depositing a layer of hard metal on component to increase the
hardness, strength of base metal. The techniques is widely used in bearings, cam
shaft, valves and valves seats, hot extrusion dies, closed dies especially for abrasive
25
powder, earth handling, and mining equipment of many type such as rock drills stone
crushers. Hammer mills shear blades and much type of cutting and trimming dies.
The composing of surfacing metal differs from that of the base metal. Hard facing
materials such include satellite and other cutting and wear resistance alloys. Tip or rod
from 5 to 10 mm thick, cat from satellite alloys, or used for hard facing of tool y
welding technique. The cutting tool material with very hard phases has such as high
alloying element concentration that they cannot be manufacture into welding rods.
The ingredients are incorporated in the flux coating or packed inside tubular rods, and
the alloys are formed in welding process itself.
Hard facing is by means of gas, arc or shielded arc welding techniques. Gas and
shield arc welding are more uniform composition of deposited layer. Surfacing by
ordinary a arc welding is cheaper and faster, but there is greater danger of dilution of
metal with the base metal. Deposition of tungsten carbide by an electric arc is called
spark hardening. When thick layer are deposit one speaks of weld overlays. However
the thickness of deposit should not exceed than 2mm because the susceptibly to
cracking increase with thicker layers.
Hard facing techniques and conditions should ensure a strong bond of the deposit with
the base metal, restrict their mixing and avoid the formation of cracks and other
defects in the deposit layer. Parts to be hard faced are first pre heated to 350 to500c;
the hard faced parts are to be cooled slowly.
Hard facing should increase the service life of certain part by 3 to 4 times and worn
parts to be repeatedly restored.
1.10.2 Nitriding Case Hardening: -
It is surface hardening processing which the surface of steel is saturated with nitrogen.
In consist of heating the part to a temp. Of 480c to 650c inside a chamber through
which a stream of NH3 is passed ammonia gets dissociated:
2NH3 = 2N + 3H2.
The nitride parts very high surface hardness (730 to 1100 BHN). Nitriding increase
the wear resistance in air water and water vapor.
Nitriding is usually to medium carbon and alloy steels containing Al, Cr, Mo, and
other elements capable of forming nitrides. Prior to nitriding parts should be hardened
tempered and undergo to the complete sequence of machining process including
grinding. Only finish grinding and lapping is done after nitriding. The nitride case is
usually0.2 to 0.4 mm thick.
Nitriding done at low temp. as compared to hardening and carburizing, so it requires
more time. But since no quenching is necessary as the high hardness is obtain directly
after the operation. The feature enables the hardening effects to be avoided.
a) Hard Chrome Plating: Hard chrome plating is done by electrolytic
electroplating technique. It is most common process for wear resistance.
b) Flame Plating: - Flame plating is a process develops to prolong the
life of certain type of tool and there wear applications. By this process, a carefully
controlled coating of tungsten carbide, chromium carbide (Cr3C2) or aluminum
oxide is applied to a wide range of base metals the more common material, which
have been successfully, flame-plated include: aluminium, brass, bronze, cast iron,
ceramics, copper, glass/ H.S.S., magnesium, molybdenum, nickel steel, and
titanium and their alloys.
26
The uses a specially designed gun into which is admitted metered amount of oxygen
and acetylene. A change of fine particles of the selected plating mixtures is injected
into the mixture of oxygen and acetylene. Immediately a valve opens to admit he a
stream of nitrogen to protect the valve during the subsequent detonation. The mixture
is now ignited and the explosion is take place, which plasticizes the particles and hurls
in them from gun with a velocity of 750 m/s. The particle gets embedded into the
surface and a microscopic welding take place, which produces a highly tenacious
bond.
Each particle in the coating is elongated and flattened into thin disc. The coating has a
dense fine and grain laminar structure with negligible porosity and absence of void
and oxide layer.
The layer of the plated materials about 0.006mm, this layer can build up by repeating
the explosion, to thickness ranging from0.05 to0.75mm, according to the requirement
of subsequent operations. The resultant layer well dense, hard and well bonded.
Because of the hard dense structure of coatings, flame plating has provided industry
with a valuable tool for the solving of many abrasion, erosion and wear problem. For
example bushes for many applications, core pin for powder metallurgy, dies, gauges,
journals, mandrels, and seals for high duty pumps, have all being given much longer
lives.
The process has influenced considerably certain type of cutting process, especially in
the glass leather, soap, and textile industries has proved to be great advantage for
component involving high heat application such as hot-end of gas turbine.
The coating shows an excellent resistance to galling and corrosion. Flame-plated
coating can be ground and lapped if necessary. Resultant surface be with in the reason
of 0.025micro meter. Another advantage is that the components can be enabling to
mast the coatings to be placed preciously where required.
The mixture of tungsten carbide coating can be consisting of cobalt ranging from 7%
to17% and rest of tungsten carbide.
Aluminum oxide plating mixture is almost of Al2O3 (above 99%). Chromium carbide
plating consist of about 75%yo 85% of Cr3C2 and balance of (Ni-Cr).
1.10.3 Chemical Vapor Decomposition: -
Chemical vapor decomposition uses volatile metal compounds, which are carried as a
vapour in a glass stream and deposit as metal upon any surface that is hot enough to
produce the desired reaction.

Vapor phase decomposition can be done by two methods:
i) In decomposition method a decomposition halide is vaporized metered and
transported by means of inert carrier gas to the heated component, where it
decomposes at the surface of yield pure metal.
ii) In the second method, a reduction process, hydrogen is used as the carrier gas
through a purifier and dry hydrogen chemically reduces the halide to pure metal on
the part surface as shown in fig. HFC, HFN. Multiple coating of Al
2
O
3
can be given
on top of Al
2
O
3
.coating thickness is in micrometer
For depositing a layer of TiC on carbide tool inserts a mixture of hydrogen methane
and titanium trichloride gas is form in the mixing chamber. The mixture of these
gases can flow through next chamber enrich carbide inserts are heated up to about
1000c by induction heating or by resistance heating. The following reaction takes near
the surface of the parts:
27
TiCl4 +CH4 = TiC +4HCl.
TiC so produce get adhere to the surface of the substance that is WC. The main
advantage of CVD process is its ability to produce:
a) High density coatings because the coatings are built by atom by atom.
b) High purity materials.
c) High strength materials.
d) And complex shapes.
An emerging coating technology used particularly for multiphase coatings, is medium
temp. CVD (MTCVD). It is being developed to machine ductile iron and stainless
steels and to provide higher resistance to crack propagation than conventional CVD.
Fig. 1.4 Reduction Method of CVD
1.10.4 Physical Vapor Decomposition: -

In the basic form of PVD method applying sufficient heat with help of one of many
techniques evaporates metal or an oxide. The atom or molecule so produced move in
all direction. When they come into atomic or molecular attraction of the component
that is the substrate they condense onto it to form a uniform coating.
In a variation of method, a cathode target is bombarded by accelerated ion. This
concept dislodges or driving of single atom or small cluster into surrounding gas for
deposition on a near by substrate surface. To increase coating adhesion and improve
film structure, the substrate surface is heated to temp. From about 200c to500c.
PVD process particularly suited to tin coating of H.S.S. tools, because it being a
relatively low temp. Processes, the tempering temp. Point of H.S.S. is not reached. So
after the PVD process the heat treatment is not needed.
28
1.10.5 Diffusion Coatings: -
The surface hardness of low carbon steel (with carbon lees than 2%) can be increased
by making hardneble by diffusing carbon or nitrogen into the surface. On heating or
quenching the carbon-nitrogen enriched surface is very hard but core remains tough.
The surface can also be hardened by ion nitriding method where the steel surface is
bombarded by low energy nitrogen ions produced in plasma.
1.10.6 Ion Plating: -
In this method high-energy ion are penetrated into the surface. For cutting tools,
nitrogen ions are almost commonly user. There is virtually no change in dimension in
the last two processes.
1.11 GRAPHITE MOULD CASTING:

Graphite is high refractory substance. Graphite moulds are used for casting metals,
such as titanium, that tends to react with many common mould materials. Graphite is
used for Moulding in much the same manner as plaster. For this graphite is available
in an investment type of mixture, which is obtained by combining powdered graphite
with cement, starch & water. This slurry is compacted around a precision mc. metal
pattern. The pattern is removed & mould is fired at 1000 C, producing a solid graphite
mould, which is then poured. After solidification of the metal the moulds is broken for
the removal of the casting. Graphite moulds have an advantage over plaster moulds as
they may be reused. Graphite moulds can also with stand with heat of grey, ductile or
malleable metals. However the size of moulds of graphite is limited is the order of 50
x 45 x 25cm. casting upto a mass of about 23 kg can be produced.
1.12 VACCUM MOULDING PROCESS:

Sand can be lodged in place if air is removed from the sand mass. This principle is
employed in vacuum moulding process in which no binder is used.
1. A thin plastic sheet is draped over pattern positioned over the mould board.
Vacuum is drawn on the pattern. This makes plastic to be tightly drawn over the
pattern surface.
2. A vacuum flask is placed over the pattern & is filted with clean unbounded
sand. Pouring basin & the sprue are formed and another plastic sheet is placed
over the sand.
3. Vacuum is drawn on the sand. This makes sand very hard.
4. Vacuum is now released on the pattern & it is withdrawn.
5. Similarly the second half of the mould is made.
29
Fig. 1.5 Vacuum Moulding Process
The two moulds halves are assembled & molten metal is poured. The plastic sheet
will burn up. When the casting is solidified, vacuum on the flask is released. The sand
collapse and the casting are taken out.
The process is also known as V-process & has followed.
1.12.1 Advantages
1. Saving on the binder cost, as no binder is used in process.
2. No defect released to moisture & binder fumes.
3. Any sand can be used
4. Easy shake out. However the process is quit slowly.
30
1. 13 INTRODUCTION TO COMPOSITE MATERIALS:
Composite materials can be defined as the structures made up of two or more
distinct starting materials. The starting materials can be organic, metals or ceramics.
The components of composite materials do not occur naturally as an alloy, but are
separately manufactured before these are combined together mechanically. Due to
this, they maintain their identities, even after a composite material is fully formed.
However the starting materials combine to rectify a weakness in one material by
strength in another material. Hence composite material exhibits properties distinctly
different from those of individual materials used, to make composite. Thus
composite material or structure possesses a unique combination of properties such
as stiffness, strength, hardness, weight, conductivity, corrosion resistance & high
temp. Performance etc. that is not possible by individual materials. Thus the search
for materials with special properties to suit some specific stringent conditions of use
has given rise to development of materials called COMPOSITE MATERIALS.
1.13.1 TYPES OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS:
Composite materials may roughly be classified as:
1) Agglomerated materials/ Particulate composites.
2) Reinforced materials.
3) Laminates.
4) Surface coated materials.
The particulate composite and reinforced composites are constituted by just two
phases, the matrix phase. The aim is to improve the strength properties of matrix
material. The matrix material should be ductile with its modulus of elasticity much
lower then that of dispersed phase. Also the bonding forces between the two phases
must be very strong.
In fact the particulate composite also fall in the category of reinforced composites.
Depending upon the nature of reinforced materials (shape and size), the reinforced
composites can be classified as
1. Particle reinforced composites or particulate reinforced composites.
2. Fiber reinforced composite.
In particulate reinforced composites, dispersed phase is in the form of exi-axed
particles, whereas in fibre-reinforced composite, it is in the form of fibers.
1.13.1.1 AGGLOMERATED MATERIALS:
Agglomerated materials consist of discrete particles of one material, surrounded by
matrix of another material. The material is bounded together in an integrated mass to
classic eg. Of such composite material are: concrete formed by mixing gravel, sand,
cement & water & agglomeration of asphalt & stone particles, that is used for paving
the high surfaces. Other eg. Of particulate composite material includes:
1) Grinding and cutting wheels, in which abrasive particles (Al2O3, Sic, CBN or
carbon) are held together by a vitreous or a resin bond.
31
2) Cemented carbide, in which particles of ceramic materials such as WC, TaC,
TiC & of cobalt & nickel, are bounded together via Powder metallurgy process to
produce cutting tool materials. Many powdered metal parts & solid sintering
produces various magnetic & dielectric ceramic materials, which requires
diffusion.
3) Electrical contact point from powder of tungsten & silver or copper is process
via powder metallurgy method.
4) Electrical Brushes for motored & heavy duty & frictional materials for brake
& clutches by combining metallic & non-metal. Materials.
5) Cu infilterated iron & silver, tungsten.
6) Heavy metal (w+6%ni+4%cu)
7) Electrical resistance welding electrodes from mixture of cu & tung.
8) Shell moulding sand, using a resin binder, which is polymerized by hot
pattern.
9) Metal polymer structers (metal bearing in filtered with nylon or PTFE).
10) Particleboard, in which wood chips are held together by suitable glue.
11) Elastomers & plastics are also reinforced with suitable particle material. The
eg. Is addition of 15-30 of carbon black in the vulcanized rubber for automobiles
types?
12) Dispersion strengthened materials: in these materials hard, brittle and
fine particles are dispersed in softer or more ductile matrix.
Because of their unique geometry, the properties of particulate composite can be
isotropic. This property is very important in many engineering applications
1.13.1.2 REINFORCED MATERIAL:
Reinforced materials from the biggest and most important group of composite
materials. The purpose of reinforcing is always to improve the strength properties.
Reinforcement may involve the use of a dispersed phase (discussed in the last article)
or strong fiber, thread or rod.
Fiber-reinforced materials: in a larger number of applications, the material should
have high strength, along with toughness and resistance to fatigue failure. Fiber
reinforced materials, offer the solution. Stronger or higher modulus filler, in the form
of thin fibers of one material, is strongly bonded to the matrix of another. The matrix
material provides ductility and toughness and supports and blinds the fibres together
and transmits the load. The toughness of the composite material increases, because
extra energy will be needed to break or pull out a fibre. Also, when any crack appears
on the surface of a fibre, only that fibre will fail and the crack will not propagate
catastrophically as in bulk material. Failure is often gradual, and repairs may be
possible.
Due to the above mentioned desirable properties of the matrix materials, the
commonly used matrix materials are; Metals and polymers, such as, Al Cu, Ni etc.
and commercial polymers strong fibers in the relatively weak matrix. Like this, it is
possible to produce parts where strength control is developing in different directions.
if the part is loaded parallel to the fibers will be much greater than in the matrix .
Even if the fibre breaks, the softness of matrix hinders the propagations of crack .The
fibre direction are tailored to the direction of loading.
32
Reinforced Fibers: A good reinforcing fibre should have: high elastic modulus, high
strength, low density, reasonable ductility and should be easily wetted by the matrix.
Metallic fibres such as patented steel; stainless steel, tungsten and molybdenum wires
are used in a metal matrix such as aluminum and titanium. Carbon fibers and whiskers
are also used in a metal ultra high strength composite. Fibres need not be limited to
metals. Glass, ceramic and polymer fibers are used to produce variety of composite
having wide range of properties .The high modulus of ceramic fibers make them
attractive for the reinforced of the metal. The ductile matrix materials can be
aluminum magnesium, nickel or titanium and the reinforcing fiber may be of boron ,
graphite , aluminum or SiC.
Forms of reinforcing fibres: The fibers used for reinforcing materials are available
in different forms:
(a) Filaments: these are very long and continuous single fibres.
(b) Yarns: this is twisted bundles of filaments.
(c) Roving: These are untwisted bundles of gathered filaments.
(d) Tows: These are bundles of thousands of filaments.
(e) Woven fabrics: These are made from filaments, yarn or roving which have
been woven at 90 degree to each other.
(f) Mats: Fibre form is said to be mat form when the continuous fibre is
deposited in a swirl pattern or chopped fibre is deposited in a random pattern.
(g) Combination mat: Here, one ply of woven roving is bonded to a ply of
chopped strand mat.
(h) Surface mats: These are very thin, monofilament fibre mats for better surface
appearance.
(i) Chopped fibre or roving: These are 3 to 50 mm in length.
(j) Milled fibres: These are of brittle materials, usually 0.5 to 3 mm in length.
(k) Whiskers: whiskers are single crystal, in the form of fine filaments, a few
microns in diameter and short in length. These single crystal whiskers are the
strongest known fibers. Their high strength is due to the high degree of perfection
and the absence of dislocation in the structure. Their strength is many times
greater than that of the normal metals. For ex The strength of an iron whisker is
found to be 13450MN\m2, compared to about 294MPa for a piece of pure iron,.
Besides metal whiskers, long non metallic, whiskers and of graphite are being
produced. They are introduced in to resin or metallic matrix for the purpose of
high strength and high stiffness at high temperatures.
The properties of reinforced materials will depend on:
The properties of matrix materials.
The properties of the fibre materials.
The proportions of the reinforcement in the composite materials. It is never
less than 20% and may go up to 80% in oriented structures.
The orientation of the fibre, relative to the load application and relative to one
another.
The degree of bonding between the fibers and the matrix material.
The length to diameter ratio of the fibers.There has to be some minimum fibre
length, known as, critical length, lc, to get the desired strength and stiffness of
the composite materials. It is given as:
L
c
=
f
.d /

33
Where,
f
=Tensile strength of fibre materials
d =diameter of fibre
=shear yield strength of the fibre matrix bond
Fig. 1.6 Reinforcing Fibers
For example, for carbon and glass fibers, the critical length is of the order of 1mm,
which may be 20 to150 times the diameter of the fibre.
The fibre reinforcement can be done in three ways:
1. Continuous and aligned, Fig a
2. Discontinuous and aligned, Fig b
3. Continuous and randomly oriented, Fig c

If the fibre length is considerably greater than Lc e.g., 15 times or more, it is called a
continuous fibre, otherwise it is called short or discontinuous fibre as noted
above, the properties of a composite having aligned fibre reinforcements, are highly
anisotropic, that is, they depend upon the direction in which these are measured. Their
maximum strength is along the direction of alignment. They are very weak in the
transverse direction. The arrangement is best suited for application involving multi-
direction applied stresses, for e.g., bi-axel stresses in pressure vessel or tube. The
same results can be achieved by using bi- axially oriented or cross ply fibers. It is
apparent that the strength of the discontinuous and aligned arrangement will be less
than of the continuous and aligned arrangement.
Applications: As discussed in the beginning, composite structures combine the
desirable properties of two or more materials. This has greatly expanded the scope of
application of all engineering materials. This has greatly expanded the scope of
application of all engineering materials. We can produce components with
exceptional strength to weight and stiffness to-weight ratio (many composite are
stronger than steel, lighter than steel and stiffer than titanium). Also, they have low
34
conductivity, good heat resistance, good fatigue life, adequate wear resistance and are
free from corrosion.
Reinforced concrete is a classic example of reinforced materials. Steel rods used in
the concrete to reinforce the material take all tensile loads since concrete weak in
tension but strong in compression.
1. Glass- fibre reinforced Plastics: Here, we have glass fibres in a matrix of
unsaturated polyester. To get better qualities to use at high temperature, high
temperature polyamide resin is used with pure SiO
2
fibres. A special type of glass
fibre can be used with cement bond to form flexible type of concrete. Glass fibre
reinforced plastics are used to make: boat hulls, car bodies, truck, cabins and
aircraft fittings. The other matrix materials can be: vinyl ester and phenolic.
2. C-C composites: These composites have graphite fibres in a carbon matrix.
This material is being used to make: Nose cone and leading edge of missiles and
space shuttles, racing car disks brakes, aerospace turbine and jet engine
components, rocket nozzles and surgical implants.
3. Graphite fibre- reinforced epoxy :( Organic or Resin matrix composites):
This material is being used to make many parts of a fighter plane: Wing span,
outrigger flaring. Overwing flaring, engine access doors, nose cone, forward
fuselage. Lid fence and strakes-flap. Flap slot door, aileron seals, Horizontal
stabilizer (Full span) and rubber. The other fibre-matrix combination can be:
Aramid fibre-Phenolic resin matrix, Boron fibre-Bismaleimide resin matrix.
4. Automative uses: Body panels, drive shafts, spring and bumpers, Cab shell
and bodies, oil pans, fan shrouds, instrument panels and engine covers.
5. Sports equipment: Golf club shafts, base ball parts, fishing rods, tennis
rackets, bicycle frames, skis and pole vaults.
6. Rubber used for making automobiles tyres is now reinforced with fibres of
nylon, rayon steel or Kevlar, to provide added strength and durability. Kevlar is an
organic aramid fibre with very high tensile strength and modulas of elasticity. Its
density is about half of that of aluminum and it has negative thermal expansion. It
is flame retardant to radio signals. This makes it very attractive for military and
aerospace applications. It is also being used for making bullet proof jackets. The
trade name Kevlar is given by Du Pont.
7. Metal matrix composite (MMC): As already noted, these composites are
obtained by impregnating high-strength fibres (of stainless steel, boron, tungusten,
molybdenum, graphite, AL
2
O
3
, SiC and Si
3
N
4
etc.) with molten metal ( aluminuim
, titanium, Ni and cobalt etc). These composites offer higher strength and stiffness
especially at elevated temperatures and lower co-efficient of thermal expansion as
compared to metals. And as compared to Organic-matrix composites, these
composites offer grater heat resistance and improved thermal and electric
conductivity. Hence metal matrix composites are used where operation
temperature is high or extreme strength is desired. These will find applications in
a variety segments like automobiles and machinery.
Aluminum oxide reinforced aluminum is used for making automotive connecting
rods. Aluminum reinforced with SiC whiskers is used to make air craft wing panels.
Fibre reinforced super alloys are used for making turbine blades. Graphite fibres in
aluminum matrix are used for Satellite, missile, helicopter structures.Graphite fibres
in magnesium matrix is used for space and satellite structures. Graphite fibres in lead
matrix are used for Strong battery plates. A graphite fibre in copper matrix is used
for bearings and electrical contacts. Other e.g. of MMC is:
35
(a) Boron fibre in aluminum: Compressor blades and structural supports.
(b) magnesium : Antenna structures.
(c) Titanium: Jet-engine fan blades.
(d) Alumina Lead: Strong-battery plates.
(e) Magnesium: Helicopter transmission structures.
(f) SiC Super alloy (Cobalt based): High temperature engine
components.
(g) Tungsten and Molybundum fibres in Super alloy matrix: High
temperature engine components.
8. Ceramic-matrix composites: (CMC): AS already noted, ceramics are strong,
stiff, can resist high temperatures, but generally lack toughness. Ceramic
matrix materials are: AL
2
O
3
, SiC and Si
3
N
4
, and mullite (a compound of Al,
Si, and O
2
). They can retain their strength upto 1700 degree C, and also resist
corrosive environments.
Typical product applications of ceramic matrix composite are: in jet and automotive
engines, deep-sea mining equipment, pressure vessels, structural components cutting
tools, and dies for extrusion and drawing operations.
Composite in development stage:
1. Advance bismaleinmide resin matrix series for high temperature service.
2. Polyether ether ketone thermoplastic matrix series for higher temperature
service.
3. Hybrid reinforcements and Knitted/stacked ply fabrics and three-dimensional
woven fabric reinforcements.
4. Selective stitching of collated ply kits.
1.14 LAMINATES:
Laminates or laminar composites are those structures which have alternate layers of
materials bonded together in some manner some common examples of laminar
composites are given below:
1. Plywood: it is most common material under this category. Here, thin layer of
wood veneer are bonded with adhesives. The successive layers have different
orientations of the grain or fibre; Structural parts capable of carrying a load are
made of multi-plywood board from 25 to 30 mm thick.
2. Bimetallic strips used in thermostats & other heat sensing application.
3. Safety glass
4. Sandwich material: Here, low density core is placed between thin, high
strength
High-density surfaces, for example, corrugated cardboard. Cores of polymer foam
or honeycomb structures can be used. Wood substitutes based on red mud
polymer have been developed to be used for door shutters, windows, partitions
and false ceilings.
5. Roll cladding (bonding) and explosive cladding (welding) of one metal
upon another: The main aim of clad material is to improve corrosion resistance
while retaining low cost, high strength and /or lightweight. Mild steel stainless
steel combination, copper stainless steel combination are examples of metal-to-
metal laminates. Another example is Alclad, which is formed by cladding
duralumin with thin sheets of pure aluminium. The material is high strength
36
composite in which aluminium cladding provides galvanic protection for the more
corrosive duralumin. The above claddings are done by hot roll bonding method.
6. Laminated Plastic Sheet: This structure is usually made from sheets of paper
or cloth and suitable resin. The resin used includes: phenolics, polyster,
silicones and
epoxide. The paper and cloth provides bulk of strength, while the resin acts as a
semi rigid binder. Laminated plastic sheet can be machined, drilled, punched and
pressed to shaped. It is used in the production of gears, bearings, electrical
components, and small cabinets. Laminate fabric base gears have the advantages
over metal gears of being silent in operation and stable against the attack of
various. Aggressive media. In many cases, laminated fabric base gears have
completely replaced nonferrous gears. They are employed to transmit rotation
from electric motor in high-speed machine tools; they are mounted on the
camshafts of internal-combustion engines etc. In chemical industry, laminate
fabric base gears are used in various apparatus & instruments where they resist
corrosive attack much more efficiently then gears of bronze brass or leather. In
addition to gears, certain other transporting devices: roller, rings etc. are also
made of laminated fabric base. Laminated sheets /plates are available in sizes of:
900*900 mm, 900 *1800 mm, and 1200*2400 mm. The minimum thickness of
sheet is 0.8 mm & it varies as follows: -

Thickness range (mm) 0.8-1.6 1.6-4.8 6.4-9.6 12.8- 19.2 25.6- 38.4
Step(mm) 0.4 0.8 1.6 3.2 6.4
7. Tufnol: this is a laminated material consisting of layers of woven textiles
impregnated with a thermosetting resin. The polymer imparts rigidity, while
the woven textile provides great tensile strength. Paper or asbestos may also
be used as alternative reinforcements. The material (with woven textile) can be
used for making seat covers &carpets.
8. Laminated carbides: In laminated carbides, laminates consisting of a hard
thin surface layer TiCand the form of throw away tips, are bonded by epoxy
resin to the rake face of a tip body of WC. This increases the crater wear of
WC cutting tool.
9. Laminated wood : this sheets of wood (veneer ) , impregnated with special
resins & compressed hot , form what is called laminated wood , which find
extensive application in textile machinery & electric engineering , as well as
substitute for nonferrous metal in bearing of hydraulic machinery
&mechanisms operating in abrasive media . Parts of wood are machined in
ordinary machine tools &wood working machinery.
Surface coated materials: the surface coating is applied to the materials for various
purposes: - protection of the material against corrosion; for decorative, wear resistant
&processing purpose. They may also be used to :(i) improve visibility through
luminescence & better reflectivity (ii) provide electrical insulation , & (iii) improve
the appearance. Surface coating are usually classified as: metallic coatings, inorganic
chemical coating & organic chemical coating
1. Metallic coating: metallic coating of copper, chromium nickel, zinc, lead & tin
etc. are applied by hot dipping , electro- plating or spraying techniques to protect
the base metal from corrosion & for other purpose .
37
2. Inorganic chemical coating: This surface coating may be divided into:
Phosphate coating, oxide coating & vitreous coating. Oxide & phosphate coating
are done to make iron or steel surface free from rust & this is done by chemical
action. These coating also provide protection against corrosion. Vitreous coating
are commonly applied to steel in the form of a powder or frit & are then used to
the steel surface by heat. These coating are relatively brittle, but offer absolute
protection against corrosion. Enamel is an example of ceramic coating on metal &
glaze on tiles is an example of glassy ceramic on crystalline ceramic base. The
glazing as a protective coating on porcelain & stoneware ceramic is performed for
the purpose of protection from moisture absorption in ceramic materials. Coating
of TiC , TiN , Al2o3 or HFN on WC base are examples of ceramics on ceramic &
coatings of TiC & TiN on HSS base are examples of ceramics on steel. These
coatings increase the life of cutting tools.
3. Organic Coatings: It includes paint, varnishes, enamels & lacquers. They
serve to protect the base metal & to improve its appearance.
Polymer coating on paper are used for making milk cartons. Polymer coated textiles
are used for making seat covers & carpets. Polymer Coatings on metals act as wire
insulation. Polymer coated metals are used for making beverage cans.
1.15 PRODUCTION OF COMPOSITE STRUCTURES
Fabrication of particulate composites: As discussed in above art. A majority of the
particulate composites are made via the powder metallurgy route. So, for details
readers should refer to chapter 10. However, a few particulate composites are made
by dispersing the particles in the matrix materials through introduction into slurry or
into a liquid melt (agglomeration of asphalt and stone particles).
Fabrication of Fibre reinforced Composites: Many processes have been developed
to fabricate fibre-reinforced composite structures. Their aim is to combine the
fibre and the matrix into a unified form. The various fabrication techniques
depend on: the size and the form of the fibres and their orientation in the matrix
material; the shape, size and form of the product. The common fabrication
processes are: Open-Mould process, Filament winding, Pultrusion and Matched-
die-Moulding, and Laminating. Before these processes are discussed, the
following terms should be understood:
Prepergs: Prepergs means Preimpregnated with resin. It is ready to mould
material in the sheet form. Impregnated rovings and mats make these with resin
matrix under the condition in which the resin undergoes only a partial cure. These
are stored for subsequent use. These are supplied to the fabricator, who lays up the
finished shape in stacks, which is subjected to heat and pressure. This completes
the curing of the resin into a continues solid matrix. Lay-up is positioning of the
reinforcement material, sometimes resin-impregnated, in the mould.
BMCs: are Bulk Moulding Compounds. These are thermosetting resins
mixed with chopped reinforcements or filters and made into a viscous compound
for compressing moulding.
SMCs: are Sheet Moulding Compounds. These comprise chopped fibres
and resin in the sheet form approx. 2.5 mm thick. These are3 processed further to
38
fabricate large sheet like parts. They can replace sheet metal, where lightweight,
corrosion resistance and integral colour are attractive features.
Thick Moulding Compounds: Thick Moulding Compounds (TMC)
combines the lower cost of BMC and higher strength of SMC. These are usually
injection moulded using chopped fibres of various lengths. Used for electrical
components due to their high electrical strength.
1) Open Mould Process ~ In this process, only one mould (Die) is employed to
fabricate the reinforced part. The mould may be made of: wood, plaster or reinforced
plastic material. The various techniques in this category are:-
a) Hand lay-up technique: In this method, the successive layers of reinforcement
mat or web (which may or may not be impregnated with resin) are positioned on a
mould by hand. Resin in used to impregnate or coat the reinforcement. Curing the
resin to permanently fix the shape then follows it. Curing may be at room
temperature or heating may speed it up. The technique in which resin-saturated
reinforcements are placed in the mould is called Wet lay-up.
b) Bag Moulding: This is a technique of moulding reinforced plastics composites by
using a flexing cover (bag) over a rigid mould. The composite material is
positioned in the mould and covered with the plastic film (bag). Pressure is then
applied by a : Vacuum, auto-clave, press or by inflating the bag . An auto-clave is
a closed pressure vessel for inducing a resin cure or other operation under heat and
pressure.
i) Vacuum-bag moulding: In this technique for moulding reinforced plastics, a
sheet of flexible, transparent material is placed over the lay-up on the mould.
After sealing the edges the entrapped air between the sheet and the lay-up is
mechanically worked out and removed by the vacuum. Finally, the part is cured.
Fig. 1.7 Vacuum Bag Moulding
ii) Pressure-bag Moulding: It is a process for moulding reinforced plastics in which
a tailored, flexible bag is placed over the contact lay-up on the mould, sealed and
clamped in placed. Compressed air forces the bag against the part to apply pressure
while the part cures.
iii) Spray-up: In this technique, a spray gun supplies resin in two converging streams
into which chopped roving fiber is forced with the help of a chopper. The composite
39
material stream is then deposited against the walls of the mould cavity. It is a low-cost
method of fabricating medium strength composite structures.
All the above open-mould techniques are extensively used for fabricating parts such
as: boats, tanks, swimming pools, ducts and truck bodies.
2) Matched-die moulding: Matched metal dies are used for moulding composite
structure when: production quantities are large, tolerances are close and surface
quality has to be the best. The dies are heated to complete the curing of the product
during the moulding process.
i) Compression Moulding is essentially employed for moulding BMCs.
ii) Resin- Transfer Moulding or Resin Injection Moulding: In this technique
(RTM or RIM), two piece matched cavity dies are used with one or multiple injection
points and breather holes. The reinforcing material, which is either chopped or
continuous strand material is cut to shape and draped in the die-cavity. The die-halves
are clamped together and a polyester resin is pumped through an injection port in the
die. The pressure used in the die is low, which allows use of low cost tooling. The
method is used for moulding small non-load bearing parts.
In a variant of the above technique, instead of the injection of only resin into the die-
cavity, the reinforcement (flake glass) is mixed with the resin in a mixing head and
the mixture is injected into the closed heated two-piece die. Flake glass is preferred to
avoid directionality of reinforcement. This method is known as Reaction Injection
Moulding and is being increasingly used for BMCs.
iii) SMCs cut to size, are fabricated into parts by methods similar to metal pressing.
However, curing of the part takes place outside the press.
Fig. 1.8 Compression Moulding

3) Pultrusion: This is the process of extrusion of resin-impregnated roving ( a bundle
of fibres ) to manufacture rods, tubes and structural shapes (Channels, I-beams and Z-
Sections etc.) o0f a constant cross-section. After passing through the resin-dip tank,
the roving is dawn through a heated die (where curing takes place) and cured to form
the desired cross-section, as it continuously runs through the machine. After the Puller
rolls, a saw cutter cuts the extruded section to the required lengths.
40
In Pulmoulding, the process begins with pultruding; then the part is placed in a
compression mould.
Product applications are: - Golf club shafts, because of their high damping capacity,
and structural members for vehicle and aerospace applications.

Fig. 1.9 Pultrusion
4) Filament Winding: In this process, resin impregnated strands are applied over a
rotating mandrel, to produce high strength, reinforced cylindrical shapes. Fibers or
tapes are drawn through a resin bath and wound onto a rotating mandrel. The process
is relatively slow, but the fiber direction can be controlled and the diameter can be
varied along the length of the piece. In a variation, the Fiber bundle (made up of
several thousand carbon fibers) is first coated with the matrix material, to make a
prepreg tape (endless strip with width equal to several cms, by a meter). With both the
fiber and tape winding processes, the finished part is cured in an autoclave and later
removed from the mandrel. In axial winding, the filaments are parallel to the axis and
in circumferential winding; these are essentially perpendicular to the axis of rotation.
Cylindrical, spherical and other shapes are made by filament winding, for example,
pressure bottles, missile canisters, industrial storage tanks and automobile drive shafts
C- fibers with epoxy- basin resin composite is used for fabricating strength- critical
aerospace structures.
Fig. 1.10 Filament Winding Process
5) Laminating: In this process, composite parts are produced by combining layers of
resin-impregnated material in a press under heat and pressure. The parts include,
41
standard for comparatively flat pieces. Two principal steps in the manufacture of
laminated fiber-reinforced composite materials are:-
(a) Lay-up, which consists of arranging fibers in layers.
(b) Curing
We start with a preperg material (partially cured composite with the fibers aligned
parallel to each other). A pattern of products shape is cut out the preperg material is
then stacked in layers into the desired laminate geometry. Curing the stacked pile
under heat and pressure in an autoclave makes a final product, or by tool press
moulding, winding the impregnated fibre on a mandrel of suitable diameter produces
tubes. The assembly is then cured in a moulding press and then the mandrel is
removed.
1.16 FABRICATION OF MMC:
Basically, three approaches are followed for fabricating MMC
1. Liquid phase approach: In this technique, the matrix material is the molten phase
and the reinforcement is in the solid state. Either one of the conventional casting
process can be used to fabricate MMC or Pressure infiltration casting method can
be used. In this method, a perform is made (usually a sheet or wire) of reinforcing
fibres and the liquid metal matrix is forced into it with the help of a pressurized gas.
2. Solid phase technique: Here the Powder Metallurgy route is used to fabricate
MMC. The best example is of manufacturing WC tool material where cobalt is used
as the matrix material.
3. Two phase Processing: Here the metal matrix contains both the solid and liquid
phases. The reinforcing fibres are mixed with the matrix. The mixture is then
atomized when it leaves the nozzles and is sprayed and deposited over the surface of a
mould cavity to fabricate MMC.
PROCESSING OF CMC
The most common method of fabricating CMC is of Slurry infiltration. A perform
of reinforcing fibres is prepared which is then hot pressed. Slurry containing matrix
powder, a carrier liquid and an organic binder is prepared. The perform is then
impregnated with the slurry to fabricate CMC.
1.17 MACHINING CUTTING AND JOINING OF COMPOSITES
Conventional processes and tools are generally not suited for machining, cutting and
joining of composites. Therefore, special methods are employed to the final
processing operations for the composites.
1. Machining: Machining of composite materials should ensure that there is no
splintering, cracking, fraying or delaminating of cured composite edges. Standard
machine tools can be used with appropriate modifications. Cutting tools for
composites include: drills, reamers, countersinks, cut-of wheels and router bits.
Common cutting tool materials are: HSS and WC. However, poly-crystalline diamond
insert tool performs satisfactory and is cost effective. Tools must be kept sharp, to
provide quality cuts and avoid de-lamination. Tool and its geometry should be
42
carefully selected. Cutting speeds and feeds will depend on the type of composite
material, its thickness and the cutting method.
2. Cutting: The conventional methods for cutting uncured composites, such as
preperg ply include: manual cutting with Carbide disk cutter, scissors and power
shears. For cutting uncured composites, the main techniques are: reciprocating knife
cutting, high pressure water jet cutting, ultrasonic knife cutting and laser cutting.
3. Joining: The common joints provided for composites structures are: Bolted joints
and Adhesive bonded joints.
43
UNIT II
Introduction, Polymers, Polymerization, Addition of Polymers, Plastics, Types of plastics,
Properties of Plastics, Processing of Thermoplastic Plastics, Injection Moulding, Extrusion
Process, Sheet forming processes, Processing of Thermosetting Plastics, Compression
Moulding, Transfer Moulding, Casting of Plastics, Machining of plastics, other processing methods
of plastics
Introduction, casting, thread chasing, Thread Rolling, Die Threading and Tapping, Thread
Milling, Thread Measurement and Inspection
2 INTRODUCTION OF PLASTICS AND POLYMERS
Plastics belong to the family of organic materials. Organic materials are those
materials, which are derived directly from carbon. They consist of carbon
chemically combined with hydrogen, oxygen and other non-metallic substances, and
their structures, in most cases, are fairly complex. The large and diverse organic group
includes the natural materials: wood, coal, petroleum, natural rubber, animal fibers
and food, which have biological origins. Synthetics include the large group of
solvents, adhesives, synthetic fiber- s, rubbers, plastics, explosives, lubricants, dyes,
soaps and cutting oils etc. Which have no biological origins? Of them, plastics and
synthetic rubbers are termed as polymers.
2.1 POLYMERS
The term polymer is derived from the two Greek words: poly, meaning many,
and meros meaning parts or units. Thus polymers are composed of a large
number of repeating units (small molecules) called monomers are joined together
end-to-end in a polymerization reaction. A polymer is, therefore, made up of
thousands of monomers joined tog -ether to form a large molecule of colloidal
dimension, called macromolecule. The unique characteristic of a polymer is that each
molecule is either a ling chain or a network of repeating u -nits all covalently bonded
together. Polymers are molecular materials and are generally noncrystalline solids at
ordinary temperature, but pass through a viscous stage in course of their formation
when, shaping is readily carried out.
The most common polymers are those made from compounds of carbon, but polymers
can also be made form inorganic chemicals such as silicates and silicones. The
naturally occurring polymers include: protein, cellulose, resins, starch, shellac and
lignin. They are commonly found in leather, fur, wool, cotton, silk, rubber, rope,
wood and many others. There are also synthetic polymers such as polyethylene,
polystyrene, nylon, terylene, dacron etc., termed under plastics, fibers and elastomers.
Their properties are superior to those of the naturally occurring counter- parts. Our
concern, here, is therefore, with synthetic polymers, also called plastics (again from
Greek plastics, derived from plassein: to form, to mould) or resins.
2.2 POLYMERIZATION
The process of linking together of monomers, that is, of obtaining macro -molecules
is called polymerization. It can be achieved by one of the two processing
techniques:
44
(a) Addition Polymerization. In addition or chain polymerization under condition of
temperature and pressure and in the Presence of a catalyst called an initiator, the
polymer is produced by adding a second monomer to the first, then a third monomer
to this dimmer, and a fourth to the trimmer, and so on until the long polymer chain is
terminated. Polyethylene is produced by the addition polymerization of the addition
polymerization of ethylene monomers. This linear polymer can also be converted to a
branched polymer by removing a side group and replacing it with a chain. It many
such branches are formed, a network structure results.
Co-polymerization is the addition polymerization of two or more different
monomers. Many monomers will not polymerize with themselves, but will
copolymerize with other compounds.
(b) Condensation polymerization. In this process, two or more reacting compounds
may be involved and there is a repetitive elimination of smaller molecules, to
form a by-product for example, in the case of phenol formaldehyde (bakelite), the
compounds are: formaldehyde and phenol. Metacresol acts as a catalyst and the
by- product is water. The structure of the mer is more complex. Also, there is
the growth perpendicular to the direction of chain. This is called cross-
linking.
Size of a Polymer. The polymer chemist can control the average length of the
molecules by terminating the reaction. Thus, the molecular weight (the average
weight, in grams, of 6.0210
23
molecules) or degree of polymerization, D.P., (the
number of mers in the average molecule) can be controlled. For example, the length of
molecules may range from some 700 repeat units in low-density polyethylene to
1,70,000 repeat units in ultrahigh molecule are weight polyethylene.
2.3 ADDITIONS TO POLYMERS
The properties of polymers can be further modified by the addition of agents, which
are basically of two types. Those that enter the molecular structure are usually called
additives, whereas those that form a clearly defined second phase are called
fillers.
1. Plasticizers. Plasticizers are liquids of high boiling point and low molecular
weight, which
are added to improve the plastic behavior of the polymer. The board role of a
plasticizer is
to separate the macro- molecules of the polymer, that is, making deformation easier.
They are essentially oily in nature. Organic solvents, resins and even water are used as
plasticizers.
2. Fillers. Filler is used to economize on the quantity of polymer required and / or to
vary the properties to some extent, for example, mechanical strength, electrical
resistance etc. Filler, whose function is to increase mechanical strength, is termed
reinforcing filler. A filler is commonly fibrous in natures and is chemically
inert with respect to the polymer with
Which it is to be used? Common fillers are wood flour, cellulose, cotton flock, and
paper (for improving mechanical strength); mica and asbestos (for heat resistance);
talc (for acid resistance).
Wood flour is general purpose filler. It improves mould ability, lowers the cost with
fairly improved strength of the plastics. Mica also imparts excellent electrical
properties to plastics and results in low moisture absorption. The commonly used
reinforcing filler agents with plastics are: fibers/filaments of glass, aramid, graphite
45
or boron. Reinforcing by metal and glass fibers make plastics strong, flexible and
light materials such as used in bullet proof vests. Cotton fibres improve toughness.
Carbon fibers are used for high performance installations such as aircrafts etc.
requiring high strength and stiffness.
3. Catalysts. These are usually added to promote faster and more complete
polymerization and as such they are also called accelerators and hardeners e.g.,
ester is used as a catalyst for urea formaldehyde.
4. Initiators. As the name indicates, the initiators are used to initiate the reaction,
that is, to allow polymerization to begin. They stabilize the ends of the reaction sites
of the molecular chains. H
2
O
2
is a common initiator
5. Dyes and pigments. These are added, in many cases, to impart a desired colour
to the material. For example, titanium dioxide is an excellent white pigment; iron
oxides give yellow, brown or red colour; carbon black is not only a pigment but also a
UV light absorbent. Finely divided calcium carbonate dilutes (extends) the colour and
is used in large quantities as low cost filler.
6. Lubricants. Lubricants are added to the polymers for the following purposes: to
reduce friction during processing, to prevent parts from sticking to mould walls,
to prevent polymer films from sticking to each other and to impart an elegant
finish to the final product. Commonly used lubricants include: oils, soaps and
waxes.
7. Flame-retardants. Most Plastics will ignite at sufficiently high temperatures. The
non-inflammability of the plastics can be enhanced either by producing them
from less inflammable raw materials or by adding flame retardants. The
common flame retardants are: compounds of chlorine, bromine and phosphorous.
8. Solvents. Solvents are useful for dissolving certain fillers or plasticizers and help
in manufacturing by allowing processing in the fluid state. For example, alcohol
is added in cellulose nitrate plastics to dissolve camphor. However, subsequently,
the solvents must be removed by evaporation.
9. Stabilizers and anti-oxidants are added to retard the degradation or polymers
due to heat, light and oxidation.
10 Elastomers are added to plastics to enhance their elastic properties.
Note. Above, excepting fillers, all other materials used fall under the category of
Additives.
2.4 PLASTICS
Polymer can be divided in to three broad divisions: plastics, fibers and elastomers
(polymer of high elasticity, for example rubber). Synthetic resins are usually referred
to as plastics. Plastic derive their name from the fact that in a certain phase of their
manufacture, they are present in a plastic stage (that is, acquire plasticity), which
makes it possible to impart any desired shape to the product. Plastics fall in to a
category known chemically as high polymers.
Thus, plastics is a term applied to composition consisting of a mixture of high
molecular compounds (synthetic polymers) is fillers, plasticizers, stains and pigments,
lubricating and other substances. Some of the plastics can contain nothing but resin
(for instance, polyethylene, polystyrene).
2.4.1 TYPES OF PLASTICS: Plastics are classified on the broad basis of whether
heat causes them to set (thermosetting) or causes them to soften and melt
(thermoplastic).
46
2.4.1.1 Thermosetting plastics: These plastic undergo a no. of chemical changes on
heating and cure to infusible and practically insoluble articles, the chemical change is
not reversible Thermosetting plastics do not soften on reheating and can not be
worked. They rather become harder to completion of any leftover polymerization
reaction. The commonest thermosetting plastics are: alkyds, peroxides, melamines,
polyesters, phenolics and urea.
2.4.1.2 Thermoplastic Plastics: These plastics soften under heat, harden on cooling,
and can be re softened under heat. Thus, they retain their fusibility, solubility and
capability of being repeatedly shaped. The mechanical properties of these plastics are
rather sensitive to temperature and to sunlight and exposure to temperature may cause
thermal degradation. Common thermoplastics plastics are: acrylics, poly tetra
fluoroethylene (PTFE), polyvinyl chlorides (PVC), nylons, polyethylene, polystyrene,
etc.
Thermosetting plastics are cross-linked polymers and thermo-plastics are linear and
branched-linear polymers. The method of processing a plastic is determined largely
by whether a plastic is thermosetting or thermoplastics.
2.4.2 PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS: There is great variety of physico-chemical
and mechanical properties and the ease with which they can be made into various
articles have found plastics their wide application in the engineering and other
industries.
1. Their comparatively low density substantial mechanical strength and high anti
friction properties have enable plastics to be efficiently used as substitute for
metals, for example, non-ferrous metals and alloy bronze, lead, tin, babbit etc., for
making bearing.
2. With certain special properties (silent operation, corrosion resistance etc), plastics
can sometimes replace ferrous metals.
3. From the production point of view, their main advantage is their relatively low
melting points and their ability to flow into a mould.
4. Simple processing to obtain machine parts. Generally there is only one production
operation required to convert the chemically manufactured plastic into a finished
article.
5. In mass production, plastics substituted for ferrous metals allow the production
costs to be reduced by a factor of 1.5 to 3.5 and for non-ferrous metals by a factor
of 5 to 20.
6. Good damping capacity and good surface finished of the product.
7. The high heat and electric insulation of plastics permits them to be applied in the
radio and electrical engineering industries as and substitutes for porcelain, ebonite,
shellac, mica, natural rubber, etc.
8. Their good chemical stability , when subjected to the action of solvents and
certain oxidizing agents, water resistance, gas and steam proof properties, enable
plastics to be used as valuable engineering materials in the automo9bile and
tractor, ship building and other industries
2.4.3 DISADVANTAGES
1. Comparatively higher costs of materials.
2. Inability of most plastics to withstand even moderately high temperatures.
47
The factors which have determined the rapid growth of polymer materials in the
recent past are:
1. Ready availability of the basic raw chemical materials in large quantities and,
in general, at the low cost.
2. The large no. of available starting materials for their production provide us
with an almost continuous spectrum of composition and structure, and hence
of mechanical, optical, electrical and thermal properties of the resulting
polymers.
3. The engineer now has at his disposal many well developed processes and
machines to convert (as they from the factory and that he can choose
according to the specification of the ultimate product) into useful goods.
2.4.4 PROCESSING OF THERMOPLASTIC PLASTICS
Thermoplastic can be processed to their final shape by moulding and extrusion
processes. However, extruding is often used as an intermediate processes, for
example, vacuum forming or machining.
2.4.4.1 EXTRUSION PROCESS:
The extrusion process, in many cases, produces material in an intermediate form for
subsequent reprocessing to its final component form. The process is the same as for
metals, that is, the expulsion of material through a die of the required cross-section
.The earliest extrusion machines were of the ram type .The cylinder of the machine is
filled with prepared plastic and extruded through a die under the pressure of the ram.
The advantages of this machine are: simplicity in operation and a controlled pressure
which can be virtually as high as required. If
the polymer can be plasticized by pressure,
then the ram extruder is advantageous in view
of its simplicity. But for plastics which require
heat, the separate pre-processing may be
regarded as a drawback. Another major
drawback of this type of machine is
reciprocating action of the ram which is time
wasting since the ram must be withdrawn after
its power stroke and a new dolly of material
inserted in the container. Also, with many materials the die orifice must be cleaned
between each working stroke.
Fig. 2.1
Now a days, the ram machine is mainly used for wet extrusion that is for extruding
plastics which have been softened by the addition of solvents. Although useful in
homogenizing materials which contain hard inclusions, wet extrusion has the
disadvantage of producing a component from which the solvent has to be remolds.
For the extrusion of the plastics, single-screw machine has completely replaced the
ram type machine. There are two basic types of screw extrudes: the melt extruder and
the plasticizing extruder. In the former, the material is delivered to the extruder
already melted and thus the function of the extruder is merely to push the material to
the die and through the orifice. In the plasticizing extruder the material is in the form
of granules or particle and so the extrude has to compress and work it until it melts
before delivering it, under pressure, to the die orifice.
48
Complex shapes with constant cross sections can be extruded with relatively
inexpensive tooling. The extruded product can be coiled or cut into desired lengths.
2.4.4.2 SHEET FORMING PROCESS:
Many plastic articles are formed from sheet. The process resembles those for metals,
but requires very low forces. Even atmospheric pressure may be sufficient. In Drape
Forming, the sheet is heated to a moderate temperature. It is then clamped at the
edges and stretch formed over a die. One of the encountered is that the portion of
sheet first touching the die will be chilled and
remain thicker than the rest. This is overcome or
minimized by blowing hot air between the sheet
and the die. Vacuum forming is a process, in
which a heated plastic is changed to a desired
shape by causing it to flow against the mould
surface by reducing the pressure between one
side of the sheet and mould surface. The process
consist of clamping the heat heated plastic sheet
over a mould in such a way that the air b/w the
sheet and mould can be evacuated, this vacuum,
of increasing intensity, draws the sheet against
the surface of the mould, where it cools and solidifies. The solidifies will take place
earliest in those resigns which touch the mould first. This will cause differential
cooling and, as a result of non uniform temp. Distribution, there will be a marked
change in thickness along any given section of the component.
Fig. 2.2 Vacuum Forming Process
2.4.5 PROCESSING OF THERMOSETTING PLASTICS
Compression molding and transfer molding are the most common methods of
processing thermosetting plastics. Although, suitable for thermoplastics also, the main
application of these methods is to thermo sets.

49
2.4.5.1 COMPRESSION MOULDING:
Fig. 2.3 Compression Moulding
Compression moulding is the equivalent of closed-die forging. In this process, a
premature quantity of plastic in the form of plastics or briquettes is placed in heated
mould and compressed at suitable pressure and temperature. Hydraulic pressure
usually employed to provide the pressure (which may range from 20 to 30 MPa or
even higher up to 80 MPa in same case) for compressing the plastic compound. Other
equipment, such as friction and presses, can also be used. The object of compression
moulding is to bring the plastic to virtually molten state. Thus the process is,
effectively, forming from the liquid state, the material being healed in the mould until
the curing stage is over when polymerization is complete. The process is rather slow
with the phenolics and urea resin, but some of the newer resins have shorter curing
time and this has improved the production rates appreciably.
When the plastic is completely trapped between the male and female die, it is called
as positive mould. Cluster tolerances can be held if a small flash is allowed to
extrude, usually along the male die perimeter in semi positive moulds. More
plastics is lost in flash moulds, similar to those used in impression-die forging.
Typical product application are: disches, handles, container caps, fitting,. Electrical
and electronic components, washing machine agitators and housing etc.
2.4.5.2 TRANSFER MOULDING:

Transfer moulding is a modification of
compression moulding in which the
moulding is first placed in separate
chamber (transfer pot), from which it
pushed through an orifice into the mould
cavity as the mould closes. The material
to be moulded is often preheated by
radio frequency methods and, where it is
desired to improve toughness and
strength, reinforcing fillers may be used.
The process has got following
advantages:
1. There is little pressure inside the mould cavity until it is completely filled, at which
stage the full
Fig. 2.4 liquid pressure is transmitted.
50
2. The plastic acquires uniform temperature and properties in the transfer pot prior to
transfer .The plastic is further heated by sheering through the orifice, viscosity is
reduced, and the plastic fills the intricate mould cavities.
3. It scores over normal compression moulding in that presses can be used, since;
heating of plastic is affected, not by press itself, but by a simple heating jacket round
the transfer chamber.
51
2.4.6 CASTINGS OF PLASTICS:
Casting of plastics in moulds finds application when making parts of plastic material
with a binder but no filler. It is also used to obtain various kinds of casts
thermosetting plastics, for example, cast carbolite, as well as certain cast
thermoplastic material, such as organic glass, polystyrene and others.
The method is simple and cheap since no expensive tooling or equipment is required,
and no pressure needs to be applied to fabricate the part. There are many variations of
the casting method for plastics:-
(a) By using flexible moulds, very intricate shapes can be fabricated. The mould
is peeled off afterwards.
(b) Using plate glass moulds produces thick plastic sheets.
(c) Using moving stainless steel belts, which contain and cool the resin, produces
thinner plastic sheets.
(d) Hollow shapes can be obtained by centrifugal casting of the molten plastic
material.
(e) Potting: In this method, the plastic material is cast around an electrical
component, which gets embedded in the plastic material. This is achieved by
pouring the molten plastic material in a housing or case, which is an integral part
of the component and in which the component is repositioned before pouring the
plastic.
(f) Encapsulation: Here, the component is covered with a layer of cooled and
solidified plastic.
(g) Both potting and encapsulation are very important to the electrical and
electronics industry. The plastic material serves as a dielectric.
(h) Foam moulding / casting: In this method a foaming agent is mixed with the
plastic resin. The mixture is placed in a mould and heated. The foaming agent
makes the material to expand (even up to 50 times the original size) to take up the
shape of the mould. The amount of expansion can be controlled through
temperature and time. Both rigid and flexible foamed plastics can be obtained
from thermo-plastics and the thermo-setting plastics. Rigid construction is used
for structural purposes and flexible for cushioning. Product application include:
Shaped packaging materials for cameras, appliances and electronics etc. insulating
blocks, food containers and Styrofoam cups.
2.4.7 MACHINING OF PLASTICS:
Plastic can be machined, but in most cases, machining of plastics is not required.
Moulding and forming methods can obtain acceptable surface quality and dimensional
accuracy. However, there are certain plastics like PTFE (Polytetra fluoroethylene)
which are sintered products and are not mould able by usual techniques, as they do
not melt. For such thermo stable plastics machining is a viable alternative to
moulding.
The machining of plastics (by operation such as turning, drilling and milling) has
special features due primarily to the structure of the material. It also depends upon
the binder upon the binder and the filler and the method of moulding the component.
For example, the machining of thermosetting plastics allows optimum cutting
variables and tool geometry to be employed because these do not soften on heating,
whereas thermoplastic resins soften under heat. The permissible maximum
52
temperature in the cutting zone is 160
0
C for thermo-setting resins and only 60
0
C to
100
0
C for thermoplastics.
Special features of the machining of plastics are:-
The tendency of certain plastics to splitting.
High elasticity (40 times as much as that of steels). Therefore, they must be
carefully supported, to avoid their deflection during machining.
Non-homogeneous structure of the material, with components of different
hardness. This results in poor surface finish after machining.
Plastics have a strong abrading action on cutting tools.
Their low thermal conductivity results in poor heat dissipation from the
cutting zone and in over-heating of the cutting edges.
The intense dust formation, especially for thermosetting plastics, makes it
necessary to use special dust -removing devices.
The hygro scopicity of plastics excludes the use of liquid cutting fluids.
Compressed air is commonly used for cooling.
Reinforced plastics are very difficult to machine.
Plastics can be machined with H.S.S. and cemented -carbide tools. In machining a
plastic material with a filler of glass, quartz or mica type, a satisfactory tool life can
be obtained only with carbide -tipped tools. Only diamond tools are suitable for
turning high-strength plastics of this type. The strength of cast parts of laminate
plastics is 40 to 50 percent less than that of the parts made by compression moulding.
Therefore, higher cutting speeds and feeds can be used in their machining than for
strong thermo-setting plastics. The main trouble in turning laminated plastics is the
peeling of the surface layer.
The cutting variables are also influenced by the life of cutting tool which is subject to
abrasive wear in machining most engineering plastics. Dulling of the cutting tool
leads to a poor surface finish and to breaking out of the material at the points the
cutting tools enters and leaves the cut. This makes it necessary to use more keenly
sharpened cutting tools for plastics. The need for sharp cutting edges follows from
the high elasticity of plastics.
The selection of cutting variables is also influenced by the low heat conductivity of
the plastics, since, in machining the tool may be within a closed volume (as in
drilling) with no cooling facilities. This may lead to charring of the machined surface.
The cutting tool angles for machining plastics are made somewhat different than those
of tools for ferrous and non-ferrous metals. The rake angles are positive and relatively
larger. Because of the visco elastic behavior of thermoplastics, some of the local
elastic deformation is regained when the load is off. Therefore tools must be made
with large relief angles (20
0
to 30
0
).
Abrasive machining of plastics has many advantages over machining with metal
cutting tools. These include the absence of splitting and crack formation, and the
better surface finish that can be obtained.
In grinding, the contact between the wheel and the surface being ground, should be as
short as possible, to avoid burns. Organic glass is commonly ground with coated
abrasive, applying an ample amount of water as a coolant. If possible, however,
grinding should be replaced by polishing with a felt, broadcloth or flannel wheel
charged with lapping paste, the process is known as Buffing. The buffing wheels
53
are of diameter 250 mm, 40 to 60 mm wide and of speed 2000 rev/min. Medium and
fine lapping pastes are used as the buffing compound for plastics. Laminate fabric
base, asbestos-fiber and glass -fiber laminate can be cut with abrasive wheels (SiC) of
grain size 24 to 46 and with a 5% emulsion as the cooling fluid.
2.4.8 OTHER PROCESSING METHODS FOR PLASTICS
1. Calendering: It is an intermediate process where the extruded plastics sections
are reduced to sheet which may or may not, then be formed to final shape by vacuum
forming. It is clear that the calendering process can be used for thermoplastics and
not for thermosetting plastics.
Calendering is some ways similar to rolling process in that the material is compressed
between rolls and emerges as sheet (Fig 1.a). However, there are differences. There is
appreciable thickening after the material has reached minimum thickness at the roll
gap and the pre-calendered material is not in sheet form, but of indefinite shape. The
method of producing vide sheet and foil is illustrated in Fig (1.b). The thermoplastic
melt is fed to a multi roll calendar.
Fig. 2.5 Calendering Process
The first roll gap serves as a feeder, the second as a metering device, and the third roll
gap sets the gauge of the gradually cooling plastic which is then wound, with about
25% stretching onto a drum.
Calendering is a high -production rate (typically 100 m/min) process, mostly for
flexible PVC, for example, upholstery, rainwear, shower curtains, tapes, etc. and rigid
PVC, for example, trays, credit cards, lamination. PVC is also calendered into the
well known transparent film widely used for packaging.
2. Rotational Moulding: In this process, also called rotomoulding, large
relatively thin -walled hollow (open or closed) parts are made. A measured quantity of
Polymer powder is placed in a thin-walled metal would. The mould is closed and is
rotated about two mutually perpendicular axes as it is heated. This causes the powder
of sinter against the mould walls, building up the wall thickness of the component. At
the end of the heating and sintering operations, the mould is cooled while it is still
rotating. Applying cold water and air to the outside of the rotating mould does
54
cooling. The rotation is then stopped and the component is removed. To increase
production rates, three moulds at the end of three arms joined together to the central
spindle (just like centrifuge casting) are used, with one mould for each stage of the
process, that is, load-unload, heat and cool positions.
The process is simple as no pressure is employed and the part is free of moulded in
stresses. The technique is extensively used for the production of toys in P.V.C. such
as boats, horses etc. Large containers of Polythene (or up to 20,000 liter capacity) and
large components like laminated petrol tanks for motor care are made from polythene
(outer shell) and nylon (inner shell). Other products include: Trash Cans, Boat hulls,
buckets, housings and carrying cases etc.
3. Blow Moulding: In this process, a hot extruded tube of plastic, called a parison, is
placed between the two part open moulds (Fig 2.6 a).
The two halves of the mould move
towards each other so that the mould
closes over the tube. The tube gets pinched
off and welded at the bottom by the
closing
Moulds (Fig. 2.6 b). The tube is then
expended by internal pressure, usually by
hot air, which forces the tube against the
walls of the mould. (Fig2.c). The
component is cooled and the mould opens
to release the component (Fig. 2d). Typical
products applications are: Plastic beverage bottles and hollow containers.Fig. 2.6
4. Reaction Injection Moulding (RIM) : The method differs from the conventional
injection moulding process in the sense that it is not molten polymer which is
injected into a mould, but a mixture of two or more monomers (reactants ) are forced
into a mould cavity. Chemical reaction takes place between the constituents of the
mixture giving off heat to form a plastic polymer, which solidifies producing a thermo
set component. The major product applications include: Automotive bumpers, and
fenders, thermal insulation for refrigerators and freezers and stiffness for structural
components.
5. Solid State Forming: The term is a misnomer because the temperature of the
polymer is just (10
0
to 20
0
C) below the melting point of the polymer. The main
operations involved are: Sheet metal techniques such as stretching, bending and deep
drawing. Many food-packaging tubs and containers are fabricated from
Polypropylene. Forging is also used mainly for producing gears.
6. Cold Forming: All the cold working methods used for metals can be used for
polymers. Filaments and fibers are produced by Cold drawing, that is, continuous
stretch drawing. Conventional rolling can also be used for producing fibers. In
Cold pressing or Cold moulding, the raw thermosetting material (or mixed plastic
compounds) are put in the mould and cured in an oven. Pressure applied by the press
range from 14 MPa to 84 MPa. The moulds are made of abrasion resistant tool steel.
The process is quite economical and the process cycle is relative short. However, the
surface quality and dimensional accuracy of the part is not very good.
55
7. Thermoplastic Stamping: Thermoplastic Stamping or matched-die forming is a
method in which thermoplastic polymer sheet at melt temperature is worked between
mating dies. The cycle time is greatly reduced and the spring back is minimum.
8. Spinning: The extrusion process can be modified to produce filaments, fibers and
yarns. The molten thermoplastic polymer is extruded through a die containing holes.
For obtaining strands, the dies can be rotated to produce twists and wraps.
56
2.5 THREAD MANUFACTURING
2.5.1 INTRODUCTION
Threads are prime importance to the engineering. These are used as fasteners, to
transmit power and motion and for adjustment. The subject of thread manufacture has
assumed a great significance because of the ever-increasing demand for high
precision fastening devices and power transmission devices. At present, the threads
are manufactured by the following processes:
1. Casting
2. Thread chasing
3. Thread rolling
4. Die thread and tapping.
5. Thread milling
6. Thread grinding
2.5.2 CASTING
The accuracy and finish of threads made by casting will depend upon the method of
casting. Threads made by sand casting are rough and are not used much, except
sometimes in vises and rough machinery. Threads made by die casting and permanent
mould casting are very accurate and high finish, if properly made. However, these can
be made only of low melting point non-ferrous metals and, therefore, are not fit for
repeated use, being not hard and durable. Lost wax method can produce highly
accurate threads of good finish. But the method is costly and difficult. Sewing
machine vending machines, typewriter parts and toys may have their threads cast in
place by die casting and permanent mould casting. Such parts are rarely taken apart,
so, the method is very satisfactory. The drawbacks of sand casting can overcome by
using shell molding method. Due to the inherent drawbacks of casting methods of
thread production.
2.5.3 THREAD CHASING
The method of cutting threads with a single point tool on a center lathe and with a
multipoint tool on a turret lathe is called thread chasing. Thread chasing is a form
cutting operation, with the form tool corresponding to the profile of desired thread
space.
2.5.3.1 Thread chasing on a center lathe. The first step in cutting threads on a lathe
is to get an accurately shaped and mounted tool. The form and setting of the tool is
checked with the help of a thread template or center gauge, Fig. The job is either
mounted between centers or held in a chuck (for external threads) and held in a chuck
for internal threads. When mounting the tool in the tool post, it must be ensured that
the top of the job, Fig. After this, the second step is to establish a specific relationship
between the longitudinal movement of the tool parallel to the axis of rotation, and the
rotation, of the job. This will determine the pitch or lead of the thread. This is
achieved with the help of lead screw and a split nut. The two halves of the split nut
are fastened to the carriage. When the nut is closed on to the lead screw, it acts as a
complete nut, and the carriage starts moving as the lead screw rotates. The lead screw
is geared to the spindle and the proper speed ratio between the two is sit by means of a
gear-change box. Therefore, as the lead screw rotates, the carriage will move a
predetermined distance (depending upon the pitch of lead of the thread) per revolution
of the job. The third requirement an exact predetermined time, for taking successive
57
cuts, so that the tool enters the helical groove of the cut previously produced;
otherwise the tool may remove some of the desired thread.
Fig. 2.7 Center Gauge
This is achieved with the help of a thread dial, which is mounted on the carriage and
is driven by the lead screw through a worm gear. The face of the thread dial is
graduated into a even number of full and half divisions, Fig. Whenever the lead screw
rotates and the split nut is not engaged, the thread dial rotates. The split nut must be
engaged when a particular line on the dial face coincides with the zero line. For
cutting even number of threads, the split nut should be engaged when any line on the
dial coincides with zero line, and for cutting odd-number threads, when and homebred
line coincides with zero line.
To start cutting a thread, the tool is fed inward until it first scratches the surface of the
job. The graduated dial on the cross-slide is noted or set to zero. The split nut is then
engaged and the tool moves over the desired job length. At the end of tool travel, it is
quickly withdrawn by means of cross slide. The spot nut is disengaged and the
carriage is returned to the starting portion, for the next cut.
Fig. 2.8 Setting of cutting tool
These successive cuts are continued until the thread reaches its desired depth (checked
on the dial of cross-slide). The depth of first cut is usually 0. 25 to 0.40 mm. This is
gradually decreased for the successive cuts until for the final finishing cut; it is
58
usually 0.027 to 0.075 mm. The tool can be fed inward either radially or at an angle of
29 by swiveling the compound rest, Fig.
Fig. Thread Dial
Fig. 2.9 Feeding the tool into the job
The drawback of the first method is that the absence of side and back rake will not
proper cutting except on brass and cast iron. In the second method, the cutting mainly
takes place on one face of the tool and some side rake can be provided. Also, the chip
will curl more easily. For cutting square, acme and worm threads, the first method is
used. For cutting L.H. threads, the tool is moved from left to right and for cutting
right hand threads; it is moved from right to left. Thread cutting on a lathe is a slow
process, but it is the only process of producing square threads, as other methods
develop interference on the helix.
2.5.3.2 Thread chasing on a turret lathe. The main drawback of cutting threads on a
center lathe is that the operation cannot be done at higher cutting speeds, since the
permissible speed is limited by the quickness with which the operator can withdraw
the cutting tool from the job at the end of a cut. This drawback is overcome in turret
lathe, where thread-chasing attachment is used to cut the thread. The attachment has
no thread dial, which enables the operation of the machine even by a semi-skilled
59
worker. A simple thread chasing attachment for a turret lathe is illustrated in Fig.
From the headstock of the machine, power is given to a short lead screw, known as
the leader, by means of change gears. The fed nut and the tool slide are carried on a
shaft, which can be engaged or disengaged to the leader by means of a hand lever.
The major advantage of the arrangement is that the fed nut can be engaged to the
leader at any portion of the work rotation.
Fig. 2.10 Thread Chasing Attachment
2.5.4 THREAD ROLLING
Thread rolling is a cold working process in which a blank of diameter approximately
equal to the pitch diameter of the required thread, is rolled between hardened steel
rolling dies having the negative counter of the thread to be produced. As the thread
shaped ridges on the dies penetrate the blank material, material is displaced from the
bottom of the thread and forces radially out to form the thread crests. These are three
types of the thread rolling machine:
1. Reciprocating, flat die machines.
2. Cylindrical die machines.
3. Rotary planetary machines, having a rotary die and one or more stationary
concave-die segments.
In the reciprocating, flat die machine, one die is stationary and the other reciprocating.
The part to be threaded is rolled between the dies, as the moving die reciprocating in
reference to the stationary die. The stroke of the reciprocating die is will depend upon
the diameter of the thread being produced, since during one stroke, the blank makes
are completely revolution and the thread is completely formed. This is highly versatile
machine, since at the same time threading and knurling can be done on a part of right
and left hand threads can be rolled, by assembling two or three sets of flat dies. This
method is mainly used for the manufacture of commercial bolts and nuts.
In cylindrical die machine, the part is to be threaded is rolled between rotating
cylindrical dies. The machine can have two rounded dies located diametrically
opposite each other, or three rounds dies usually spaced. This machine is slower than
the reciprocating flat die machine and is more suitable for large sized precision
60
threads and for short run production. This machine operates with the following
motions:
1. Positive rotation of the both the dies (in a two die machine) in the same direction.
2. Radial motion of one of the dies for its rapid approach, infeed and retraction. This
method has the main application of the threads on taps.
Fig. 2.11 Thread Rolling
In rotary planetary machine, the job is rolled between a central die that rotates
continuously about a fixed axis, and one or more concave-shaped die segment located
adjacent to the periphery of the rotating die. This being a continuous process is the
fastest method of thread rolling.
2.5.4.1 Advantages of thread rolling
1. It is the fastest method of producing a thread, with production rate more than
2000 piece per minute.
2. Being a chipless forming process (no material wastage), there is lot of
material saving (about 16 to 27 %).
3. During thread rolling, the material is strained plastically and is work-
hardened, and is, therefore, stronger against both tension and fatigue, especially
the latter.
Increase in tensile strength is form 10 to 20% and that in fatigue strength is from
10 to 75%
61
4. The grain fibers remain continuous and follow the contous of the threaded
surface. Due to his, the threads are less easily sheared off than machined threads.
5. The surface of rolled thread is harder than a cut thread, so wear resistance
increases.
6. Surface finish is better as controlled by the rolls.
7. Dimensional accuracy is better, as very little wear occurs on the rolls as it
would on a cutting tool.
2.5.5 DIE THREADING AND TAPPING
2.5.5.1 Die Threading. Die threading is a method of cutting external threads on
cylindrical or tapered surfaces by the use of the solid or self-opening dies. The main
advantage of die threading is that it can be performed along with other operations on
turret lathes and on automatics (in the case of self opening dies).
2.2.5.2 Solid Dies. In principal, a solid consists of a hardened, threaded nut with
several longitudinal grooves cut away and shaped to provide cutting edges to the
remaining portions of the thread. To facilitate their use from either end, entry
chamfers are provided at both the ends. To cut the threads, the die is screwed on the
bar upon which the threads are to be cut. To move the die along the bar, it is held in
stock. This is rotated manually. To cut a smoother thread and to prolong the life of the
die, a suitable lubricant is used. The solid type dies are used rarely, because they do
not have any adjustment for wear. The solid adjustment can be adjust for size and
wear over a small amount by means of a screw, these dies are made of carbon or high
speed tool steel and can be used on a turret lathes with suitable holders.
Fig. 2.12 Solid Threading die
2.2.5.3 Self-opening die heads. The major drawback of the solid type dies is that they
must be unscrewed from the work piece by reversing the machine spindle, to
disengage the die from the work. Due to this, these dies are not suitable for use on
high speed production machines, for use on high speed production machines, e.g.
turret lathes and automatics. This drawback is overcome by using self-opening die
heads. When the required length is thread is cut, the die open automatically. At the
end of the turret slide travel, the front portion of the dire head continuous to move
forward by a small amount until the chasers in the die head move outward in the
body, under the action of a scroll or a cam. This action clears the chasers from the cut
thread and enables the die head to be withdrawn without reversing the machine
spindle. The die head, while cutting threads may advance its own guidance once it
screws itself along the work, until the die trip opens. However, for better accuracy,
there is increasing use of lead screw guides.
Depending upon the type of chaser, there are three types of die heads
1. Radial
62
2. Tangent
3. Circular
Radial chasers can be more rigidly, supported than other types. These are difficult to
resharpen and their life is short. Tangential chasers give a long life, because the length
of the teeth makes possible a large number of regrinds on the cutting face. Due to this
they are very suitable for heavy duty work and large batch production. Circular
chasers also have a long working life since these can be resharpened a number of
times. All the die-heads can either be stationary or revolving.
When used on automatics, the feed motion of the die-head is controlled by the cam
rise, which can be designed according. At the end of the return stroke, the dies are
closed automatically when the closing handle strikes a rod. Die-hands are available
for cutting threads from 6.35 mm to 114 diameter and chasers are available for any
thread form.
2.2.5.4 Thread tapping. Taps are the tools for cutting internal threads. A tap is
similar to a threaded bolt, with one to four flutes cut parallel to its axis. The flutes
perform three functions:
1. Provide cutting edges.
2. Conduct the cutting fluid to the cutting region, and
3. Act as channels to carry away the chips formed by the cutting action.
Fig. 2.13 Self opening die head
The flutes can be straight, spiral, helical or spiral pointed. Taps with straight flutes are
most commonly used, since it is easier to cut and sharpen these flutes. Tapping can be
dome manually or on drilling machines, tapping machines, turret lathes and
automatics. A hole of diameter slightly larger than the minor diameter of the thread to
be cut must already exist, for thread tapping. Drilling can make the hole, boring or
casting. The two main types of taps are: solid taps and collapsing taps.
(a) Solid taps. Solid taps are of one-piece construction. These taps are
usually worked manually but can also be used on machine tools, such
as lathes, drill presses and special tapping machines. Taps are made of
high carbon or high-speed steel. The shank of the taps is kept plain and
the end is squared. To operate the tap by hand (Hand taps), it is held at
the squared end with the help of a tap wrench, which is used to
screw the tap into the hole. To cut any particular size, hand taps are
available in sets of three: taper, plug and bottoming. The three taps are
identical in size and length, but differ in the amount of chamfer at the
bottom end. The taper plug has about 8 to 10 threads chamber at the
63
bottom end, the plug tap has 2 to 3 threads chamfered, whereas, a
bottoming tap has no taper threads at its bottom end. The tapered are
cut to the full depth gradually, so less effort is required. If a hole is
open at both ends, then, after the taper tap, plug is used for finishing
the treads as deep into the hole as its shape will permit. Lastly, the
bottoming tap is used to finish the entire thread portion. So, the three
taps should be used in the order mentioned above. The bottoming tap is
the only tap, which would nearly reach the bottom of a blind hole. The
three taps are shown in Fig. 2.14.

While threading a combined rotary and
axial motion is given to the tap. When
using a solid tap on a drill press, a
special tapping attachment is used. This
makes the tap to rotate slowly as it is fed
downward into the job. At the end of
tapping, when the spindle is raised, the
tap automatically starts rotating in the
reverse direction at a higher speed to
back the tap out of the hole in a shorter
time. On screw machine or turret lathe, a
special holder is used for the tap, in which a pin prevents the tap from rotating while it
is fed into the job. At the end of travel, the tap pulls Fig. 2.14
the pin so that it is free to rotate with the work. The machine spindle is
then reversed in motion and the pin again stops the tap from rotating while it is being
backed out of the hole.
(b) Collapsing taps. For better results, a tap (or a die) should not be backed off the
thread it has just produced, because, during backing off, they catch tiny chips which
can do damage to the product. So for good finish and to speed up openings, collapsing
taps are used, which collapse inward automatically when the thread is completed. This
makes it possible to withdraw the tap from the hole without reversing the machine
spindle.
Nomenclature: Refer to Fig. 2.15
64
Fig. 2.15
1. Axis. It is the longitudinal centre line through the tap.
2. Body. The body of a tap is the thread and fluted part of the tap.
3. Thread. It is the cutting tooth of the tap which produces the thread in a hole.
4. Angle of thread. It is the angle included between the sides of the thread,
measured in the axial plane.
5. Crest. It is the top surface joining the two sides of a thread.
6. Root. It is the bottom surface joining the sides of two adjacent threads.
7. Base of thread. It is the bottom section of a thread; the greatest section
section between the two adjacent roots.
8. Depth of thread. The depth of the thread profile is the distance between the
top of crest and the base or root of thread measured perpendicular to the axis of
the tap.
9. Side of thread. It is the surface of the thread which connects the crest with the
root.
10. Land. It is the threaded web between flutes.
11. Cutting face. It is the front part of the threaded section of the land.
12. Hook. It is the curved undercut of the cutting face of the land.
13. Heel. It is the back part of the threaded section of the land.
14. Chamfer. The tapered outside diameter at the front end of the threaded
section.
15. Point diameter. It is the outside diameter at the front end of the chamfered
portion.
16. Flute. It is the groove providing for the cutting facts of the teeth, chip passage
and cutting fluid.
17. Helix. It is the curve of an ordinary screw thread.
18. Helix angle. It is the angle made by the helix of the thread at the pitch
diameter with a plane perpendicular to the axis.
19. Shank. It is the part of the tap behind the threaded and fluted section of the
tap. The tap held or located and driven by the shank.
65
20. Square. It is the squared end of the tap.
21. Radial rake angle. It is the angle formed in a diametric plane between the
face and a radial line from the cutting edge at the crest of the thread from.
22. Chamfer angle. It is the angle formed by the tapered outside diameter at the
front end with the top axis.
23. Web. The central portion of the tap situated between the roots of the flutes and
extending along the fluted section of the tap. Its thickness increases from the front
and towards the shank end of the flutes.
24. Back taper. The reduction in diameter of the tap body of the threaded portion
from the front end towards the shank end.
25. External Centre. It is the cone-shaped end of the tap. It is provided only for
manufacturing purposes and only for small taps and usually at the thread end.
26. Internal Centre. A small drilled and countersunk hole at the end of the tap,
necessary for manufacturing purposes.
27. Thread Relief. It is the radial clearance providing a gradual decline in the
major, pitch, and minor diameters of the lands, back of the cutting face.
2.5.5.5 DESIGN FEATURES OF A TAP
A tap is essentially a screw that has been fluted to form cutting edges. The cutting
end of the tap has a relieved chamfer, which forms the cutting edges and permits it to
enter the untapped hole. The design features are illustrated below:
1. Chamfer Diameter. The chamfer diameter, of the chamfer at the front end of
the tap is made smaller than the minor diameter of the thread as given below:
d= Minor diameter of thread 0.10 to 0.15 mm for diameter upto 18 mm
= Minor diameter of thread 0.20 to 0.25 mm for diameter from 20 to 39 mm
= Minor diameter of thread 0.30 to 0.35 mm for diameter from 42 to 52 mm.

2. Chamfer Length and Chamfer Angle. It shows the material removal in
tapping threads. The cross-hatched area represents the part of the thread groove
removed in the first revolution of the tap.
Fig. 2.16 Tap Chamfer Element
The uncut chip thickness (measured perpendicular to the tap axis for simplicity)
removed by each land is,
t = h/zf
But
f =

L
ch
/p; L
ch
= chamfer length

t = ph/z.L
ch
= p.tan/z
It is clear that,
66
L
ch
= h/tan or = h/kz
where
h = depth of thread
= angle of chamfer of the tap
p = pitch of the thread being tapped.
and k =t/p is a characteristic of the construction of a tap.
Its values are: k = 0.012 to 0.02 for nut taps
= 0.03 to 0.04 for die taps
= 0.06 to 0.10 for hand and machine taps.
The chamfer angle is given as,
tan = (d
o
-d
b
)/2 L
ch
therefore L
ch
= (d
o
-d
b
).cot/2
where
d
o
= major diameter of the tap thread
d
b
= diameter of blank hole for tapping.

3. Flutes: Most taps have straight flutes, but special taps have helical flutes. Changing
the hand of the helical flutes on the tap can change the direction of the chip flow.
Left-handed flutes will drive the chips forward, ahead of the tap. Left-handed flutes
will drive the chips forward, ahead of the tap, and, so, are used for tapping through
holes. For tapping blind holes, right-handed flutes are used for which the chip flow
will be towards the shank. With straight fluted taps, the chips can be made to flow
forward, ahead of the tap, by grinding a spired point on the cutting face of each land
at the chamfered end.
The number of flutes may vary from 2 to 8, the higher number is used for larger
diameter taps.
Larger the number of flutes, better will be the quality of the tapped thread. However,
the cut chips will be thinner, the specific cutting force and the torque will be higher.
Table: 2.1 Number of Flutes
Type of Tap Number of flutes
Major diameter, mm
2 to 6 8 to 14 16 to 24 27 to 36 39
to 52
Hand, nut and machinetaps
:
For metric and inch threads
For pipe threads
Master taps
3 3 3 or 4 4 4
to 6
- 3 or 4 6 6
6
3 4 6 6 6
to 8
Tap geometry :
i) Rake angle. of the sizing and chamfer part is given below , depending upon the
type of material to be tapped.
67
= 15
o
,for steel with
t
<600 MPa.
= 10
o
, for steel with
t
600 to 900 MPa
= 5
o
,for steel with
t
>900 MPa
= 5
o
for Grey C.I.
= 0
o
for Bronze
= 20
o
to 30
o
for Aluminium and its alloys.
ii) Relief angle. Relief is provided only on the chamfer length. It is obtained by
relieving the thread only on the crests along the length of the chamfer. Its
recommended values are :
= 8
o
to 10
o
for machine taps
= 6
o
to 8
o
for hand taps
= 8
o
to 12
o
for nut and machine taps
= 3
o
to 4
o
for die calibrating taps
= 4
o
to 8
o
for taps for light alloys.
The relieving over the chamfer length will be given as,

K = d
o
.tan /z
There is usually no relief on the sizing section and at the flank of the thread. Relieving
reduces the friction between the tap and the surface of the hole.
iii) Back-Taper : Axial back taper is provided on the tap from the front end towards
the shank end to to avoid rubbing of the tap with the surface of the hole so as to
reduce friction. It is taken as :
= 0.05 mm to 0.10mm/100 mm for ground taps
= 0.08 mm to 0.12 mm/100 mm for unground taps in which threads
are
formed by rolling.
= 0.20 mm for tapping especially tough , high strength materials ,
such as
heat resistant and stainless steels and alloys and tough row-carbon
steels etc.
iv) Chamfer Angle. The leading edges of a tap are chamfered to help in starting the
tap. Smaller the chamfer angle, longer will be the chamfer length. This will result in
thinner uncut chips, resulting in increase in cutting force, eventhrough longer chamfer
length provides better guiding to the tap and the quality of the thread improves.
Table: 2.2 Chamfer Angles
Taps in a set Type of Tap ,degrees
1.
2.
3.
Nut
Taper
Rougher
Bottoming
Finisher
Taper
Rougher
Second
Intermediate
2
7
7
20
20
5
5
10
10
68
Bottom
Finisher
20
20
Cutting speeds. The cutting speeds for machine taps are :
Table: 2.3 Cutting Speeds
Work material Lubricant Tapping speed
m/min
Aluminium
Bakelite
Brass
Cast Iron
Steel :
Mild
Medium alloy
Stainless
Zinc die-cast
Kerosene and hard oil
Air blast
Soluble or light base oil
Dry or Soluble oil
Soluble or sulphur based
oil
Sulphur-base oil
Sulphur-base oil
Soluble oil
30
24
42
24
18
12
6
24
Materials. Taps are usually made of carbon tool steel or H.S.S.
2.5.6 THREAD MILLING:
In thread milling, the threads are cut by a revolving from milling cutter conforming to
the shape of the thread to be produced. Both external and internal threads can be cut
by this method. Thread milling has got the following characteristic:
1) This is a fast thread cutting method for producing threads usually of too large
a diameter for die heads.
2) The threads produced are more accurate than those cut by dies, but less
accurate than produced by grinding.
3) Threads running upto a shoulder on the workpiece can be cut without any
difficulty.
4) Worms and lead screws, which are too large to be cut with a single point tool,
can be milled.
5) This method is desirable, when the pitch of the thread is too coarse to be cut
with a die.
6) The method is more efficient than cutting thread on a lathe; especially when
the job is long or when large amounts of metal are to be removed.
For thread milling either single or multiple cutters may be used. A single-form cutter
has a single, annular row of teeth, lying in one plane. While thread cutting with a
single cutter, it is tilted through an angle equal to the helix angle of the thread to avoid
interference while cutting. To start milling the threads, the cutter is fed radially
inward equal to the depth of the thread , while the job is stationary , being held
between centers of the machine. The job is then rotated slowly and the cutter, while
rotating, is also traversed longitudinally parallel to the axis of the job, or vice versa ,
by means of a lead screw. This operation is stopped when the thread is completed.
This method of thread milling is used for cutting coarse (large-pitch or multiple-pitch)
69
threads. The threading can be completed in a single cut or roughing and finishing cuts
may be used.
The method of cutting threads with single-thread or single-rib milling cutters is
chiefly employed to cut long threads (chiefly of square and trapezoidal profiles) on
various lead screws and worms. Usually, the threads are cut rough by milling and then
chasing with a single-point tool or a formed grinding wheel finishes these.
Fig. 2.17 Thread milling with Multiple Thread Cutter; a) External Threads; b) Taper
Multiple cutter is used when the thread to be cut is not too long and it is desired to cut
the threads in one revolution of the work. The width of the cutter has to be slightly
more than the length of the thread. The cutter is set parallel to the axis of the job and
is fed radially inward equal to the depth of the thread while the job is stationary. The
job is equal to depth of the thread while the job is stationary. The job is then rotated
slowly, with the cutter moving axially a distance equal to the lead of the threads plus a
small over travel to complete the thread in one pass.
2.5.7 THREAD GRINDING
Thread grinding is used to produce very accurate threads. It is also employed to cut
threads on hardened materials for which the other methods of thread cutting are not
possible. The method is also useful for materials too soft to get a good surface finish
by other methods. Thread grinding is used to cut threads on: taps, micrometer screws,
lead screws, thread gauges and milling cutters.
70
The principle of thread grinding is similar is principle to thread milling. The grinding
wheels can be single ribbed or multi-ribbed, which are shaped (conforming to the
thread profile) by special diamond dressers. In the case of single-ribbed wheel, the
wheel turns against rotation of the job. In addition to this rotary motion, a relative
axial motion between the wheel and the job is provided with the help of a precision
lead screw. The wheel is tilted an angle equal to the helix angle of the thread, to the
axis of the job. This method is known as Traverse Thread Grinding, and is used to
produce long and coarse pitch threads. Also, the pressure on the work and hence the
heat generated during grinding is not
excessive, resulting in a more
accurate thread.
A multi-ribbed wheel, which is
slightly longer (one or two threads)
than the work, is used to cut the
entire threads in one revolution of the
work. The wheel is fed into the work
to the required depth and moves
axially a distance equal to the pitch
of the thread while the work revolves
through one revolution. The cutter is
set parallel to the axis of the job. This
method is known as plunge cut grinding. This method is employed when production
is more important than accuracy. The principle of these two methods is shown in Fig.
A thread grinding machine is similar to centre type cylindrical
Fig. 2.18 grinding machine with an
arrangement for precise movement of the machine table and provision for tilting the
grinding wheel at the helix angle of the thread.
2.6 THREAD MEASUREMENT AND INSPECTION

The elements to be checked for a thread are: major diameter, pitch diameter, pitch and
helix angle.
2.6.1 Major Diameter. The major diameter of the screw or the minor diameter of a
nut can be checked by a plain snap and plug gauges respectively. They can also be
measured with micrometer and vernier calipers. To measure the major diameter of a
screw with a micrometer, the anvils should be of sufficient diameter so as to span two
threads. To eliminate the effect of errors between the micrometer screw and the anvil
faces, it is always better to first check the instrument on a cylindrical standard of
about the same diameter as the screw.
2.6.2 Minor Diameter. Minor diameter of a screw can be measured with a screw
thread micrometer Caliper. This instrument is similar to the ordinary micrometer, but
instead of usual flat measuring faces, it has specially designed anvil and spindle
inserts. The inserts are interchangeable to suit the
71
Fig. 2.19 Screw Thread Micromtere
Thread pitch. To check the minor diameter of a screw, two V-shaped inserts are used,
so that their sharp apexes contact the roots of the screw thread.
To check the pitch diameter, inserts of a type
that contact the sides of the screw thread
near the pitch diameter are employed. For
this, a truncated thread form is used on the
inserts.
2.6.3 Pitch Diameter. One of the most
accurate methods for checking the pitch
diameter is the three-wire method. The
method consists in placing three shall
diameter cylinders (three wires of equal and
precise diameter) in the thread grooves at
opposite sides of a screw and measuring the
distance W over the outer surfaces of the
wires with an ordinary micrometer caliper
having flat measuring faces. Three wires are required to prevent misalignment of the
measuring faces on the micrometer caliper. The pitch or effective diameter is
calculated from the value W in the following manner:
Fig. 2.20
Fig. 2.21
72
It is clear that, W=P+2*d/2
Where P=pitch or effective diameter
And d= wire size
Now AC=AD-CD=d/2cosec a/2- P/4cot a/2
Where a=thread angle
And p=pitch of threads`

After simplification, it can be seen that,

W=p+d (1+coseca/2)-p/4cota/2
In case of I.S.O. metric threads, a=60
o
W=p+3d-0.866p
P=w-3d+0.866p
Here, the pitch diameter lies 0.3248p inside the crest of the thread that is,
P=D-0.6496p
D=Outside diameter
D=w-3d+1.5156p

Thus, if the wire diameter d, the thread pitch p and w are known, the pitch diameter of
the screw may easily be computed for the above relations.
2.6.4 Wire Size- Wire of any diameter can be used to measure the pitch diameter,
provided it makes contact on the true flank of the thread and provided the thread angle
is correct. A wire of best size is the one that makes contact with the flanks of the tread
at the pitch diameter. The effected diameter calculated with the help of any wire
touching the true flanks of the thread will differ from the obtained by using wire of
best size if there is any error in the angle or form of the thread. In the case of best size
wire, the point B Fig (b) at which the wire touches the flank of the thread lies on the
pitch line, that is, BC lies on the pitch line and that AB is perpendicular to the flank
position of the thread. If there is a possibility of the thread angle being incorrect, the
wire of best size should be used to determine effective diameter, since such wire will
be independent of any error in the thread angle.
2.6.5 Pitch. The pitch of the thread is usually measured with Screw pitch gauge.
Screw pitch gauges, fig are sets of flat steel blades which are notched on one edge
according to various thread pitches represented by the gauge. The blades are pivoted
at the end of a holder. To use it, the blade with the required thread pitch is applied to
the thread being checked at the radial plane. If the pitch is correct, the gauge will fit
tightly at the thread profile and no light will pass between the gauge and the thread
profile.
To estimate the values of the screw
pitch error, screw pitch comparators
are available. A comparator
comprises a frame with two or three
rods ending in ball shaped contacts.
The rods are linked to a measuring
tool, for example, a dial indicator and
the ball shaped contacts are inserted
into the thread grooves to be
checked. If the comparator has three
73
contacts it will align along the thread axis. A two contact comparator checks the
thread pitch in a direction perpendicular to the helix angle. The scale of the dial
indicator will indicate the accumulated pitch error by the number of pitches. This
instrument must be set up with gauge blocks to the nominal size of the length of the
measurement. Pitch measuring machines are also available to inspect a screw for
pitch. The machine consists of a bed with centers at each end (just like a centre lathe)
for supporting the screw. Alternate means are also available for holding nuts and
sleeves. A head carrying a stylus shaped to fit in the vee of the thread is moved along
the bed with the help of an accurate micrometer. The head is provided with an
indicator, which shows when the stylus is in its lowest position in the groove that is,
bedded home centrally in the groove of the thread. When the head is moved along the
bed, the stylus seats successively in each of the threads over the length being
examined. The pitch is determined by analyzing the micrometer ending.
2.6.6 Angle of thread. The screw pitch gauge can also give an indication about the
correctness of the thread angle. If the angle is incorrect, light will be seen between the
gauge and the thread of the profile. The thread angle of the screws is measured on an
optical instrument, the toolmakers microscope. Checking of an internal thread is
very difficult since molded copies of the thread profile must be made.
Optical projection methods are very convenient for inspecting the form and angle of a
thread. The screw is held between centers provided in the apparatus and tilted to the
helix angle so as to get a clear profile of the thread. When a beam of light is thrown
on the thread, the magnified image of the thread is projected on to a screen or onto
some part of the apparatus and compared with a master template.
The angle of thread can also be measured from the projected image with the help of a
shadow protractor provided with the apparatus. The blade of the projector is set to
each side of the thread and the angle with the vertical is measured to get the total
angle of the thread.
74
UNIT III
Theoretical basis of metal forming, classification of metal forming processes, cold forming, hot
working, Warm working, Effect of variables on metal forming processes, Methods of analysis of
manufacturing processes, Open Die forging, Rolling Power Rolling, Drawing, Extrusion.
3 THEORITICAL BASIS OF METAL FORMING
In metal forming large forces are applied to the work material to deform its
plastically, to get the desire product. The most important item in the analysis of a
metal forming processes is determination of the magnitude of the applied force, since
it is an item necessary for the design of processing equipment. Another important
factor is to know the relationship between a force and that it produces.
The most common method of determining the relationship between force (load) and
deformation is the tension test. In this, a suitable work specimen is subjected to an
increasing axial load until it fractures. The measurements of force and deformation
(elongation) are taken at frequent interval during the test. The engineering load-
deformation curve or stress strain curve for a ductile material is shown in figure. Up
to the proportional limit, the stress is directly proportional to the strain and the slop of
the curve is the modulus of elasticity, E. Point A is the elastic limit up to which work
piece will come back to its original dimension when unload. The stress at this point is
called the yield stress. For most of the material, it is quite difficult to locate the elastic
limit and yield stress is usually taken as the stress which will produce a small amount
of permanent deformation, usually equal to strain of a 0.002. This is known as offset
yield stress. Beyond elastic limit, plastic deformation begins. With the increase in
plastic deformation, the specimen becomes stronger until the point c is reached on the
curve. The curve AC is called strain-hardening or work hardening curve, since
the force required to deform the specimen increases with further straining. In this
portion of curve the specimen continues to become longer and thinner, the
deformation begins uniformly along the length of the specimen. The stress at point C
is called tensile strengthorultimate tensile strength of the material. Beyond
maximum load, the specimen starts to become thinner rapidly at some point between
two ends, until the specimen breaks or fractures. This phenomenon is called as
necking. At point of failure the load is lower then maximum load, and the stress at
this point is called as breaking stress or fracture stress.
The engineering stress in the specimen is defined as the ratio of the applied load to the
original cross-sectional area of the specimen,
S = P
A
o
The engineering strain or the conventional strain is defined as the ratio of the
elongation of the gauge length of the specimen by its original length.
e = l - l
o

l
o
3.1 CLASSIFICATION OF METAL FORMING PROCESSES
Depending upon the temperature at which a material is mechanically worked or
formed, the metal forming processes can be classified as : Cold forming, Hot forming
and Warm or Semi-hot forming.
75
3.1.1 COLD FORMING
Cold forming or cold working can be defined as the plastic deforming of metals and
alloys under conditions of temperature and strain rate such that the work hardening or
strain hardening is not relieved. Theoretically, the working temperature for cold
working is below the recrystallization temperature of the metal/alloy (which is about
one-half the absolute melting temperature). However, in practice, cold working is
carried out at room temperature.
As already discussed, cold working results in increase in strength and hardness and a
decrease in ductility of the material Fig. So, if the material is excessively deformed, it
may fracture before it is formed. To avoid this, large deformations in cold working are
obtained in several stages, with intermediate annealing. This will soften the cold
worked material and restore its ductility (Fig. ).
Fig. 3.1 Effect of cold working and annealing
In addition to the characteristics of cold working discussed in chapter 3 the cold
working process has got the following characteristics:
1. Since cold working is done at room temperature or low temperatures, no oxidation
and scaling of the work-material occur. This results in reduced material loss.
2. Cold working can make thin gauge sheets.
3. Since higher forces are required, high capacity and costly machines are needed for
cold working.
4. Severe stresses are set up in the material during cold working. This requires stress
relieving or annealing treatment, which increases the cost of cold working.
3.1.1.1 Materials for cold-working
In principle, any material can be cold worked. In practice, however, the choice is
limited by the following two factors:
1. The ability of the tool material to withstand the required pressures for cold
working of a material. Obviously, the tool material must have a mechanical
strength greater than that of the material to be cold worked. Also, from the point
of view of economy, the tool (die etc.) must have a reasonable working life, that
76
is, it must be able to withstand the developed working stresses for a reasonable
length of time.
2. The economic requirement that the maximum possible deformation of the material
should be obtained in a single working operation. This will depend upon the cold
ductility and cold flowability of the material.
Thus, the two principal limitations to cold working of a material are: the permissible
stress placed on the tool material and the ductility of the material to be cold worked.
Both cold ductility and cold flowability of a material depend closely on its chemical
composition. As for steel, with an increase in the percentage of carbon or alloying
constituents, its deformability decreases and the resistance to deformation increases.
The maximum limit is usually 0.45% carbon for steels used in cold extrusion and
1.6% carbon for other cold forging operations. Impurities such as S, P, O
2
and N
2
, also
impair the cold workability of the steel. For cold working, the micro-structure of the
material also plays an important role. Soft annealing known as spheroidize annealing
of steel before cold working improves its cold workability. The grain size is also an
important factor. Large grain is easier to cold work, while the parts made from fine
grained material are stronger. A good guiding rule for forging steels used to produce
forgings is that the stress on the die should not exceed 2500 N/mm
2
and the material
must allow at least a 25% deformation in a single step.
As a general rule, the requirements for a material to be cold worked are:
1. Yield stress curve of gentle slope.
2. Early yield point.
3. Then great elongation with pronounced necking before fracture.
The material commonly used for cold working include: low and medium carbon steel
(0.25 to 0.45%C), low alloy steels, copper and light alloys such as Aluminium,
Magnesium, Titanium, and Berylium.
3.1.2 HOT WORKING:
Hot working or hot forming can be defined as plastic deformation of metals and alloys
under conditions of temperature and strain rate, such that recovery and
recrystallization temperature of the material, and after hot working, a fine grained
recrystallization structure is obtained. Hot working occurs at an essentially constant
flow stress Fig. In addition to the characteristics discussed in chapter 3, hot working
of metals has got the following characteristics:
1. Blowholes and porosities in the work material are eliminated during hot working,
as a result of internal welding.
2. Stress annealing is not required after hot working.
3. Because of large deformations possible in one stage, the number of stages needed
to form a part is very much less compared to cold working. Also, interstate
annealing can be avoided.
4. Because of higher temperatures, there is oxidation and scaling of the material's
surface. This results in heavy loss of work material. Also, their oxide flakes may
get embedded in the surface resulting in poor surface finish.
5. Due to the occurrence of surface decarburization in steels, the surface strength and
hardness of the component is reduced.
6. Hot working cannot make thin gauge sheets.
77
7. Because of high working temperatures, there is a serious problem of surface
reactions between the metal and the furnace atmospheres, more so in the case of
reactive metals like Titanium, calling for inert atmosphere.
Note: It should be noted that difference between cold working and hot working
depends only upon the temperature of recrystallization and not on any arbitrary
temperature of deformation. Lead, tin and zinc recrystallize rapidly at room
temperature after large deformations. Hence, the working of these metals at room
temperature will constitute their hot working. Similarly working of Tungsten at about
1090
o
C will be termed its cold working, because it has recrystallization temperature
above this value.
3.1.3 WARM WORKING OR SEMI HOT WORKING:
It can be defined as plastic deforming of a metal or alloy under conditions of
temperature and strain rate, such that the drawbacks of both cold working and hot
working are eliminated and their advantages are combined together. For this, the
selection of proper temperature for warm working is very important. This depends
upon the following factors:
1. Yield or flow strength of the metal or alloy.
2. Ductility of the material.
3. Dimensional tolerance on the component.
4. Oxidation and scaling losses.
The variations of the above properties relative to the working temperature can be
studied to arrive at the proper working temperature for warm working. For example,
for 0.13% C steel; the following observations are made:
3.1.3.1 Yield Strength: In general, yield strength decreases with increase in
temperature. However, in the temperature range of 150
o
C to 350
o
C and 800
o
C to
900
0
C, it increases with, increases in temperature. The first temperature range is
called blue brittleness range of steel and in the second range, structural changes occur
in steel. Both these ranges are brittle ranges and if steel is worked in these temperature
ranges, it will fracture. So, the best temperature ranges from the yield strength point
of view are 400
o
C to 750
o
C and above 900
o
C.
3.1.3.2 Ductility: In general, the ductility or formability of a material increases with
increase in temperature. However, in temperature ranges of 250
o
C to 350
o
C and 800
o
C
to 900
o
C, it decreases with increase in temperature. Thus, from the ductility point of
view, the best temperature ranges for the above-mentioned steel is: 400
o
C to 750
o
C
and above 900
o
.
3.1.3.3. Dimensional tolerance and Scaling and oxidation losses: The dimensional
tolerances increase rapidly above 700
o
C. Similarly, scaling and oxidation losses,
which are negligible upto 700
o
C, increases very rapidly above this temperature.
From the above discussion, it is clear that the best temperature range for working the
above-mentioned steel is 400
o
C to 700
o
C. Working of steel within this temperature
range is called warm working or Semi-hot working.
78
3.1.4 Effect Of Variables On Metal Forming Processes
The various variables affecting a metal forming process can be: temperature, strain
rate or speed of deformation, friction etc.
1. Temperature: Temperature is an important variable in metal working process. Its
effect has been studied in detail in the last article. In general, it can be said that with
increase in temperature, the strength and hardness of the work-material decreases and
its ductility increases, Fig.
2. Strain-rate: Strain rate or deformation velocity has also great effect on metal
working processes. Stain rate is defined as:
= v/ h
Where v is the deformation velocity and h is the instantaneous height or length of the
workpiece. It has been experimentally observed that the effect of strain rate is
generally small at room temperature or low temperatures (cold working), but at high
temperatures, i.e. hot working, there is substantial strain-rate sensitivity. In general,
we can write the effects of strain rate as follows :
Fig. 3.2 Effect of Temperature on Stress-Strain Curve
(a) The flow stress of the material increases with strain rate.
(b) The temperature of the work-material increases with strain rate, due to adiabatic
heating.
(c) With temperature as a parameter, the tensile strength of the material increases
with strain rate.
(d) Lubrication at the tool-work piece interface improves, provided the film can be
maintained.
It is clear from above that the strength of a material which is available at low
temperatures when the material is worked at low strain rate, can be achieved at high
working temperature by working the material at high strain rates.
Table gives the typical values of deformation velocities for various tests and metal
working processes.
Table . Typical Deformation Velocities
79
Process Deformation velocity, m/s
Tensile test
Hydraulic press
Mechanical press
Tube drawing
Deep drawing
Hammer forging
Explosive forming
0.610
-6
to 0.610
-2
0.025 to 0.35
0.15 to 1.5
0.05 to 0.5
0.05 to 1.0
to 10.0
30 to 200
3. Friction
In metal forming processes where is contact between the tool and the workpiece, there
is always friction. The friction is a very important variable. It affects not only the
forming forces but also the pattern of material deformation, which becomes
increasingly non-uniform with frictin. It is also a source of heat. In cold forming,
where lubrication can be achieved efficiently, the coefficient of friction can be of the
order of 0.1, but in hot working it may be of the order of 0.6 or greater. Under such
conditions, there is sticking of the work material to the tool face and subsurface
plastic flow occurs rather than sliding.
3.1.5 METHODS OF ANALYSIS OF MANUFACTURING
PROCESSES
When a manufacturing process deforms a metal, the total work per unit volume done
on the metal is given by,
W
T
=W
p
+ W
f
+ W
r
where
W
p
= ideal work of deformation
W
f
= work to overcome friction at the metal-tool interface
W
r
= the redundant work
The redundant work is the work involved in the internal shearing process due to non-
uniform deformation. It does not contribute to the change in shape of the body. This
concept is explained in Fig. , where a billet is shown before compression and after
compression. If there is perfect lubrication at the metal-tool interface, the grid will
remain undistorted. The square grid (before compression) will become rectangular
(after compression). The height of each grid block will get shortened and its length
will get increased. Such a deformation is called uniform deformation. However, if
friction is present at the metal-tool interface, then the grid will become distorted
accompanied by barreling or bulging on the sides. The extra work, which goes to
distort the grid and also to create bulge, is a waste and is called the redundant work.
Such a deformation is called "non-uniform deformation."
80
Fig. 3.3 Mode of Deformation
The commonly used methods for the analysis of metal forming processes are :
1. Slab Method
2. Upper-Bound Method
3. Slip-line Field Method
The analysis is basically same for cold forming and hot forming, with difference only
in flow and friction characteristics. The analysis of the metal forming processes by the
above methods is only approximate due to the many assumptions made regarding the
behavior of the work material and the mode of deformation. The approximation is
better at low co-efficient of friction. Thus, the correlation is better with cold working,
low friction processes than with hot working, high friction processes.
Slab-analysis technique' or 'Elementary theory' makes the following assumptions:
1. The material is isotropic, incompressible and the elastic strains are neglected.
2. Deformation is homogenous throughout the deforming materials under study.
3. Stresses on a plane normal to the flow direction are principal stresses.
In this method a 'slab' of infinitesimal thickness is considered and a force balance
(equilibrium equation) is made on it. The resulting differential equation of static
equilibrium is solved with the help of appropriate boundary conditions and yield
criteria.
Here we shall not consider high-energy rate forming. Now, we shall discuss the
application of slab method for the analysis of common metal forming processes.
81
3.1.6 OPEN DIE FORGING
In open die forging, the work piece is upset, compressed or forged between two flat
over hanging dies. If the co-efficient of friction at the die- workpiece interface is zero
& if the material is assumed to be rigid perfectly plastic, then the force-required to
forge a specimen is equal to the product of yield stress
o
& the projected area at any
instant. Here, we shall take the case when friction is there in the interface.
1. Plane Strain Forging. Fig. shows the schematic view of open die plane strain
forging. In plain strain, the specimen is not free to flow in the direction
perpendicular to the plane of the page. As the dies come closer to each other, there
is lateral flow of the work material. Due to this, frictional shear stresses are set up
at die contact surface,
Fig. 3.4 Plane Strain Open Die Forging
which are directed towards the centre line, opposing the metal flow. Due to the
presence of interface friction, the horizontal stress x varies along the length of
the rectangular work piece. In the following analysis, it is assumed that the work
piece material behaves like an ideal plastic material, the work piece is in a
plastic state & that the stresses do not vary with height. At any instant of
forging, the equilibrium equation of a small element of width dx, in the x-
direction gives,
(
x
+ d
x
)Bh -
x
Bh 2
x
dx B = 0
d
x
/dx - 2
x
/h = 0
(i) For sliding friction; assuming coulomb friction with co-efficient of friction
, we have

x
= p
.. d
x
/dx - 2p /h = 0
.(i)
Assuming
x
& p as principal stresses, & taking trescas yield theory, we have for
plane strain,

1
-
3
=
0
= 2k
82
..
x
+ p =
0
p being
compressive.
.. d
x
/dx = - dp/dx
.. Equation (i)becomes,
dp/p = -(2 / h) . dx
Integrating, log
e
p = - (2 / h) x + c
Now at x = L,
x
= 0 (stress free surface) & we have
p =
0

.. Log
e

0
= - (2 / h) L +c
.. c = Log
e

0
+ (2 / h). L
.. Log
e
p/
0
= (2 / h) (L-x)
.. p=
0
.e
[2 (L-x)/h]
.. P/2k = p/
0
= e
[2 (L-x)/h]

(ii)
..
x
=
0
- p =
0
[1- e
[2 (L-x)/h]
]
(iii)
Fig. 3.5 Distribution of p and x
The distribution of p &
x
is shown in fig. p &
x
will be maximum at the centre,
illustrating the friction hill. So putting x = 0.
P
max
=
0
.e
(2L/h)
If is small, this can be approximated as,
(p/2k)
max
1+ 2L/h
(iii a)
(
x
)
max
=
0
[1- e
(2L/h)
]
As h decreases, p will increase for the same value of .p is directly proportional to .
Now total forging load,
L
P
t
= 2B p dx
0 L
Average pressure is, P
a
= P
t
/2BL = 1/L p dx
0
=
0
/L [e
(2 (L-x)
. (1/-2/h)]
=
0
/L [-1/2/h + e
(2L/h
). 1/2/h)]
.. P
a
=
0
/L.h/2 [-1+e
2L/h
]
(iv)
If 2L/h is small then,
83
P
a
/
0
= Pa/2k h/2L [1+ (2L/h) + (4
2
.L
2
/2h
2
) - 1]
(iv a)
1+L/h
(iv b)
ii) Sticking friction: when there is a condition of sticking friction, the work piece
material does not slide along the die face & actually becomes a part of the die face &
there is surface flow of metal. The friction shear stress at the die interface cannot be
more than the yield shear stress of the material.
So, for sticking friction,

x
= K=
0
/2 (Tresca
Condition)
.. Equilibrium equation is
d
x
/dx -
0
/h = 0
Or -dp/dx -
0
/h =0
.. p = - (
0
/h).x + c
(v)
Now usually the sliding friction exists near the edges of the work piece (x = L), where
the pressure is low, but at some distance nearer to the center line, sticking friction
may exist.
Let sticking occurs at x = x
s
, where

s
= p =
0
/2 [here p= p
s
(sticking)]
.. From equation (ii)

0
/2=
0
+ e
2 (L-x
s
)/h
.. e
2 (L-x
s
)/h
= 1/2
.. x
S
= L-(h/2 ).log
e
(1/2 )
(v a)
.. At x = x
s
p = p
s
.. From equ. (v),
p
s
= (-
0
/h).x
s
+C
.. C = p
s
+ (
0
/h).x
s

.. In the sticking region, p = p
s
+ (
0
/h) (x
s
-x)
Where p
s
=
0
.e
2[(L-xs]

(v b)
(ii) If the friction is high, for example, in hot forging it may reach sticking
friction, then sticking regime extends over the whole interface. For this situation,

s
= k =
0
/2
.. Equation (i) becomes,
hd
x
2kdx = 0
Now
x
+ p = -
0

.. d
x
= -dp
.. -hdp 2kdx = 0
.. dp/2k = - dx/h
.. Integrating, p/2k = -x/h + C
Now at x = L, p = 2k =
0
(since
x
= 0)
.. C = 1 + L/h
.. (p/2k)
max
= 1+ (1/h) (L-x)
84
.. (p/2k)
max
= 1+L/h (at centre, x=0)
. (V c)
Average pressure will be, p
a
= 2k (1+L/h)
. (V d)
Note: The value of co-efficient of friction at sticking conditions:
= 0.5, Tresca yield condition
= 0.577, von-mises yield condition
2. Axisymmetric forging. Fig. shows the stresses acting on a sector of circular disc.
Taking the equilibrium of forces in the radial direction,

r
h.rd-(
r
+d
r
) h(r+dr) d+2

hdr sin (d/2) 2 r d = 0

Taking sin (d/2) d/2, the above equation reduces to,

r
h dr + d
r
r h

h dr 2 r dr = 0
The disc being axi-symmetric,
d

= d
r
.. Where = r
(The material being rigid perfectly plastic, the incremental plastic strains will be the
total incremental strains).
Making this substitution, we finally get
d
r
/dr 2/h =0
Now = p = -z (p
= -z)
.. d
r
/dr + 2
z
/h = 0
Now using Von-Mises yield condition,
2
0
2
= (
1
-
2
)
2
+ (
2
-
3
)
2
+ (
3
-
1
)
2
Taking
r
,

&
z
as principal stresses, we get
2
0
2
= (
r
-
z
)
2
+ (
z
-

)
2
+ (

-
r
)
2
We have
r
=

2
0
2
= (
r
-
z
)
2
+ (
z
-
r
)
2
+ (
r
-
r
)
2
.. 2
0
2
= 2(
r
-
z
)
2
..
0
=
r

z
=
r
+ p
.. d
r
= - dp
.. dp/p = - 2r/h
.. log
e
p = - 2r/h + C
At the outer surface, r= R,

=0
.. C = log
e

0
+ 2R/h
.. log
e
p/
0
= 2/h (R-r)
Or p =
0
.e
2/h (R-r)
.
(vi)
Average pressure will be
R
p
a
= 2pr dr/r
2
0
=
0
/2 (h/R)
2
[e
(2R/h)
(2R/h) - 1]
Now, the pressure will be the maximum when r = 0
.. (p/
0
)
max
= e
(2R/h)

(vi b)
85
Fig. 3.6 Axisymmetric Forging
i) Sticking friction. When sticking friction occurs over a portion of the disc, the
problem can be analyzed on the same lines as for plane strain forging. Thus, sticking
radius will be given as, see equ. (v a)
R
s
= R h/2 log
e
(1/2)
(vi c)
For Von-Mises yield condition.
R
s
= R h/2 log
e
(1/3)
(vi d)
Pressure at the sticking radius, see equ. (v b)
Ps =
0
e
[2(R-Rs)/h]

(vi e)
In sticking region,
p = p
s
+
0
/h (R
s
-R)
(vi f)
Pressure at the centre, that is, R = 0
p
c
= p
s
+
0
/h. R
s

(vi g)
(iii) For hot forging, the interface friction often reaches the sticking value.
Then = k
.. From d
r
/dr 2/h = 0
dr/dr 2k/h = 0
Now dr = - dp
.. - h dp 2k dr = 0
Integrating, p = - 2k/h. r + constants
At r = R,
r
= 0 and p =
0
(from yield condition)
.. Constant =
0
+
0
/h. R
.. p =
0
+
0
/h. (R - r)
or p/2k = 1 + 1/h (R-r)
p
max
= 2k (1 + R/h)
(vi h)
86
p
a
= 2k (1 + R/2h)
Empirical Methods to Compute Forging Loads
1. Open Die Forging. The load required to forge a flat section in open
dies estimated by,
P = A. C., N
Where = mean flow, stress N/mm
2
A = forging projection area, mm
2
C = constant (constraint factor) to allow for inhomogeneous
deformation
The deformation resistance increases with which is defined as,
= mean thickness deforming zone/ length of deforming zone
= h/2L
Then C is given as, C = 0.8 + 0.2
2. Closed-die Forging. The prediction of forging load in a closed-die forging process
is quite difficult. Fig. shows a typical curve of forging load vs. pres stoke. The flash
land (Fig.) is so designed that the extrusion of metal through the narrow flash opening
is more difficult than the filling of the most intricate detail in die. However, excessive
restriction to metal flow in flash land will result in very high forging loads
accompanied by die wear & breakage. The ideal design is minimum flash to do a job.
Fig. 3.7 Variation of Forging Load with Press Stroke
For closed-die forging also, we can use the empirical relation,
p = . A. C.
Where A = cross-sectional area of forging at the parting line, including the
flash.
C = a constant factor depending upon the complexity of
the forging
= 1.2 t0 2.5 for upsetting a cylinder between flat dies.
= 3 to 8 for closed die forging of simple shapes with
flash.
= 8 to 12 for more complex shapes
87
It may be of interest that every 10 MN of force corresponds approximately to 1000 kg
of falling parts of hammer.
88
3.1.7 ROLLING
In rolling, the metal is plastically deformed by passing it between rolls. Rolling is
done both hot and cold. The starting material is cast ingot, which is broken down by
hot rolling into bloom, billets and slabs, which are further hot rolled into plate, sheet,
rod, bar, pipe, rails or structural shapes. Cold rolling is usually a finishing process in
which products made by hot rolling are given a good surface finish with increased
mechanical strength of the material. The main objective in rolling is to decrease the
thickness of the metal. Ordinarily, there is negligible increase in width, so that the
decrease in thickness results in an increase in length.
Fig. Shows the typical geometry for rolling. A metal sheet with a thickness
0
h
enters
the rolls, passes through the roll gap and leaves with a reduced thickness
1
h
. Since
the volume rate of metal flow has to remain constant, therefore, velocity at exit
1
V
will be more than velocity at entrance
0
V
. The roll has a constant surface velocity
r
V
. Thus, there is relative sliding between the roll and the work piece, the direction
of this relative velocity changes at a point along the contact area, this point is known
as the no slip point or neutral point, N, where the velocities of roll and work piece
will be equal.
For plane strain rolling,
1 0
1
0 0
1
1 0
1 1 1 0 0 0
h h
h
h v
V
b b b
b h V b h V
>

(volume constancy)
Analysis of Metal Forming Processes
As

89
Fig. 3. 8Geometry of Rolling Process
1 0
0 1
,
v v v
have we and v v
r
< <
>
At neutral plane
r
V
=
m
V
is the component of
r
V in horizontal direction, but as the
angle of inclination is very small, we can take
).
m r
V V
Because of the relative velocities involved, we have two definitions:
Backward slip =
r
r
V
V V
0

Forward slip =
r
r
V
V V
1
Zone ANNB is lagging zone ( )
r
V V < and zone NDCN is leading zone ( )
r
V V > .
The angle

between the entrance plane and the centre-line of rolls is called the
angle of contact or angle of bite.
Let us consider the moment when the rolling process is just going to start. The roll
contacts the entering material (may be the strip) at point A, Fig. 2
( ) a
. This contact
result in a normal face
r
P
and F , that is T , is sloped to the right, the its component
along the X-axis
0 >
x
T
which tends to push the workpiece into the roll opening and
thus ensures biting. Thus the condition of biting, that is the condition for unaided
entry of the workpiece in the rolls is,
0 sin cos >
r x
P F T
Or
tan >
r
P
F
But
r
P F (Coulomb friction)
( )
( )
2
1
2
5 . 0 ,
h R I
h R is h Usually
Now
or

<

90

tan >
Let

, tan
where

the angle of friction is, therefore, the limiting condition

becomes,
< > > or or , tan tan
Which means that rolls bite a workpiece, if the able of friction is greater than the
angle of tangency (biting)? If tan exceeds

, then the workpiece cannot be drawn

into the rolls. The values of biting angles are usually.
0
3 to
0
4
for cold rolling of steel and other metals, with lubrication or well
ground rolls.

0 0
8 6 to for cold rolling of steel and other metals, with lubrication on rough
rolls.

0 0
22 18 to for hot rolling steel sheets.

0 0
22 20 to for hot rolling aluminium at 350
0
C

0
28 for hot rolling steel in ragged or well roughed rolls.
Ragging is the process of making certain fine grooves on the surface of the roll to
increase the friction in cold rolling the co-efficient of friction is usually of the order of
0.1 (due to the possibility of lubrication), but in but rolling usually the sticking
conditions exists.
Total reduction or draft taken in rolling,
2
1 0
h h h ( ) ( ) cos 1 cos D R R
Usually, the reduction in blooming mills is about 100 mm and in and in slabbing
mills, about 50 to 60 mm. The projected length of the arc of contact is,
( )
( )
2
2 2
5 . 0 .
5 . 0 cos 1 .
sin .
h
h
P
B
I
h R CE and h R BC
CE BC I
R I

The vertical component of
r
P
is known as the rolling load, . P This is the force
with which the rolls press against the metal. Due to reaction, the metal tends to
separate the rolls apart, therefore, this force is also called the Separating force.
The specific roll pressure,
I b
P
area contact
P
P
.

Where b is the width of the sheet? For uniform deformation and no friction, the
specific roll pressure may be taken equal to mean yield stress (flow stress), of the
material. Thus, the rolling load is given as,
b I p . .
the various methods to reduce
the separating force are:
1. Smaller roll diameter (which reduces contact area).
2. Lower friction.
3. Higher workpiece temperature (even though friction will increase, but
' ' p
will be smaller).
4. Take, smaller bites, thereby reducing the contact area.
5. From equation of max. shear stress criterion, it is clear that yield stress of the
material in one direction is a function of the stress in the other principal stress.
91
Therefore, if we apply tensile force to the workpiece in the horizontal direction,
the compressive yield strength of the material in the vertical direction will be
lower; hence, the separating force will be smaller. Both back tension and front
tension can be applied.
(a) at the start of rolling
(b) after roll gap is filled by metal
Fig. 3.9 Biting of Workpiece by Rolls.
Analysis: The stress equilibrium of an element in rolling is shown in Fig. 3.9. The
following assumptions are made:
1. Rolls are straight, rigid cylinders:
2. Strip is wide compared with its thickness, so that no widening of strip occurs
(plane strain conditions).
3. The material is rigid perfectly plastic (constant yield strength).
4. The co-efficient of friction is constant over the tool-work interface.
Fig. 3.10 Stress Equilibrium of an Element in Rolling
92
Considering the thickness of the element perpendicular to the plane of paper to be
unity, we get equilibrium equation in x-direction as,
( ) ( ) 0 cos 2 2 + + + + d R d pR dh h d h
x z x x
For sliding friction,
. p
x

Simplifying and neglecting second order terms, we get
( )
( )

cos sin 2 pR
d
h d
x

The negative sing applies within the lagging zone and the positive sign applies within
the leading zone, because the direction of the friction force changes at the neutral
plane.
The mathematics for the solution of equation (a) is very complex and various
assumptions and approximations have to be made to get a tractable solution.
In rolling, the angle

is usually small, therefore,

93
94
95
96
97
1. The initial hot-ingot breakdown is eliminate. This results in large saving in
capital investment.
2. Contamination present in hot rolling is minimized.
3. Sheets with very fine grain size or with a minimum of preferred orientation
can be obtained.
98
99
3.1.8 DRAWING (WIRE, ROD, TUBE)
In wire, rod or tube drawing, the work piece is pulled through a die resulting in
reduction in the cross-section. A typical drawing die is shown in Fig. is the
entrance angle and it provides the entry zone to allow the introduction of lubricant
into the working zone and also to protect the work material against scoring by die
edges. The angle is usually about 40
o
. is half die angle (usually 6
o
to 24
o
) and
here the actual reduction is section occur. The die bearing surface or land (a few mm
long) serves to guide the wire or rod as it comes out from the working zone of the die.
It ensures accuracy of dimensions from the working zone of the die. It ensues
accuracy of dimension and of the sections shape. The exit zone prevents damage to
die bearing and scoring or finished product. There are a number of variables in the
drawing process: work-material properties, reduction in cross-sectional area, die
angle, drawing speed, and lubrication. The performance of the operation is affected by
a change in one or more of these variables. The degree of drawing is measured in
terms of reduction of area (RA):
Fig. 3.11 Drawing Die
For fine wires, the reductions per pass of 15 to 25 percent are used, while for coarse
wires this value per pass may be 20 to 50 per cent.
Die life is an important consideration. To increase die life, pressure on die should be
reduced. This is accomplished by back tension (similar to rolling). This reduces the
pressure but increases the drawing tension,
d
die material can be alloy steels,
carbides and diamonds. Drawing speeds range from about 9 mpm for largest diameter
rods and 90 mpm for small rods and coils to 1500 mpm very fine wires.
100
Analysis of Wire,Rod Drawing: Fig. shows the stress acting on an element in
Drawing of Wire or Rod. The equilibrium equation in X-direction will be:
0
cos
2 sin . )
cos
2 ( cos . . ) ( ) (
2 2

,
_

+ + + +

dx
r P
dx
r r dr r d
x x x x x
101
102
Optimum die-angle for Wire drawing. As already
discussed under Art. The deal total load in any deformation
process consists of three parts: ideal load, load to overcome
external friction and the load to overcome redundant work.
103
i. The ideal load is given as=
o
A. In r, where
o
is the field stress, A is the
appropriate, cross-sectional of the metal, fig. 3.12 on which the load is applied and
r is the reduction achieved. This load is independent of semi-die angel ,
ii. The external frictional work load will depend upon: pressure between the metal
being deformed and the die, the co-efficient of friction at metal-tool interface, and
the area of surface contact between metal and tool. It is clear that the area of
contact decreases, as the die angle is increased Fig. Resulting in decreased
frictional load, fig.
iii. Redundant work is the wasted work utilized to bend the metal fibers first one way
and then back to the original direction of flow (in wire drawing). It s again clear
from fig. That the angle of bend and hence the redundant work will increase as the
die angle increases. This is made clear in fig.
By combining the above three types of load, the variation of total wire drawing load
with semi-die angle, can be drawn, fig. It is clear that at a certain value of
(optimum semi-die angle), the total load is minimum. It is found in practice that the
harder the metal, the smaller the optimum die angle, as given below:
= 24
o
for Aluminium = 12
o
for Copper = 6
o
for steel
3.1.8.1 Tube or Pipe drawing: Tubes which are made by hot metal working
processes (piecing, extrusion and rolling) are finally cold drawn to obtain better
surface finish and dimensional tolerances, to enhance the mechanical properties of the
pipe (by work hardening) and to produce tubes of reduced wall thickness or smaller
diameter.
The three common methods of tube drawing are: Tube sinking, Tube drawing with a
plug and Tube drawing with a moving mandrel, the last two methods being more
widely used because in tube sinking, fig. (a), the inside of the tube is not supported
and so during drawing operation, the inner surface becomes uneven and there will be
tendency for the wall thickness to increase slightly. In plug drawing and movable
mandrel drawing, both the inner and outer surfaces of the tube are controlled and we
get tubes of better dimensional accuracy as compared to Tube sinking. In plug
drawing, the plug (which may be either cylindrical or conical) can either be fixed,
[fig.] or floating, [fig]. The friction with a fixed plug will be more than with a floating
plug, so the reduction in area seldom exceeds 30% in this method. With a floating
plug, this figure can e approximately 45% or with the same reduction, the drawing
loads will be less with floating plug than with a fixed plug. The friction is minimized
in Tube drawing with a movable mandrel. However, after tube drawing, the mandrel
has to be removed by rolling, which results in slightly increased tube diameter and
reduced dimensional tolerance.
104
Fig. 3.13
3.1.8.2 Analysis of Tube drawing: In tube or pipe drawing with a plug or
movable mandrel, most of the deformation occurs as a reduction in wall thickness.
There is only a small reduction in inside diameter, needed only to insert plug or
mandrel before drawing. Thus, there is no hoop strain and the analysis can be
based on plane strain conditions.
The stress system for tube drawing is shown in fig.
The equilibration equation can be written and solved as explained below:
If wall thickness h is small in comparison with pipe diameter D and the variation
of D per pass is small, then pressure p varies little in the deformation zone across
the thickness of pipe. The equilibration equation can be written b considering the
force acing on the annular element, with respect to the axis of drawing. Refer fig.
(a) for plug drawing.
Fig. 3.14
105
106
107
Tube drawing with a moving mandrel. In plug drawing, the friction drag acts in
the backward direction (that is towards the die entrance) nboth at the die, tube
interface and tube plug interface, Fig. 13.19 (a.) But in tube drawing with a
moving mandrel, the friction conditions at the tube mandrel interface get reversed
because while the tube is getting elongated, the mandrel remains underformed.
Thus, the friction force at the tube mandrel interface is directed toward the exit of
the die, that is opposite to the direction of friction force at the die tube interface
due to this the relation for B will get change to.
B=


tan tan
2 1

The mandrel will be usually cylindrical that is

0
therefore

tan
2 1

if
2 1
108
then B=0 and equilibrium equation will get reduce to
hd
( ) 0 + + P dh
x x

from here the equation can be obtained for draw stress as
0
0
.
1 /
1
log
h h
e d

Die Pressure: Now die pressure is given as
P=
x

0
from yield equation.
Therefore, calculating
x
along the x axis at different points by equivation we get
the variation of die pressure can be plotted from the point of entry to the die exit.
Maximum Reduction Possible in Tube Drawing:
as discussed under wire drawing the maximum reduction is limited by the mechanical
strength of the exit end of the tube that is when
1
0

d
1
0
1
1
1
max

1
1
1
1
1
]
1

1
]
1

+
B
h
h
B
B
0 , 15 , 05 . 2 1
0

68 . 3
1
, 373 . 268 . / 10 .
tan
2 1

,
_

+

+

B
B
B

4275 . 7283 .
0
1
68 . 2
max

1
]
1

h
h
Maximum possible reduction is about 43%
109
3.1.9 EXTRUSION
In general, extrusion may be defined as a process by which a block of metal is
reduced in cross-section, by forcing to flow through a die under high pressure. The
main advantage of extrusion is that high compressive stresses are set up in the billet
due to its reaction with the container and the die. These stresses are effective in
reducing the cracking of materials during primary breakdown from the billet. Due to
this, large reductions are possible and also the difficult metal can be extruded, for
example, stainless steel, nickel-based alloys and other high temperature materials.
Extrusion can be used both for hot and cold working. Also bars, hollow tubes and
shapes of irregular cross-section can be extruded. Extrusion could well be considered
as application of closed die forging, the difference being that in a forging, the main
body of the metal is the product and flash is cut away and discarded, in extrusion the
flash in the product and the slug remaining in the die is not used.
The various types of extrusion processes are shown in figure. The direct extrusion is
the simplest, but it is limited by the fact that as the ram moves, the billet must slide or
shear at the interface between billet and the container. These large friction forces must
be overcome by very high ram forces, which produce very high
Fig. 3.15
residual forces on the container. In the indirect method, the billet proper does not
move relative to the container, instead the die moves. The friction involved is only
between the die and container and this is independent of billet length. The friction
forces are lower and power required for extrusion is less than for direct extrusion.
Extruding force is 25 to 30% less than in direct extrusion. However, a long hollow
ram is required and this limits the loads, which can be applied. As is clear from the
figure, in direct extrusion, the product emerges in the same direction as the movement
of the ram, whereas in the direct extrusion, the product travels against the direction of
the ram. The container friction can be avoided by hydrostatic extrusion, where a
pressurized liquid medium is used for the transmission of the force to the billet. Due
110
to hydrostatic pressure, the ductility of the material is increased. Even brittle materials
like tungsten, cast iron and stainless steel etc. can be extruded. This also permits the
extrusion of very long billets or even wires, accompanied by large reductions. The
pressurised fluid also acts as a lubricant and because of this, the extruded product has
a good surface finish and dimensional accuracy. However the absence of container
friction combined with reduced die friction can increase the tendency to internal crack
formation. The pressure transmitting fluid commonly used for hydrostatic are:
Glycerine, ethylglycol, SAE 30 mineral lubricating oil, castor oil, and isopentane. The
hydrostatic pressure ranges from 1100 to 3150 N/mm
2
. The main commercial
applications of this process are: Cladding of metals, making wires of less ductile
materials and extrusion of nuclear reactor fuel rods. Impact extrusion, is used to
produce short length of hollow shapes such as collapsible toothpaste tubes. However
the process is limited to soft ductile materials such as aluminum, Tin, and Lead.
Hollow work pieces can be extruded by attaching a mandrel to the end of ram in
forward extrusion.
The extrusion ratio, R, defined as the ratio of the cross-sectional area of the billet to
the cross-sectional area of the product, reaches about 40: 1 for hot extrusion of steel
and may be high as 400: 1 for aluminum. The other advantages are:
1. Cross-sectional shapes not possible by rolling can be extruded.
2. No time is lost when changing shapes since the dies may be readily removed
and replaced.
3. Dimensional accuracy of extruded parts is generally superior to that of rolled
ones.
4. The range of extruded item is very wide: rods from 3 to 250 mm in dia, pipes
of 20 to 400 mm in dia and wall thickness of 1 mm above, and more complicated
shape which can not be obtained by other mechanical methods.
5. Automation of extrusion is simpler as items are in a single passing.
However, extrusion has the following drawbacks:
1. Processes waste in extrusion, which consist of body leading end of section and
of a un extruded butt, is higher in rolling. It is 18 to 20% of the billet weight in
direct extrusion, 5 to 6% of the billet weight in indirect extrusion. Where as the
waste in rolling is only 1 to 3%.
2. In homogeneity in structure and properties of an extruded product is greater
due to different flows of the axial and the outer layer of the blanks.
3. Service life of extrusion tooling is shorter because of high contact stresses and
slip rates.
4. In productivity extrusion is much inferior to rolling.
5. Costs of extrusion are generally greater than other methods.
The main fields of application of extrusion are:
1. Working of poorly plastic and nonferrous metals and alloys.
2. Manufacture of shapes and pipes of complex configuration.
3. Small batch production.
4. Manufacture of parts of high dimensional accuracy.
111
3.1.9.1 Analysis of Extrusion process: The analysis of extrusion process for round
bar extrusion through a conical die is very similar to that for drawing of a round bar
discussed in previous articles. We know that:
Log
e
[B
x
(1+B)
0
] = ( log
e
rC)
2B
B
X
(1+B)
0
=

(

rC)
2B
Now at the die exit, the longitudinal stress is zero,
At r = r
f

x
= 0(r
f
is the final radius)
- (1+B)
0
= (r
f
C)
2B
C = [-(1+B)
0
]
1/2B
/r
f

x
=
0
(1+B)/B {1-(r/r
f
)
2B
}
Now at
r = r
0
(original radius)

x
= extrusion pressure,
x0

x0
=
0
(1+B)/B {1-(r/r
f
)
2B
}
Now extrusion ratio,
R = A
0
/A
f
= (r
0
/r
f
)
2
for round bars
= h
0
/h
f
for flat strip

x0
=
0
(1+B)/B (1-R
B
)
3.1.9.2 Variation of extrusion pressure. The extrusion pressure depends upon the
following factor:
1. The type of extrusion, that is, direct or indirect.
2. The extrusion ratio
3. The working temperature.
4. The speed of deformation.
5. The frictional conditions at the die and the container wall.
The variation of extrusion pressure with ram travel is shown in figure. Initially there
is step rise in extrusion pressure reaches the maximum value called the breakthrough
pressure, the material starts flowing through die. After this, the pressure starts
decreasing with decrease in billet length. In the case of indirect extrusion, since there
is no relative motion between the billet and the container wall, the extrusion pressure
almost remains constant with increasing ram travel once it reaches the maximum
value. This extrusion pressure represents the stress needed to deform the material
through the die. This variation of extrusion pressure with ram travel is better than that
of direct extrusion, but, indirect extrusion has its own limitations as discussed above.
At the end of ram stroke, the pressure builds up gradually and it is usual practice to
stop the process at this point and leave a small portion of the billet in the container as
discord. In extrusion, hydraulic presses with either vertical or horizontal plunger are
most commonly used. The pressure of working fluid may reach 400 atm and the force
30,000 tf. Mechanical presses are used to a lesser extent. Lubricants used are: mixture
of machine oil and graphite, molten glass.
112
Fig. 3.16
113
Q
Ans 1. The drawing stress is given as

d =

o
(1+B) [1-{r
1
/r
o
}
2B
],
b
being not mentioned
B = cot = 0.1 * 7.115 = 0.7115

r
1
/r
0
= 5/5.5 = 0.91

{n/r
o
}2
B
= (0.91)2*0.7115 = 0.873
Therefore,
d
= 240(1 + 0.7115)/0.7115(1 0.973) = 73.41 N/mm
2
(
x
+ d
x
)r12
x
. r
1
2 - 2r1dxx = 0
d
x
/dx = 2x/r1 = 2Px/r
1

x
+ P
x
= o (Tresca yield condition)

Now P
x
=
o

x
d
x
/dx = 2/r
1
(
o

x
)
d
x
/2 (
o

x
) = dx/r
1
Integrating, -log (
o

x
) = 2/r
1
x + c
x = 0,
x
=
d
c = -log
e
(
o

d
)
Log = (
o

d
)/ (
o

x
) = 2/r
1
. x

o

d
= (
o

x
).e2x/r
1
Therefore

x
=
o
(
o

d
).e-2x/r
1
Now
x
will be max. at x = l
i.e., x =
t
= total drawing stress

t
=
o
(
o

d
) e-2
l
/r
1
= 240 (240-73.41).e-2*0.1*3/2.5

= 240 166.59 * 0.786

= 109.0 N/mm
2
114
Total drawing load, =
t
* r12
= 109 * * 6.25 = 2140.5 N
Q
Ans 2.
d = o (1 + B)/B [1 - {h1/ho}B]
Here, B = (1 + 2)/ (tan tan), = 15, = 0
B = 0.2/tan 15 = 0.747
Therefore, d/o = 1.747/0.747[1 (1.75/2.5)0.747] = 0.547
For movable mandrel, 1 being = 2
Therefore, d/o = log [1/ (ho/h1 1)] = loge 2.333 = 0.368
Therefore, use of movable mandrel substantially reduces the
drawing forces.

Q
Ans 3.
h = 2R(1 cos)

5 = 500(1 cos)
Therefore, cos = 99/100
= 8.11
(i) = tan = 0.142
(ii) Ho = 2R/h1tan-1(R/h1.)
= 225020tan-1(50/20 * 0.1429) = 3.306
Hn = (Ho- 1/loge ho/h1)
=1/2(3.306 1/0.142 loge 25/20) = 0.8678
n = h1/R tan (h1/R.Hn/2)
= 20/250 tan (20/250 * 0.4339) = 0.0349 radians
hn = h1 + 2R(1 cosn)
115
= h1 + Rn2

= 20 + 250 * (0.0349)2 = 20.3 mm
(iii) Backward Slip = (Vr Vo)/Vr = 1 Vo/Vr
= Vo/Vr = hn/ho = 20.3/25
backward Slip = 1 20.3/25 = 18.8%
Forward Slip =(V1 Vr)/Vr = V1/Vr 1
V1/Vr = hn/h1 = 20.3/20
Therefore, Forward Slip = 0.3/20 = 1.5%
(iv) Pmax = Pn = o * hn/h1 * eHn

= 2/3 100 * 20.3/20 * e0.142*0.8678
= 132.4 N/mm2
Q
Ans.4
d
o
= 250 mm, h
o
= 2590mm

h = 100 mm, h = 150 mm
Diameter d (2R), after reduction is,
D = d
o
h
o
/ (h
o
h)
= 250250/150 = 325 mm
= 0.4 to 0.45, say 0.42
Now pa =
o
/2 (h/R)
2
[e
2R/h
- 2R/h - 1],
R = 162.5 mm
Therefore, pa = 55/2 (150/ (0.42 * 162.5)
2
[e
2*0.42*162.5/150
2*0.42*162.5/150 - 1]
= 55 * 0.5 * 4.83 (2.48 0.91 1)
= 76.285 N/mm
2
116
Force P = pa * R
2
= 76.285 * * (162.5)
2
= 6328 KN
Q
Ans.5 Rs = R h/2 loge (1/3. (taking Von-Mise,
s
yield
condition)
= 75 10/2 * 0.2 loge (1/3 . 0.2)

= 75 26.5 = 48.5 mm
Pressure at sticking radius, ps = o.e [2(R Rs)/h]
= 200.e[2*0.2*26.5/10] = 200 * 2.88 = 576 N/mm2
Total load = load on sliding portion + load on sticking portion
75
Load on sliding portion = 2dro.e2/h(R r)
48.5

= 2o[r.e2/h(R r) h/2 + h/2e2/h(R r).dr]
75
= 2o[ - hr/2.e2/h(R r) (h/2)2 . e2/h(R r)]
48.5
= 2o [ - 10 * 75/(2 * 0.2).e0 (10/(2 * 0.2))2 . eo
+ 10 * 48.5/0.4 . e0.4/10 * 26.5 + (10/0.4)2 . e0.4/10 *
26.5]
= 2 * 200(-1875 625 + 3499.72 + 1800)

= 3518.2 KN
Load on sticking portion may be taken as
= (ps + pc/2) . R2
ps = 576 N/mm2
pc= 576 +1120 = 1690 N/mm2
Therefore, ps = (576 + 1690)**48.52
117
= 8396 KN
Total forging load = 3518.2 + 8396
= 1194.2 KN = 11.9142 MN
.
Solution 13.6:
Final dimensions: h = 6.25mm, 2R= 100mm.
Sticking radius,
Rs = R-(h/2 )loge(1/2 )
= 50- (6.25/0.5)loge(1/(2*0.25))
= 50 - 8.66 = 41.34mm
it is clear that on the major portion of , sticking conditions exist. In the sliding
portion,
p = 0 . ^(2 (L-x))/h for 41.34 < x < 50
=0 . ^(2 (R-r))/h
at r =R , i.e., outer surface, p = 0
at r = Rs

p = 0 . ^(0.5*8.66*1/6.25) = p = 20
in the sticking region
p = Ps + 0/h(Rs - R)
= 20 +0/6.25(41.34 - R)
= 20 + 0.160(41.34 - R)
at center, R = 0
.. p = 20 +0.160(41.34) = 8.610
the pressure distribution is shown in the fig. Assming that the entire distribtion is
linear , the forging load is the area of the curve.
.. forging load per unit width = 0.5*100*7.610 = 380.5 0
:. Total forging load = 380.5 0 * 150
= 380.5 * 7 * 150
= 399.5 kN
.
Solution 13.7:
(a) RA = 0.30
B = cot = 0.10 x cot 6 = 0.95
Now d = 0 (1 + B)/B{1 (r1/r0)^2B}
= 1 (r1/r0)
:. (r1/r0) = 0.7
d = 0 1.95/0.95 [1 0.7^0.95] = 141.60 N/mm
now r1 = 0.7 x 6 = 5.02 mm
118
:. Drawing load = 141.60 * * 5.02 = 11.22 kN
(b) power of motor = (11.21 * 2.3 ) /
= 25.78/0.98 kW
= 62.31 kW
.
Solution 13.8
It is given that
1 = 0.15, 2 = 0.18, = 14, = 10, 0 = 1.40 kN/mm
now it is a floating mandrel case,
B = ( 1 + 2) / ( tan + tan ) = (0.15 + 0.18 ) / (tan 14 + tan
10 )
= 0.33 / 0.425 = 0.7765
h0 = 1.5 mm, h1 = 1mm
:. Drawing stress is
d = 0 (1 + B)/B{1 (h1/h0)^B}
= 1.40 x 1.7765/0.7765[1 (1/1.5)^ 0.7765]
= 0.865 kN/mm
area of cross-section of tube at exit
= / 4(11 - 9 ) = 31.416 mm
:. Drawing load = 0.865 x 31.416 =27.175kN
now work done per second = 27.175 x Drawing speed
= 72.175 x 0.65 = 17.66 kJ/sec
:. Power rating of the motor = 17.66 kW
.
Solution 13.9
Now for the sticking friction and plane strain conditions, the avg. pressure is
given as ,
Pa = 2k(1 + L/2h) = 0 (1 + L/2h)
Now bite of tool, b = 2L : . L=B/2
Pa = 0 (1 + b/4h)
Now forging area = B x 2L = B x b
= 0 .B.b (1 + b/4h)
(1.) At the commencement of forging:
0 = 50 MPa, B = 0.9m, h = 0.2m, b= 0.3m
Forging load = 05 x0.9 x 0.3 [1 + 0.3/(4 x 0.2)]
= 05 x0.9 x 0.3 x 1.375
= 18.5625 MN
(2.) at the completion of the forging,
h = 01 m, 0 = 150 MPa
Forging load= 150 x 0.9 x 0.3{1 + 0.3/(4 x 0.1)}
= 150 x 0.9 x 0.3 x 1.75
= 70.875 MN
.
119
Solution 13.10
As already discussed under article 13.8 that a dead metal zone forms in
corners against the die (square). This can be assumed as equivalent to
die angle = 45
:. The extrusion due to flow through the die,
x0 = 0( 1 + B)/B[1 - R ]
now R= (R0 / R1) = (7.5/2.5) = 9
B = cot =0.1 cot 45 (assuming = 0.1 )
= 0.1
x0 = 250 x 1.1/0.1 (1 - 9^0.1)
= 675.8 MPa (sticking friction)
The max. pressure due to container wall friction will occur at break through , when
L = 37.5 cm taking trescas condition.
k =0/2=125MPa (sticking friction)
Total extrusion pressure,
Pe = x0 + (4 x 1 x L)/D
= 675.8 + 4*125*37.5/15
= 1925.8 MPa
:. Extrusion load = Pe * r0
= 1925.8 x 10 x x (7.5/100)
= 34 MN
.
Solution 3.11
H0 = 4.05 mm, h1 = 3.55 mm, R = 250 mm
= 0.04,
0 = 210N/mm
The roll pressure at entry and exit,
P = 0 = 2 0/3
Now h = 2 (1 cos )
0.50 = 500(1 cos )
From here, = 2.56
:. H0 = 2(250/355) tan ((250/255) x 0.0447)
= 6.02
Hn = (H0 (1/)log h0/h1)
= (6.02 (1/0.04)log 4.05/3.55)
= 1.363
Pn = 0 x (hn / h1) x e^(.Hn)
n = (h1/r) tan{ (h1/r) x (hn/2)}
= (355/ 250) tan ((355/ 250) x 0.6815)
= 0.009672 radians
hn = h1 + 2R(1- cos n)
= 355 + 500(1 cos 0.554)
120
= 3.5734 mm
:. Pn = 242.5 x 3.5734 x e^(0.04 x 1.363)
= 242.5 x 1.0066 x 1.056 = 257.78 N.mm
(b) H = 6.02 ; = 0.04
Hn = 0.5(6.02 (1/0.40)log (4.05/3.55))
= 2.845
n = 0.5(3.55/2.50) tan ((3.55/2.50) x 1.4225))
= 0.02 radians
Hn = h1

+ Rn (approximately)
= 3.55 + 250 x 0.02
= 3.65 mm
Pn = 242.5 x (3.65/3.55) x e^(0.40 x 2.845)
= 777.9 N/mm
.
Solution 13.12
h1 = 6.35mm,
R = 50 cm ,
= 0.20
h0 = h1 x 100/70
= 6.35 x 100/70 = 9.07mm
:. h = 9.07 6.35 = 2.72 mm
Now h = 2R(1 cos )
Cos = (500.1.36)/500 = 0.9973
= 4.23 = 0.0738 radians
Now H0 = 2(r/h1) tan ( (r/h1) x )
= 2(500/6.35) tan ( (500/6.35) x 0.0738)
= 10.29
Now Hn = (H0 (1/)log h0/h1)
= (10.29 (1/0.2)log 9.07/6.35) = 4.26
n = (h1/r) tan{ (h1/r) x (hn/2)}
n = (6.35/500) tan{ (6.35/500) x (2.13)}
= 0.0273 radian = 1.55
UNIT IV
Introduction, Product Application, Limitation of Die Casting, Die Casting Machines, Molten metal
Injection systems, I lot chamber machines, Cold chamber machines, Die casting Design, Design of
Die casting Dies, Types of Die casting Dies, Die design, Die material, Die Manufacture, Die
Lubrication and Coating, Preheating of Dies, Vacuum Die Casting, Recent trends In Die Casting
Process.
Definition, Cost accounting or costing, Elements of costing, cost structures, Estimation of cost elements,
Methods of estimating, Data requirements of cost estimating, Steps in making cost estimate, Chief
factors in cost estimating, Numerical examples, calculation of machining times, Estimation of total unit
time.
4 SPECIAL CASTING TECHNIQUES
Classification
(a) Metal Mold Casting
(i) Gravity or permanent mold casting
121
(ii) Die casting
a. Hot chamber process
b. Cold chamber process
(iii) Slush casting
(iv) Pressed or corthias casting
(b) Non-metallic Mold Casting
(i) Centrifugal casting
a. True-centrifugal casting
b. Semi-centrifugal casting
c. Centrifuge casting
(ii) Carbon-dioxide molding
(iii) Investment mold casting or lost -wax process
(iv) Shell molding
(v) Plaster molding
(vi) Mercast process
(c) Continuous casting
a. Reciprocating molds
b. Draw casting
c. Stationary molds
d. Direct sheet casting
4.1 GRAVITY DIE OR PERMANENT MOLD CASTING
4.1.1 Introduction
(i) The process is known as gravity die casting in England and as Permanent mold
casting in U.S.A.
(ii) A gravity die or permanent mold casting makes use of a mold which is permanent
i.e., the mold can be reused many times before it is discarded or rebuilt.
(iii) Molten metal is poured into the mold under gravity only; no external pressure is
applied to force the liquid metal into the mold cavity. However, the liquid metal
solidifies under pressure of metal in the risers, etc.
4.1.2 Permanent Molds
-Permanent molds are made of dense, fine grained, heat resistant cast won, steel,
meahanite (and sometimes of) bronze, anodized aluminium, graphite or other suitable
refractories.
- A permanent mold is made in two halves in order to facilitate the removal of casting
from the mold.
- A permanent mold may be designed with a vertical parting line (refer Fig. 23.1) or
with a horizontal parting'1ine as in conventional sand molds.
- The mold walls of a permanent mold have thickness from 15 DUD to 50 mm.
- Since thicker mold walls can remove greater amounts of heat from the casting, they
(i.e. mold walls) are made thicker opposite thicker sections of the castings. This
provides the desirable chilling effect.
- For faster cooling, fins or projections may be provided on the outside of the
permanent mold.
- Pouring cup, sprue, gates and riser are built in the mold halves itself (refer fig.).
-The two mold halves are securely clamped together before pour mg.
122
- Simple mechanical clamps (i.e. latches, toggle clamps etc.) are adequate for small
molds whereas larger permanent molds need pneumatic or other power clamping
methods.
Fig. 4.1 Permanent Mould Casting
- A permanent mold casting may range in weight from a few grams to 150 kg (in
aluminium).

4.1.3 Cores for Permanent Molds
- Cores for permanent molds may be made up of metal (say alloy steel) or dry sand.
- Metal cores are used when they can be easily extracted from the casting whereas a
dry sand core or shell core is preferred when the cavity to be cored is such that a metal
core cannot possibly be withdrawn from the casting.
- Light hammering, toggles, screw or rack and pinion arrangements, etc can extract
metal cores.
- For facilitating their removal, metal core surfaces should have a draft of atleast 3 to
5 degrees.
- Metal cores are expensive and their use slows down the casting cycle; however the
saving incurred in metal machining may to some extent balance the cost of metal
cores. - Permanent molds use generally metal cores. - Molds using dry sand cores or
shell cores are better known as Semi-permanent Molds.
- Dry sand cores are positioned and supported in core prints. - Cores made up of
gypsum plaster are preferred for use in certain non-ferrous metal castings to obtain
smooth and accurate cavities.
4.1.4 Gating System
- The sprue, risers, runners, gates and vent machined into the parting surface of
one or both mold halves.
- The runner channels an; inclined to minimize turbulence of the incoming metal, and
this practice is often furthered by tilting the die around suitable trunnions.
123
- Wherever possible, the runner should be at the thinnest area of the casting, with the
risers at the top of the die above the heavy sections.
- Blind risers, located above the sections to be fed, are commonly used.
- For better escape of the air present within the mold cavity, vent channels about
0.125 mm deep may be cut into the parting surface.
- Gating system is designed to promote progressive solidification of metal in an
unbroken flow from the farthest end of the casting to the point of entry.
4.1.5 Coatings
- After the mold surfaces have been heated to the required temperature, a refractory
coating in the form of slurry is sprayed or brushed on to the mold cavity, riser, gate
and runner surfaces.
- French chalk or calcium carbonate suspended in sodium silicate binders common
used as a coating for aluminium and magnesium permanent mold castings.
- Coating is dried and then smoothed with steel wool.
- Refractory coating:
(i) Protects mold surfaces from erosion and checking.
(ii) Exercises insulating effect and thus helps obtaining progressive and directional
solidification.
(iii) kept thin when chilling is needed and vice versa.
(iv) May be repaired and normally replaced after every eight hours work.
- Lubricating coatings if sprayed help removal of castings and cores from the mold. A
coating of graphite water paint permits easy removal of a 60-40 brass casting.
- Permanent molds, besides refractory coating are given a carbon aqueous soot
coating once every casting cycle.
4.1.6 Chills
- Chills are pieces of copper, brass or aluminium and are inserted into the mold's inner
surface.
- Water passages in the mold or cooling firms made on outside the mold surface are
blown by air otherwise water mist will create chilling effect.
A chill is used to promote directional solidification.
4.1.7 Permanent Mold Casting Production
(i) Casting drawing is analyzed to establish parting lines, draft, core requirements and
gating system.
(ii) Mold drawing is prepared to show mold cavity, gating dimensions, ejection-pin
mechanisms, etc.
(iii) From the master pattern, a plaster cast is made. Plaster cast is then cast in the
mold material (i.e., iron or steel) by either sand mold or ceramic mold process.
- If mold is not too complex, an iron or steel blank itself may be machined to mold
dimensions.
-After forming, the mold is stress relieved and any distortion or warpage that appears
is corrected.
-The mold is preheated (near 7000F, for Al and Mg) and given a refractory coating.
Since the casting cycle and the casting metal temperature vary the mold temperature,
which determines the quality of the casting, mold temperature should be maintained
within proper temperature range during operation.
- This can be achieved if time, for pouring, opening the mold, ejecting the casting and
closing the mold is closely adhered to during operation.
124
Mold halves are closed properly and liquid metal is poured into it under gravity.
Castings are ejected from the mold after they are solidified.
Ejected castings are hot, relatively soft and can easily bend. Thus they are stacked on
racks and permitted to cool.
4.1.8 Casting Design
- Besides some of the rules which apply to sand casting design, permanent mold
castings can make use of the following additional rules. .
(i) Design the casting shape in such a manner that a permanent mold with minimum
number of parts can be used.
(ii) Proposed casting shape should be such that it can be readily cast in a permanent
mold.
(iii) Dimensional tolerances of permanent mold castings vary with the design
requirements for the component, but the data given below provides general tolerances
for most of the requirements,
Up to 25 mm 0.25 mm
Each additional 25 mm over 25 mm 0.002 mm/mm
Across parting lines 0.75 mm
Flatness as cast, 100 mm long 0.375 mm
Each additional 25 mm length 0.001 mm/mm
(iv) Casting should be designed to avoid abrupt changes from thick to thin sections,
because this will give rise to premature solidification along the. Line of metal flow.
(v) On outside surfaces, if draft angle is less than ejection of the casting tends to mar
the surface finish. Minimum inside surface draft is 2 degrees.
(vi) Advantage should be taken of the possible precise coring.
- Cored hole diameter depends upon the depth of the hole. The deeper the hole, the
more a small diameter core will tend to warp.
- The minimum diameter of cored holes is about 3 to 4 mm.
(vii) Inserts such as studs, bushings etc. (grooved, knurled or otherwise shaped) which
are separate parts and are made up of metals generally different from that of the
casting can easily be cast into permanent mold castings.
- Inserts are held in place until the liquid metal solidifies around them and they are
mechanically locked.
- Inserts provide hardness; wear resistance, strength and other characteristics not
obtainable from the casting metal.
4.1.9 Permanent Mold Casting Alloys
An alloy to be cast by permanent mold casting process
should possess following properties.
(a) Low pouring temperature.
(b) Hot strength to avoid hot tearing.
(c) Good fluidity to fill the mold cavity properly.
- Commonly used gravity die cast alloys are
(a) Aluminium base
(b) Magnesium base
(c) Zinc base
(d) Lead
(e) Copper base (especially aluminium bronze)
(f) Cast Iron
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(a)Aluminum base alloys contain elements like Cu, Si, Zn, Fe, Mg, Ni, Mn, Pb, Ti and
Sn.
- Specifications of some such alloys are
(i) B.S. 3L. 8 (ii) B.S. 3L. 33 (LM 6-M)
(iii) B.S.L. 51 (LM 23-P) (iv) D.T.D. 165A (LM 5-M)
(v) B.S.L. 53 (LM10-W)" (vi) B.S. 2L. 35 (LM14-WP)
'300 Alloy' 'Y Alloy'
(vii) LM4-M (viii) LM 8
(b) Magnesium base alloys contain elements like Cu, Si, Zn, Fe, Ni, Mn, and AI.
Specifications of some such alloys are
(i) L 121 B.S. 1277 (ii) L 122 B.S. 1278
(iii) L 123 B.S. 1273 (iv) L 124 B.S. 1274
(v) L 125 B.S. 1275
- Some of the magnesium alloys have a tendency to crack or hot tear.
Table 4.1Pouring temperature and mold operating temperature for some of the
gravity die cast alloys.
Metal/Alloy Pouring Temperature range
0
F Mold operating temperature of
(i) AI base 1300-1400 650-800
(ii) Cu base 1900-2100 250-500
(iii) Mg base 1200-1300 300-600
(iv) Zn base 730-800 400-500
(v) Gray cast iron 2300-270 600-800
4.1.10 Comparison of Permanent Mold Casting with Sand Casting
Advantages
(i) Closer dimensional tolerance and accuracy can be achieved.
(ii) Permanent mold castings possess smoother surfaces better appearances. It is
possible to obtain surface smoothness of from 100 to 125 micro inches (2500 to 3125
micro mm) root-me an-square.
(iii) Chilling effect of the metal mold helps producing a fine grained metal structure.
(iv) Metal cores employed in permanent molds can produce holes of much smaller
diameter (minimum diameter 3 to 4 mm) than sand cores.
(v) Inserts can be usefully employed and readily cast in place.
(vi) Mass production of castings is more economical.
(vii) Less floor space is needed.
(viii) The cycle of operation consumes such less time than that of sand casting.
(ix) Permanent mold casting involves low overhead charges.
(x) Structurally superior and stronger castings can be produced.
(xi) Locally heavy sections can, with suitable casting and die design, be produced
sound and free from porosity.
(xii) Faster rate of production.
(xiii) One permanent mold can produce 10,000 to 25,000 aluminium castings or 3,000
to 10,000 cast iron castings.
(xiv) Permanent mold casting technique requires operator less skilled than those
needed for conventional sand casting.
(xv) Permanent mold castings do not develop many of the defects which are found in
sand castings.
126
(xvi) Permanent mold castings do not have any sand adhered to them.
Disadvantages
(i) A permanent mold costs much more than sand mold.
(ii) Castings (all sizes and s\1, shapes cannot be cast in permanent molds.
(iii) Since the gating system is cut in the mold halves, once machined, it cannot be
changed; thus is necessary to obtain a satisfactory gating system.
(iv) The extremely high temperature of the molten steel and consequent mold attrition
usually make permanent mold casting technique unsuitable for steel castings.
(v) Permanent mold casting is uneconomical for small production runs.
(vi) A casting is always likely to be chilled because of its contact with metal mold.
Applications
Permanent mold casting process because of its mold cost is generally limited to those
applications only where an economic or engineering gain can be achieved over sand
castings, such as:
(i) Carburetor bodies.
(ii) Hydraulic brake cylinders.
(iii) Refrigeration castings.
(iv) Washing machine gears and gear covers.
(v) Connecting rods and automotive pistons.
(vi) Oil pumps bodies.
(vii) Typewriter segments. (viii) Aircraft and missile castings.
4.2 PRESSURE DIE CASTING
In the die casting process, the mould used for making a casting is permanent, called a
die. It is thus quite different from sand casting where the mould is expendable and
must be broken in order to obtain the casting. If the molten metal poured into the
permanent (metallic) mould under gravity head (as in done in sand casting) the
process is called as gravity sand casting or permanent mould casting. However, if
the molten metal is forced into a metallic die under external pressure, the process is
known as pressure die casting or simply die casting. So, Pressure die casting is
made by injection molten metal under high pressure into a permanent (metallic)
mould, called a die.
Pressure die casting is widely used process-it is difficult to name product or appliance
where die castings are not used for at least some of the component parts. In very
industry there is a steadily rising demand for high quality die-castings. Pressure dies
casting parts used in Automobile, Auto ancillary, Electrical equipments, Electrical
motors. BUSINESS MACHINES, Telecommunication equipments, Building
hardwares, Toys and Home appliances and so on.
4.2.1 Introduction
(i) Unlike gravity die casting, in pressure die casting molten metal is forced into
permanent mold (die) cavity under pressure.
- The pressure is generally obtained by compressed air or hydraulically.
(ii) The pressure varies from 70 to 5000 kglcm2 and is maintained while the casting
solidifies.
127
(iii) Associated with externally applied high pressure is the high velocity with which
the liquid metal is injected into the die, and these conditions give a unique capacity
for the production of intricate components at relatively low cost.
(iv) In US.A this process is called simply "Die Casting".
The primary requirements for producing a good die casting are:
(v) The primary requirements for producing a good die casting are:
(a) A casting machine smoothly operating and properly designed to hold and operate
a die under pressure.
(b) Properly designed and constructed die.
(c) Suitable casting alloy.
4.2.2 Die Casting Machines
- A die casting machine performs the following functions.
(a) Holding two die halves firmly together.
(b) Closing the die.
(c) Injecting molten metal into die.
(d) Opening the die.
(e) Ejecting the casting out of the die.
- A die casting machine consists of four basic elements namely
1. Frame
2 Source of molten metal and molten metal transfer.
3. Pie-casting dies.
4. Metal injection mechanism.
4.2.2.1 Frame
Die casting machine frames generally are four-bar presses, although the solid one-
piece frame has gained wide acceptance for small machines.
- The machine frame incorporates a stationary platen and a -movable platen to which
the die halves are attached and they open and closes in correct alignment.
- Frame should be sufficiently strong as the weight of an assembled die may exceed
several tons.
4.2.2.2 Source of molten metal and molten metal transfer
- Normally each casting machine is having furnace for feeding the metal. .
- A holding furnace is equipped with automatic temperature controlls.
- Metal charge is melted in a separate foundry furnace i.e. pot crucible, reverberate,
electric etc) and is then transferred to holding furnaces.
- Magnesium is melted and held in fabricated steel crucibles, aluminum alloys in
graphite crucibles and zinc alloys in cast iron crucibles.
- Gas fire furnaces are commonly employed for melting almost all die casting alloys. .
- Oil fired furnaces are also used for the purpose.
- Electric resistance furnaces are generally not preferred, but low frequency induction
furnaces are gradually finding wider use.
- Molten metal may be transferred from ho~ to die casting machines with the help of
hand-ladles or automatically if the casting wt. more than 7 kg or even when producing
smaller castings, at high production rates.
- Automatic molten metal transfer from the holding furnace to the die casting
machine may work with the following mechanisms.
(a) The holding furnace and the die-casting machine is connected with the help of a
refractory tube, Air or nitrogen at low pressure, when introduced in the enclosed
128
furnace exerts pressure on the molten metal which via refractory tube flows into the
injection cylinder of the die casting machine.
(b) Non-metallic (refractory) pumps can be placed in the holding furnace for molten
metal transfer.
(c) A monorail is mounted between die casting machine and holding furnace. A
valved bottom inlet crucible riding on the monorail is lowered into the holding
furnace (for taking metal) and is then moved along the monorail to the die casting
machine where it discharges molten metal into the injection cylinder.
4.2.2.3 Die-casting Dies
(i) A die is a sort of permanent mold and is made in two halves for facilitating the
removal of casting.
Fig. 4.2 Die-casting Dies
(ii) One die half is stationary and is known as cover die whereas the other die half
called ejector die moves in order to open or close the complete die.
(iii) The two die halves are kept in perfect alignment with the help of dowel pins.
(iv) Molten metal is forced under pressure into the closed die for making a casting.
(v) When the casting has got solidified, the movable die half containing the casting is
pulled open over the ejector pins or the ejector pins are advanced beyond the movable
die to detach the casting from the die (Fig. 4.2).
4.2.2.4 Die Design
- In order to produce sound and accurate castings and to avoid unnecessary die-
sinking operations, die should be designed with great care.
- Dies are generally designed in the following three forms:
1. Single cavity dies. They have only one impression and can make only one casting
in one cycle. Such a die consists of four components namely impression blocks or die
halves containing (impression or) cavity identical to the casting's form, the holding
blocks, the die base and the ejection mechanism. A single cavity die is shown in Fig.
2. Multiple cavity dies. They possess more than one die cavity in the same die halves
and thus produce more than one casting in one cycle. Multiple cavity dies prove to be
economical because the number of dies and casting machines needed are reduced.
129
3. Combination dies. They are multiple activity dies having dissimilar cavities or
impressions.
- Coring. Both stationary and movable cores may be employed in die casting dies.
The type of core used depends upon the economy and the particular application.
Collapsible cores can be used to cast internal threads and complex internal contours.
- Ejection. Ejector pins mounted in a plate are employed to push the casting out of the
movable die half.
Ejector plate may be actuated manually or mechanically with the help of a rack .and
pinion arrangement or pneumatic/hydraulic piston and cylinder.
Since ejector pins are likely to leave a small counter bore impression on the surface of
the casting, ejector pins are so located that the marking does not appear on surfaces
where good surface finish is required.
- Venting. Vents are provided for the escape of air present in the die cavity as the
molten metal enters the same.
If air remains in the die cavity, the same may not get filled completely with molten
metal or the casting will contain entrapped air.
Vents should be accessible to the operator for frequent cleaning to prevent their
clogging with flash or oxides.
Vents usually take the form of grooves on the joint face of the die running from the
cavity to the edges of the die blocks. The width of the vent may vary from 1.5 to 20
mm, but the depth is limited to not more than 0.175 mm.
Vents are usually machined fairly close to the runner zone.
- Gating System. The shape of the casting and its parting line largely determines
feeder design.
The molten metal passes through feeders, which direct it, for uniform distribution into
the die cavity.
A few types of die feeders are (namely) side feeder, pad feeder, split feeder and end
feeder.
Die casting machines of centre-gated type are more adaptable for the average run of
work.
The sprue diameter for dies used on hot chamber machines is somewhat smaller than
that for cold chamber machines.
Sprue diameter for cold chamber die casting machines is seldom less than 35 mm in
diameter where the injection plunger follows through into the die.
The runner is restricted in size at the point where it joins the casting and is shaped to
facilitate removal (from the casting) without breaking into the casting. .
For light alloys, gate thickness may vary from 0.625 to 2.5 mm. Thin gates help easy
removal but increase the velocity of liquid metal entering the die cavity and the
tendency to trap air in the casting.
Unlike sand casting practice, with die casting, the rate of chilling is so high that risers
will not function and so the castings should be run at their heaviest section with the
gate thick enough to avoid premature solidification and thereby enable the runner to
perform the dual function of runner and feeder.
Other heavy sections if some should replace existing away from the runner light
section or ribbed to maintain a constant thickness of metal.
130
- Flash control. Flash occurs on all die-castings at the parting surface of the two die
halves.
A little change in the product design may simplify die design and flash removal and
control.
The amount of flash may be restricted by minimizing the number and location of
partings and inter sections.
Flash may be removed by power-press trim dies, sanding, filing, grinding etc.
- Die cooling. The temperature of the die depends upon the casting alloy and the
nature of casting to be made i.e., whether it is a thin or thick-sectioned casting.
Dies producing thin walled castings need to be kept hotter so as to avoid premature
solidification.
Die working temperature may be of the order of 300-40O"F but the die-cavity is
appreciably hotter than this at the time when molten metal is injected.
Dies may get seriously overheated if it is aimed to achieve high production rates. To
avoid overheating, dies are frequently water-cooled from within. Cooling passages are
situated near to the runner zone and adjacent to parts of cavity forming heavy
sections. Largt cores also form part of water passage.
4.2.2.5 Die Material
Three main modes of die failure related to die material are:
1. Thermal fatigue. Severe thermal shock loadings due to rapid alternation of high
temperature and chill are imposed upon those surfaces of the dies which come in
contact with molten metal. Thermal fatigue causes heat checking which results from
the difference in heating and cooling rates between the die surface and the steel below
the surface. This condition sets up tensile stress and gives rise to minute cracks at the
point of stress on the die surface, which in turn are transferred to the casting in the
form of hair lines.
2 Mechanical erosion. should be soft enough in order to resist heat checking at the
same time they should not gall, erode or deform rapidly under load; they should be
able to withstand washing, wearing and peening.
3. Chemical attack: Chemically attacked and thus decarburized die loses surface
hardness and leads to pitting and washing.
Decarburization may occur in heat treatment or during solidification
of a cast die.
Table 4.2 gives composition of different Die-casting Die steels.
4.2.2.6 Die casting die steels
Die-making
Irrespective of the die material, the dies may be either wrought or cast. Both cast and
wrought dies possess certain advantages which are listed below.
Advantages of Cast dies
(i) Casting Process produces die cavities and cores cheaply, rapidly and accurately,
once the patterns are made.
131
(ii) Casting permits the formation of complicated water passages.
(iii) Cast dies are better and economical when engravings must be sunk into the die
casting.
(iv) Cast dies give improved service life.
(v) Dies difficult to machine can be easily cast to shape.
Advantages of Wrought dies
(i) Wrought dies prove to be economical when
- A single simple impression or core is required,
- Relatively shallow machining is required,
- Conventional machining can be adopted,
- Cavities can be hobbed with simple hobs,
- Production requirements are low,
- Electro-discharge machining can be used in shallow impressions.
(ii) Wrought die making is preferred where cores are long and fragile.
(iii) Wrought dies are the only solution for the production of refractory material dies
which at present can not be precision cast.
(iv) Die fabrication requires first rate machine tools and experienced personnel
- Die cavity should possess very good surface finish.
- Dies should be carefully polished because even the finest of scratches left will open
out into cracks when die is subjected to molten metal heat and pressure during
service.
- Movable cores and ejector pins need skilled fitting.
- Since castings contract as they solidify an allowance is kept for this and dies are
made 0.004 to 0.006 mm per mm over size.
4.2.2.7 Metal Injection Mechanism
Two general types of molten metal injection mechanisms for die-casting machines
are:
(a) Hot chamber Goose neck or air injection type-
- Submerged plunger type
(b) Cold chamber

4.2.2.7.1 Hot Chamber Die-casting
- Hot chamber die-casting machine is the oldest of die-casting machines and is
simplest to operate.
- Depending upon its size, hot chamber die-casting machine can produce about 60 or
more castings of up to 20 kg each per hour and several hundred castings per hour for
single impression castings weighing a few grams.
- In hot chamber machine the melting unit constitutes an integral part of the process.
- The molten metal possesses normal amount of superheat and therefore less pressure-
is needed to force the liquid metal into the die.
Hot chamber process is of
a) Gooseneck or air-injection type.
b) Submerged plunger type.
a) Goose-neck or Air-injection Type
- Fig. 4.3 shows a gooseneck or air-injection type of hot chamber process.
132
- The cast iron gooseneck is so pivoted that it can be dipped beneath the surface of the
molten metal to receive the same when needed. The molten metal fills the cylindrical
portion and the curved passageways of the gooseneck.
- Gooseneck is then raised and connected to all air line which supplies (air) pressure
to force the molten metal into the closed die.
- Air pressures required for injecting metal into the die are of the order
- After the casting has solidified, the gooseneck is again dipped beneath the molten
metal to receive molten metal again for the next cycle.
In the meantime, die halves open out, casting is ejected and die closes in order to
receive molten metal for producing the next casting. The cycle repeats time and again.
Fig. 4.3 Goose-neck or Air-injection Type
1. It is a simple machine as regards its construction and operation. 2. Unlike
submerged plunger type machine, this machine carries no moving parts (i.e. plunger
etc.).
Disadvantages
1. Production rate is lower when compared to submerged plunger type machine. .
2. Compressed air does not produce pressure on molten metal as effectively as the
plunger does.
Application
Air injection type of hot chamber die casting machine can produce castings of low
melting point metals such as zinc, tin and lead.
b) Submerged Plunger Type
(i) Submerged plunger type of hot chamber die casting machine has an injection
cylinder which is partially submerged in the pot containing molten metal.
(ii) A plunger fits the cylinder. The plunger, when it is in up position, it clears the port
in the cylinder and through the port molten metal fills the cylinder (refer Fig. 23.4).
(iii) As the plunger moves down, the port gets closed and the molten metal is forced
through the nozzle (at the tip of gooseneck) into the die. Pressure exerted on the
molten metal is of the order of 140 to 200 kglcm2.
133
(iv) When the metal has solidified, die is open ejected.
(v) The die is then once again closed and locked, the plunger is drawn to the up-
position and the next cycle thus tends to start.
(vi) In order to obtain uniformity of die castings and maximum speed of operation a
predetermined and automatically controlled time cycle must be employed.
The cycle stops with the opening of the die and depressing a button starts the next
cycle.
Fig. 4.3 Submerged Plunger Type
The operator presses the button after removing the casting, inspecting (the die) and
possibly sprays lubricating the die and fast
(vii) Such die-casting machines are more or less automatic produce from 100 to 800
parts per hour.
Advantage
Submerged plunger type die-casting exerts pressure on molten metal more
effectively than the air-injection type.
Disadvantage
Submerged plunger type of die-casting machine can not be used either with an alloy
having a solvent action on the melting pot and pressure chamber or with an alloy
which at a high temperature may affect the fit of the plunger and cylinder. For these
reasons, submerged plunger type of machine is not suitable for die casting aluminum
and alloys of higher melting points. There is, moreover, appreciable entrainment of air
in the metal during injection, although by close control of injection speed, this can be
diminished.
Application
Submerged plunger type of die casting machine is commonly used to produce zinc,
tin, lead and some magnesium castings.
4.2.2.7.2 Cold Chamber Die-Casting
134
1. Cold chamber die casting process differs from hot chamber die casting in following
respects:
- Melting unit is not an integral part of the cold chamber die casting machine. Molten
metal is brought and poured into the die casting machine with the help of ladles.
- Molten metal which is poured into the cold chamber die casting machine is at a
lower temperature as compared to that poured into hot chamber die casting machine.
- For this reason, a cold chamber die casting process has to make use of pressures
much higher (of the order of 200 to 2000 kglcm2) than those applied in hot chamber
process.
- High pressures tend to increase the fluidity of molten metal possessing relatively
lower temperature.
- Lower temperature of molten metal accompanied with higher injection pressure will
produce castings of dense structure, sustained dimensional accuracy and free from
blow-holes.
- Die components experience less thermal stresses due to lower temperature of the
molten metal. However, dies are required to be made stronger in order to bear high
pressures.
Construction and Operation
- The cold chamber die casting machine consists of a pressure chamber or cold
chamber of cylindrical shape fitted with a ram or piston usually operated by hydraulic
pressure.
- Strong, high grade, heat-resistant alloy steels are used for making the working parts
of the machine as well as the dies. This is because of the (effects of) high
temperatures and pressures associated with the process.
-A measured quantity of molten metal is brought in a ladle from the holding furnace
and poured into the cold chamber after the die is closed and all cores are locked in
position.
- The ram forces the metal into the die (refer Fig. 23.5 b).
- The pressure required to force metal into the die is of the order of 200 to 2000
kg./cm2 and hence high squeezing action is exerted on the metal while it solidifies.
- Once the casting has solidified, the movable half of the die slides away and the die
opens.
- Cores are withdrawn, ram moves in the backward direction and the ejector is
advanced to force the casting out of the die half.
Advantages
1. Castings produced are of greater density and more sustained dimensional accuracy.
2. Separation of melting unit (i.e. furnace and pot, etc.) from the working parts of die
casting machine increases its life and efficiency.
Limitations
Since very high pressures are involved in cold chamber die casting dies will have to
be made stronger in order to withstand the same.
135
Fig. 4.4 Cold Chamber Die-Casting
4.3 SPECIAL CASTING TECHNIQUES
Applications
Cold chamber die casting machines are chiefly used for making castings in aluminium
brass and magnesium.
- Though, low melting point alloy; can also be cast, but they are more economically
done so in fast operating hot chamber machines. .
4.3.1 Finishing Die-Castings
1. Finishing of die-castings involves, removal of flash, sprue, runner etc.
2. Flash is that metal which solidifies in the clearance in dies.
3. In large-scale production, flash can be removed in a shaving die in a press, whereas
for small production runs, flash is broken off by hand and the edges cleaned by filing,
etc.
4. Since the 'as cast' finish and dimensional accuracy of die-cast parts both are of such
high standard, that usually-minimum of machining is necessary.
5. Machining is carried out at high speeds on comparatively light machine tools and
ordinarily consists of simple facing of the surfaces.
6. Organic finishes are employed with die-castings of all alloys. Organic finishes are
normally applied by spraying, either by handgun or automatically.
7. Electrostatic spraying is economical for large-scale operations.
8. Chemical dip is used primarily for corrosion protection.
4.3.2 Die-Casting Design
Listed below, are some major casting design factors, which must be observed for best,
die design:
1. Wall thickness should be as uniform as possible as the design of the part permits,
and should not exceed 4.5 mm especially when the casting has to bear gaseous or
fluid pressures.
- Wall thickness transitions from thin to thick sections should be as gradual as
possible.
- Wall thickness depends upon the type of casting, casting material, the amount of
restriction to metal flow and the position of the gate.
136
- Table 23.3 may serve as rough guide for deciding minimum wall thickness for die
castings.
Die-castings have an inherent tendency to be porous, when made in heavy sections,
therefore. No section should preferably exceed 15 mm in thickness. Minimum wall
thickness (mm) for die-castings
Table 4.2 Die casting metals
Surface area (cm
2
) Sn, Zn, Pb Cu AI, Mg
Upto 24.5 0.6-1.0 1.47-2.0 0.8-1.2
24.5 to 97 1.0-1.47 2.0-2.5 1.2-1.8
97 to 485 1.47-2.0 2.5-3.0 1.8-2.5
Over 485 2.0-2.5 3.0-4.0 2.5-3.0
2. Heavy local sections should preferably be avoided and replaced by channel
sections, corrugated forms or Ribs, which may be employed to increase strength and
stiffness.
- Introduction of ribs in the casting design increases rigidity, reduces weight of
casting and makes for better distribution of metal within the die.
- Height of ribs around a part should rarely exceed five times the wall thickness.
- Corner fillets should be as generous as possible.
- In order to provide greater rigidity and to reduce edge stresses, holes and openings
should be surrounded by a small rim.
3. Undercuts, whether they are internal or external should be avoided because,
- internal undercuts require loose pieces which reduce production rates and increase
die costs.
- external undercuts require core pulls or slides.
If undercuts cannot be avoided, small changes may be made in the design to simplify
and reduce the number of slides to a minimum.
4. Inse/1s i.e., screw studs, bearing bushes etc. of differing materials can be included
in the casting.
- Inserts should be accurately and rapidly positioned in the die for faster production.
- The metal injected in the die should shrink on to the insert so that the insert does not
become loose.
5. Holes vertical to the die-parting plane can be easily cast with stationary core pins
whereas holes not vertical to the die parting plane need special core pulls.
- It is possible to core hole in lead and tin die castings as small as 0.8 mm diameter, in
zinc 1 mm diameter, in aluminium 2.5 mm diameter, in magnesium 2 mm diameter
and in copper 3 mm diameter.
- Slots as narrow as 0.6 mm for tin alloys, 0.8 mm for lead and zinc alloys, 1.2 mm
for aluminium, 1 mm for magnesium and 1.5 mm for copper alloys may be cast in die
castings.
The maximum depth of slot for the above widths is 10 mm for all the alloys except for
zinc and magnesium for which depth may go up to 12 mm. Slots made in aluminium
and copper alloys require draft.
6. Sharp comers and corners without proper radii should be avoided.
- To avoid an undesirable accumulation of metal at a corner, the fillet radius should
not be greater than the wall thickness.
7. Both internal and external threads are satisfactorily cast in die castings.
137
- External threads can be cast if the axis is along the parting plane of the die or if
slides are used.
- Internal threads present a little difficulty because the casting must be unscrewed
from the core after it has got solidified. Either an unscrewing device may be
incorporated in the die or the core may be removed with the part and unscrewed at the
work-table.
8. Draft on the inner or outer surfaces of a' casting and reproduced in the die
impression allows ejection of the casting without galling.
- The amount and location of draft on a die-cast part depend on the arrangement of the
part in the die.
- For 7.5 mm depth of wall of a die cast part, the draft is 0.5 mm, 0.44, 0.38 and 0.25
mm for copper, aluminium, magnesium and zinc base alloys respectively.
9. The dimensional accl/racy achieved in a die cast part dependsupon
- Melting point and shrinkage of casting alloy.
- Accuracy to which die cavity and cores have been machined. - Thermal expansion
of die during operation.
- Wear and erosion, which has already occurred on the surfaces of, die cavity and
cores.
- Alignment of dies halves.
Basic dimensional tolerance up to 25 mm linear dimension of zinc, aluminium,
magnesium and copper die casting alloys is: to.075,: to.1, :to.1 and :to.175 mm
respectively.
4.3.3 Die-Casting alloys
Die-casting process has been used for many non-ferrous metals and alloys such as
zinc, aluminum, copper, magnesium, lead and tin.
(a) Zinc base alloys
Characteristics
1. Because of their low melting points are good fluidity, they are easy to die-cast.
2. Castings of very thin sections can be produced.
3. Die has a longer life.
4. Zinc base alloys have little or no affinity for ferrous metal parts of the die and
injection system.
5. They possess good mechanical properties under normal conditions of service.
However, they are not suitable for use at elevated or subnormal temperatures.
6. Damp, humid or salt-laden atmosphere accelerates corrosion in zinc base alloys
and they need special surface protection.
7. Zinc base alloys can be readily electroplated.
8. The two zinc base alloys universally die cast are shown in Table 4.3.
138
Table 4.3
Composition %
Cu Fe Mg Sn Cd Pb AI Zn
BS 1004 A
(Mazak 3)
None 0.075 0.03- 0.001 9.003 0.003 3.8-
Balance
0.03 max 0.06 max max max 4.3 Balance
BS 1004 B
(Mazak 5)
0.75. 0.075 0.03. 0.001 0.003 0.003 3.8.
Balance
1.25 max 0.06 max max max 4.3 Balance
9. For die casting, the use of high purity ingot should be made because contamination
of zinc alloys with tin, lead or cadmium can result in serious embitterment and
abnormal growth.
Uses
1. Automobile parts (door and window fittings, radiator grilles, etc.).
2. Parts of the following ittms, which work at normal temperatures during service:
- Refrigerators, washing machines, televisions, business machines, etc).
(b) Aluminium base alloys
Characteristic
1. They are among the lightest alloys.
2. They possess low melting point (l2000F) and have good corrosion resistance.
3. They possess high electrical\conductivity and good machinability.
4. They are die-cast generally in cold chamber process.
5. Owing to the chilling action! of dies, a fine grain structure is developed in
aluminum alloy castings and this improves their mechanical properties:
6. Die cast aluminum alloys possess an ultimate tensile strength upto of 2800 kg./cm2.
7 Common aluminum die-cast alloys are shown in Table 4.4.
Table 4.4
Specification (BS: 1490) Composition %
Cu Si Zn Fe Mg Sn NI/Ti Pb/Mn AI
LM 2M 0.7-2.5 9-11.5 1.2
Max
1 Max 0.3
Max
0.2 Max Ni 1 Max Pb 0.3 B
Ti 0.2
Max
Max
Mn 0.5 A
Max
LM6M - 10-13 0.1 0.6 Max - - - MN 0.5 L
Max
LM 20M 0.4 Max 10-13 0.2 0.7 0.15 0.05Max Ni Max
Ti 0.2
Max
Pb 0.1 A
Max
LM 24M 3-4 7.5-9.5 1 Max 0.3 Max 0.1
Max
0.3 Max Ni 0.5
Max
Mn 0.5 C
Max E
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8. The above-mentioned alloys have good mechanical properties, they are stable even
at extreme temperatures and are preferred where strength to weight ratios are critical.
Applications
1. Automobile and aircraft industry. 2. Marine uses.
3. Domestic appliances.
4.. Typewriters and projectors.
5. Textile machinery.
6. Instruments.
(c) Copper base alloys
Characteristics
1. They possess good corrosion and wear resistance, good machinability and tensile
strength ranging from 3500to 7000 kg/cm2.
2. Die casting is mainly confirmed to Cu-Zn, 60/40 brasses.
3. The alloys can be satisfactorily cast with the cold chamber process, but their high
melting points (1600 to 19000F), accompanied with high casting pressures result in
die wear and thus limit the life of the dies. Moreover heavy die casting sturdy and
robust components are required for casting copper alloys.
- This restricts the wide use of copper base alloys for die-casting. 4. A few copper
base die-cast alloys are shown in table 4.5.
Table 4.5
Uses
1. Impellers for corrosive liquid pumps.
2. Aircraft. Automotive and marine fittings.
3. Electric machinery pilrts.
4. Chemical apparatus.
5. Small gears.
(d) Magnesium base alloys
Characteristics
1. They are extremely light alloys weighing about 115 and 3/5 as much as similar
volumes of zinc base and aluminum base alloys respectively
2. They possess favourable strength/weight ratio and good machinability.
3. They resist surface corrosion; however further protection is advocated by one of the
chromating processes, followed by low temperature stove enamel and lacquering.
140
4. Immediately after casting, the alloys are prone to cracking; however, keeping
uniform metal may control this! Sections suitable tapers, generous corner fillets and
by electronic control of cycle timings. .
5. Magnesium base alloys- possesses almost similar mechanical properties and is cast
in similar dies at similar temperatures as the aluminum base alloys.
6. The casting temperature of magnesium base alloys ranges between 1200 to 1300F.
7. They are cast by cold chamber process.
8. A very commonly die-cast magnesium base alloy is L 123 (B.S. 1273): Zn 1%
max, Mn0.2-D.5% max. Al9 to 11%, and rest Mg.
The relatively high cost of magnesium base alloys has retarded their use in die
casting, however they find the following applications which are more or less similar
to aluminum base alloys:
1. Binocular and camera bodies.
2. Motor and instrument parts.
3. Aircraft parts. .
4. Portable equipments such as typewriters and radio components. 5. Household
appliances.
6. Textile machinery etc.
(e) Lead base alloys
Characteristics
1. Lead base alloys containing Cu, Sb and Sn possess excellent casting properties but
are used where strength and weight are unimportant, rather resistance to corrosion is
the only consideration.
2. Lead base alloys possess low tensile strength, of the order of 600 to 1000 kg./cm2.
3. Lead base alloys are costlier than zinc base alloys.
4. Lead base alloys being toxic need careful handling.
5. A common die-casting lead base alloy contains 15% antimony, 5% tin, 0.5% Cu
and remaining lead. Antimony increases hardness where as tin improves hardness,
strength and fluidity of lead base alloys.
Applications
1. Accumulator plates and terminal caps.
2. Radiation (X-ray) shielding.
3. Battery parts.
4. Light duty bearings.
(I) Tin base alloys
Characteristics
1. Tin base die-casting alloys contain copper, antimony and lead.
2. They are excellent die casting materials because they have low melting point and
lack of affinity for any component part of the injection system or die.
3. It is possible to obtain high degree of accuracy associated with high production
rates.
4. Wall thickness as small as 0.4 mm (1/64 inch) can be cast.
5. However the use of tin base alloys is limited because of their high prime cost and
relatively poor mechanical properties.
6. Tin base alloys are used to produce small castings where resistance to alkalies is
needed and extreme condition of moisture exist.
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7. Mostly, tin base alloys contain up to 19% lead and 4 to 16% antimony.
Applications
1. A tin base alloy known as babbit metal finds use as a bearing material in aircraft
and automobile industries.
2. Tin base alloys (not containing lead) may be used as food and beverage containers.
3. Low cost jewellery is formed out of tin base alloys.
4. Commercial use f tin base alloys is now negligible.
Advantages of Die Casting
1. Same dies are used again and again to produce castings. Dies are capable of
retaining their accuracy and usefulness for long periods of production.
2. High production rates can be achieved with die casting technique.
3. It is possible to hold cost dimensional tolerances.
4. Very thin sections can be cast without any difficulty.
5. Threads and other find surface details can be easily obtained on die-cast
surfaces.
6. Quite intricate shapes can be die-cast.
7. Surface smoothness of 1250 micro-mm root mean square can be obtained.
8. Inserts can be readily cast in place.
9. Die casting technique can be mechanized and used in mass production.
10. Machining costs of die-castings are very small.
11. Die casting associates lower labour costs because semi-skilled workers may be
employed.
12. Die-castings are less defective than sand castings.
13. A number of non-ferrous alloys can be die-cast.
14. Holes up to a minimum of 1.5 mm diameter can be easily cored during
casting.
15. For equivalent production, die-casting technique requires less floor space than
other casting techniques.
16. Die casting proves very economical when used for large-scale production.
Limitations of Die Casting
1. Ferrous alloys are not cast and moreover a limited number of non-ferrous alloys
can be economically die-cast.
2. The maximum size of the casting, which can be made by die casting technique, is
restricted. Maximum sizes are about 100 kg for zinc and 35 kg for aluminum die-
castings.
Since die tasting machine and dies involve high costs, the die casting process proves
uneconomical for small-scale production, (say less than about 20,000 castings).
4. Die castings have been found to contain some Porosity; this necessitates the
evacuation of air from the die cavity. .
5. Die casting technique requires comparatively a longer period of time for going into
production.
6. Die casting technique requires special skills on the part of maintenance and
supervisory personnel.
7. In certain cases, dies may produce an undesirable chilling effect on the die-castings.
8. Castings of metals which contract fast during solidification have to be removed
earliest possible from dies, whereas there is no such compulsion of castings made in
sand molds.
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Applications
Die casting applications have been discussed under the heading Die casting alloys.
4.4 PREHEATING OF DIES
The die-casting dies work as heat exchanger. At the start of the production cycle, the
dies must be preheated to the desired temperature. This is done to produce sound
castings. The molten metal can fill the thinnest and remotest sections of the casting.
Also, if facilitates the application of mould coatings/lubricant to the die surfaces.
During steady state production of castings, heat given off by the molten metal while
solidifying, is removed by means of radiating pins or fins or circulating water. The die
faces are also cooled by evaporation of water from lubricants and coatings. The
typical temperatures to which the dies must be preheated are:
1. For Zn: 150 to 200 deg. C
2. For Al: 225 to 330 deg. C
3. For Mg: 250 to 275 deg. C
4. For Cu alloys: 3oo to 700 deg. C
4.5 VACUMN DIE CASTINGS:-
In this method, a vacuum is applied to remove all air from the die cavity before a shot
of molten metal is forced into a die cavity. This completely removes porosity from the
casting. However, application of vacuum is not suitable substitute for good die
practises
Defects in Die Castings
Die casting defects, basically can be divided into three categories:
1. Defects due to the cooling of the die:
The possible defects under this category are:
a) Non- filling of die cavities
b) Cold-shut
c) Severe chill
d) Chill
e) Flow line
2. Defects due to heating up of the die or the metal: these defects include:
a) Soldering
b) Crack
c) Bent part
d) Broken parts
3. Defects due to one or the other reasons:
These defects include
a) Scaling
b) Blister
c) Porosity
d) Mechanical defects
Below we discuss the possible causes and remedies of these defects:
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1) Non-Filling of die-cavities: the causes are:
- Quantity if metal is less than needed
- Cooling of the die or a metal
- Less period of metal shot
The remedies to avoid the occurrence of this defect are:
- Required quantity of metal should be used. Do not allow the metal or the
die to be cooled, that is, avoid any delay in completing the operation. Heat
the metal to be required temperature and do preheating of the die if needed
- Apply the shot with the proper speed
2) Cold Shut/miss-run
This defect is same as in sand moulding casting. The reason and remedies are also
similar. The reasons are
- Cooling the die or loss of plasticity of the of the metal
- Shot speed less
- Air vent or overflow is closed
The remedies are:
- The metal should be heated to the required temperature. Die should be
preheated if needed. The thickness of the casting should not be less than the
minimum recommended design thickness
- Shot speed should be proper
- Air vent should be opened
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4.6 COST ESTIMATING
Cost estimating may be defined as the process of forecasting the expenses that must
be incurred to manufacture a product. These expenses take in to consideration all
expenditures involved in design and manufacturing, with all the related service
facilities such as pattern making tool making, as well as a portion of the general
administrative and selling cost.
Cost estimates are the joint product of the engineer and cost accountant, and involves
two factors : physical data and costing data. The engineer as part of his job of
planning manufacturing determines the physical data. The cost accountant compiles
and applies the costing data.
4.6.1 PURPOSE OF COST ESTIMATING:
Cost is the background of almost every decision the tool engineer makes in
organizing manufacturing operations and in selecting materials, methods, tooling and
facilities. An understanding of cost determinations essential to ensure that these
decisions are based on sound and dependable estimates of cost.
Estimates of cost must be reasonably accurate if venture is to be successfully
(realistic cost estimates). If a job is over priced, it is lost to a competitor. If it is
underestimated, it results in financial loss.
Detailed cost estimates are prepared to:
1. Determine the selling price of a product for a quotation or contract,
so as to ensure a reasonable profit to the company.
2. Check the quotations supplies by the vendors.
3. Decide whether a part or assembly is economical to be manufacture
in the plant or to be purchased from outside.
4. Determine the most economical process or material to manufacture a
product.
5. Initiate means of cost reduction in existing production facilities by
using new materials, which results in saving due to lower scrap loss, and received
methods of tooling and processing.
6. To determine standards of production performance that may be used to control
costs.
4.6.2 COST ACCOUNTING OR COSTING:
It is the determination of an actual cost of a component after adding different
expenses incurred in various departments. Or, it may be defined as a system, which
systematically records all the expenditures to determine the cost of manufactured
products. The work of cost accounting begins with the pre-planning stage of product
and ends only after the whole lot of the product has been fully manufactured. Costing
progresses with the progress of the product through the plant.
4.6.3 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN COST ESTIMATION AND COST
ACCOUNTING:
As discussed above, cost estimation is determining the anticipated or probable cost of
a job much before the manufacturing of the job is taken, whereas cost accounting will
be complete only after the job has been completed. Estimation as compared with
costing is a higher technical job because an estimator must be familiar with factory
145
methods and operation time etc., whereas costing only consists of compiling data
from various sources by clerical staff. Cost estimation gives predicted or standard
cost, where as cost accounting gives actual postmortem costs.
4.6.4 PURPOSE OF COST ACCOUNTING:
1.To compare the actual cost with the estimated cost to know whether the estimate
had been realistic or not.
2. Wastages and undesirable expenses are pointed out requiring corrective measure.
3. The costing data helps in changing the selling price because of change in material
cost or labour cost.
4. It helps to locate the reasons for the increase or decrease of loss or profits of a
company.
5. It helps in determining the discount on catalogue or market price of the product.
6. The actual cost helps the company to decide whether to continue with the
manufacture of a product or to buy it from outside.
7. It helps the enterprise to prepare its budget.
8. The costing data helps to formulate polices and plans for the pricing of a new job.
9. It helps in regulating, from time to time, the production of the job so that it may be
profitable to the company.
4.6.5 CLASSIFICATION OF COSTS:
Cost can be classified in the following manner:
1. NONRECURRING COSTS:
These costs are also called capital costs and are one-time costs. These costs are
consists of two parts: fixed capital costs and non-depreciated capital costs. Fixed
capital cost includes depreciable items such as plant building, manufacturing
equipment and tool. Non-depreciated capital cost includes land.
2. RECURRING COST:
These costs are a direct function of manufacturing process. These costs are also called
operating cost or manufacturing cost.
ANOTHER CLSSIFICATION OF COSTS IS:
1. FIXED COST: Fixed costs associated with a productive unit are these costs
which are independent of the rate of production of components. These cost will be
there whether the facilities are being utilized or not.
2. VARIABLE COSTS: These costs vary with the rate of production. If there is no
production, variable cost will be nill.
A cost can be termed as direct cost or indirect cost as explained below:
(a) DIRECT COST: It is that cost which can be directly assigned to a product.
(b) INDIRECT COST: Indirect costs can not be directly assigned to a product but
must be spread over an entire factory.
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4.6.6 WORKING CAPITAL: Working capital includes funds over and above and
above the fixed capital and land investment, to get a facility started and to provide for
the future obligations as and when they occur. It consists of :
Raw material on hand
Semi finished products in process of manufacture
Finished products in the inventory
Account receivable
Cash in hand needed for day-to-day operation.
The working capital remains tied up during the useful life of the plant, but it is
considered to be fully recoverable at the end of the life of the facility.
4.6.7 TURN OVER RATIO: This concept provides a rough estimate of the
investment cost of a new product. It is defined as:
Turn over ratio=Annual Sale / Total investment
The turn over ratio for steel industry is about 0.6. In chemical industry, it is nearly 1.0
for many products.
4.6.8 ELEMENTS OF COST:
The constituents of cost of a product or the cost elements are: material cost, labor
cost and expenses. We shell discuss each element in turn.
1. MATERIAL COST: Material is divided into two basic categories: (a) material
for fabricated parts (b) standard purchased parts. The total cost of these two will give
the material cost of a product. These are: Direct material and indirect material.
(i) DIRECT MATERIAL: The direct material is the raw material, which is
processed in the plant and finally forms the finished product. Any standard part,
which also becomes a part of the finished product, will also come under the category
of direct material.
(ii) INDIRECT MATERIAL: Indirect material is those, which help, in the direct
materials into the finished product. These materials dont form a part of the finished
product. Indirect materials include: shop supplies such as cotton waste, lubricating
oil, cutting fluids, coal, oil
gas, shielding gases used in Arc welding, emery paper used for polishing, quenching
oil for heat treatment etc. Indirect materials form the part of on cost or overheads.
2. LABOUR COST: Labour which enter into the manufacture of a product is of two
categories: Direct labour and indirect labour.

(i)DIRECT LABOUR: The operator or operators which actually process the raw
material either on machines or manually, form the direct labour.

(ii) INDIRECT LABOUR: All the staff excepting administrative and sales office
staff, which helps in running the plant come under the category of indirect labour.
Indirect labour includes: Foremen, supervisors, maintenance staff, stores personnel,
time office staff, drawing, office staff, etc. Indirect labour forms a part of overheads.
147
3. EXPENSES: Total cost of the product minus the cost of direct material and direct
labour constitutes the Expenses. Expenses may also be either direct or indirect.
(i) DIRECT EXPENSES: These expenses like the direct material and direct labours
are directly chargeable to the finished product. These are also known as chargeable
expenses. These include:
Cost of pattern, jigs, fixtures, dies, drawings or designs specially prepared for a
particular product, which cannot be used for other purposes.
Cost of any experimental work done specially for a particular product.
Cost of inward carriage or freight incurred on supply of special material needed for
the particular product.
Hire of special or single purpose tools or equipment for a particular product.
(ii) INDIRECT EXPENSES: These are also called on cost overheads or
burden. These include cost of indirect material, cost of indirect labour and other
expenses that cannot be conveniently charged directly to a particular job. Indirect
expenses may be divided into:
(a) Factory expenses or overheads.
(b) Office and Administrative expenses or overheads.
(c) Selling and Distribution expenses or overheads.
a) FACTORY EXPENSES: These expenses include: indirect materials, indirect
labour, expenses, insurance, maintenance and depreciation of machine, power etc.
b) OFFICE AND ADMINISTRATIVE EXPENSES: These expenses consist of all
expenses incurred in the direction, control and administration of an undertaking.
These expenses include: rent and rates of office premises, salaries of office staff,
printing and stationary, postage, salaries of high officers, depreciation of office
equipment and insurance on office equipment.
c) SELLING AND DISTRIBUTION EXPENSES:
These expenses include: salaries of sales staff publicity and advertisement,
catalogues, leaflets and price lists, packing and forwarding charges, go down rent,
commission to salesmen etc.
The overheads may be grouped into two main categories:
1.FIXED OVERHEADS OR CONSTANT HEADS:
These are such items of indirect expenses, which remain constant or fixed irrespective
of volume of production. These items include: salaries of higher officer
(administrative and management executives), capital taxes, insurance charges, and
depreciation of building, plant machinery etc., rent of buildings.
2.VARIABLE OR FLOATING OVERHEADS:
These are such items of overheads, which vary with the volume production. Such
items are: internal transport charges, power, fuel, stores expenses, factory lighting and
heating and sales officers and repair of machine tools.
148
Since fixed overheads remains constant irrespective of volume of production,
production should be increased to reduce the cost of the part. These should be some
minimum production to meet the fixed expenses and start earning profit.
4.6.9 COST STRUCTURE:
The elements of cost can be combined to give flowing types of cost:
1. Prime cost: prime cost or direct cost can be given as:
Prime cost = Direct material + direct labour + direct expenses (if any)
2. Factory cost: This cost is given as:
Factory cost = Prime cost + factory expenses
Factory cost is also called as works cost.
3. Manufacturing cost: Manufacturing cost or cost of production is given as:
Manufacturing cost = factory cost + Administrative expenses.
4. Total cost: Total cost is given as:
Total cost = Manufacturing cost + Selling and Distributed expenses
5. Selling price: Selling price is given as :
Selling price = Total cost + profit
The above-mentioned cost structure is explained with the help of a block diagram in
Fig. 4.5
Fig. 4.5 Cost Structure
4.6.10 ESTIMATING OF DIFFERENT COST ELEMENTS
There are four major elements of cost
1. Direct material cost
2. Direct labour cost
3.Other direct expenses
4. Overhead expenses
Now, we shall discuss these one by one.
4.6.10.1 DIRECT MATERIAL COST
The material, which becomes a part of the product manufactured, is known as direct
material.
The cost of the material, which becomes a part of the product manufactured, is
known as direct material cost.
149
The difference between direct material cost and indirect material cost is that, the
direct material is the material it self of which the component is made of and the
indirect material which is used while the different operations are done on the
components for the smooth running of the machine and cleaning of the machine, job
or worker i.e.. Cotton waste, Greece, lubricating oils, coolants etc.
To calculate the direct material cost for a component, the following procedure should
be followed:
1: STUDY OF DRAWING: Carefully study the drawing of the component. Check the
drawing for missing dimensions and details, and get all these before proceeding
ahead.
2: SPLIT UP: Divide the drawings into simple standard geometrical shapes (like
cubes, cylinders, prism, pyramids etc.) Whose volumes can be determined by
applying formulae of menstruation, add necessary machining allowances on all sides,
which are to be machined if necessary.
3: CALCULATION OF VOLUME: Determine the volume of each such split up
shape and their volume to get the total volume of the material required for the
components.
4: CALCULATION Of WEIGHT: The total volume of the material required is
multiplied by its density to get the weight of the material
5: CALCULATION OF COST: The weight of the material is then multiplied with the
rate of cost per unit weight to get the cost of the direct material of the component.
.2 DIRECT LABOUR COST
The labour actually engaged in performing the manufacturing operations on direct
material for making a product is known as direct labour.
The wages paid to the labour is actually engaged in performing the manufacturing
operations on direct material for making a product is known as direct labour cost.
For the production of an article of the labour two types is required.
First type of labour is DIRECT LABOUR, which is required for a particular
manufacturing operation. FOR EXAMPLE, workers or operators in the factory may
be called as direct labour.
Second type of labour is INDIRECT LABOUR or NON-PRODUCTIVE labour.
These type of labour is required for running the factory as the whole, for example,
supervisory staff, maintenance staff, cleanliness staff, time keepers &store keepers,
gate keepers etc., may be called as indirect labour.
To estimate the labour cost a chart showing different operations to be carried out for
an individual part should be prepared. This chart should indicate the time required for
setting up the job, time required for the operation, tear down time and miscellaneous
allowances.
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SET UP TIME: The time needed for setting and fixing the jobs and tools and
auxiliary equipment on the machine before starting the operation is known as set up
time.
This the time to study the blueprint, time to install necessary tools in the machine,
time to make adjustment for getting the required size and time taken to inspect the
size of first piece.
OPERATION TIME: This time includes the handling time and machining time. The
time consumed in all physicall movements by the operators to prepare part for
machining and disposing of the part, when machining is complete is known as
HANDLING TIME. The time taken to machine the part is known as machining time.
This time can be calculated with the help of machining time formulae depending upon
cutting speeds, feeds etc.
TEAR DOWN TIME: The time taken to remove the job, tools, and others
equipments from the machine after the operation on the machine is known as TEAR
DOWN TIME. This time is very less then the set up tome, for example, setting up of a
job and setting the tool.
In the tool post, in case of lathe machine may take 8 minutes. But the tear down time
i.e.. Time taken to remove the job and the tool may be only one minute.
4.6.11 MISLLANEOUS ALLOWANCES: In addition to time mentioned above,
some other allowances are also taken into consideration while computing total time
for a product. These allowances are
1. Personal allowance
2. Fatigue allowance
3. Tool sharpening & changing of tool
4. Checking of the job
5. Time required for oiling and cleaning
6. Time required for filling coolant in reservoirs.
7. Time required in disposing off scraps & surplus stock.
1. PERSONAL ALLOWANCE: The time required by the operator/worker to
attend his personal needs during working is known as PERSONAL
ALLOWANCE. For Example: Time taken for smoking, for having a cup of tea or
a glass of water, going to urinal.etc. This allowance may b e taken as 5% of the
total time taken.
2. FATIUGE ALLOWANCE: The extra time required by an operator because of
his reduced speed of working caused by fatigue, is known as FATIUGE
ALLOWANCE.
Due to fatigue, nobody can work at the same speed during all the working hours in
a day. The fatigue is caused excessive work and poor conditions of working
facilities, or may be due to workers personal problems and worries. The
performance of the worker in the evening will be less than in the morning. This
allowance may be taken as the 5% of the total time taken.
3. TOOL SHARPENING AND CHANGING ALLOWANCE: The time needed
by an operator for resharpening and changing of blunt tools is known as TOOL
SHARPENING AND CHANGING ALLOWANCE. Considerable time is spent in
151
sharpening and changing the tools. The approximate time required for this may be
taken as 5 minutes, if the grinder is no far off from the working place.
4. CHECKING ALLOWANCE: The time needed by the operator during
working for checking the sizes of the product is known as CHECKING
ALLOWANCE. Rough dimensions require less time than that where the accuracy
is required.
5. TIME REQUIRED FOR OILING AND CLEANING: The time needed by
the operator for oiling and cleaning the machine during working is known as
TIME REQUIRED FOR OILING AND CLEANING. Some time is needed for
oiling and cleaning the machine. So this time should also be included.
6. COOLANT FILLING ALLOWANCE: The time needed by the operator for
filling coolant, if necessary, in the coolant reservoir or sump of the machine
during working, is known as COOLANT FILLING ALLOWANCE. The time
required for filling the coolant in reservoir is only once and it is very minor but
consideration should also be given for the consumption of the this time.
7. TIME REQUIRED FOR DISPOSING OFF SCRAPS AND SURPLUS
STOCK:
The time needed by the operator for disposing off scraps and surplus stocks during
or after completion of work, is known as TIME REQUIRED FOR DISPOSING
OFF SCRAPS AND SURPLUS STOCK. This time is required at the end and only
once in an operation. It i8s also very minor time and sometimes it is neglected.
Allowances required from S.NO. 5 to 7 are not required by direct labour when there
exists arrangement of helpers to operators and maintenance personnel.
To calculate the direct labour cost, the time sheet should be filled which indicates the
total time in performing the work during the day. This sheet also indicates the name,
and number of the workers, name of the department, work order no., description of
work time taken on each job and amount payable to the worker for the work done by
him.
The specimen of time sheet is given below:Time sheet
Table 4.6 Time sheet
Date. Workers Name
Department. Workers no.
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OTHER DIRECT EXPENSES
Any expenditure than direct material and direct labour especially done for a particular
job is known as OTHER DIRECT EXPENSE OR DIRECTLY CHARGEABLE
EXPENSE to that job. The other direct expenses include the expenses other than
direct material expenses and direct labour expenses expanded on a specific unit of
product. These expenses are charged directly to the particular product as a part of the
prime cost. Such expenses include
1. Expenses in hiring of special machine or any other eqyuipment
2. Cost of special pattern and designor drawings
3. Experiment cost of any particular production scheme.
4. Costs of defective work when trails are made before the specified
work is achieved.
5. Transporting charges for material required specially for the
product.
8. OVERHEAD EXPENSES
All expenditures over and above direct material, direct labour and directly chargeable
expenses are known as OVERHEADS OR OVER HEAD EXPENSES.
Works Order
NO.
Description of
work done
Time
Start finish
Total time Rate of Amount
Rs.
Paise
153
This is the fourth major element of cost for a product. Ina factory, there are many
other elements of expenses which cannot be directly charged to many particular
product. All these expenses are grouped under one heading, which is called
OVERHEAD. It includes all the unavoidable expenses may be defined as the cost of
indirect labour, indirect material and expenses for selling. The main sub groups into
which the overheads may be divided are:
1. Factory expenses 2. Administrative expenses
3. Selling expenses 4. Distribution expenses
FACTORY EXPENSES: All indirect expenditures done inside a factory (or works)
for the manufacture of a product are known as FACTORY EXPENSES OR
FACTORY OVERHEADS ONCOST OR WORKS OVERHEADS OR WORK
ONCOST.
ADMINISTRATION EXPENSES: All indirect expenditures done in the direction,
control and administration of a maintenance concern are known as
ADMINISTRATION EXPENSES.
SELLING EXPENSES: All indirect expenses done by a manufacturing concern for
securing orders, and finding or retaining markets for the product manufactured are
known as SELLING EXPENSES.
DISTRIBUTION EXPENSES: All indirect expenditures done by a manufacturing
for the distribution of its product in the market are known as DISTRIBUTION
EXPENSES.
4.6.12 METHODS OF ESTIMATING
The cost of new product can be estimated by the following methods:-
Conference method:- Under this Method, representatives of the various section of
the plant such as purchasing, process engineering, tool design and methods and time
study sit together in a conference and estimate the cost of the material labour and
tooling . a coordinator from either accounting or estimating section collects all the
data and arrives at the manufacturing cost after applying some burden factors. This
method does not involve detailed paper work, standard data or mathematical
calculation and its accuracy will depend upon the availability of specifications,
samples and drawings.
Delphis methods: It is special version of conference method , which involves cycles
of questioning and feedbacks n which the opinion of individual participants are kept
anonymous.
Past experience: In this method, the cost of the new product is approximately
estimated through the use of past average actual costs of somewhat similar products.
The cost is then adjusted to suit variations in the products, materials and labour costs.
In this method there is not- coordinating bet the various sections of the plant and the
estimating clerks lacks the manufacturing and technical background to arrive at an
accurate cost estimate
154
Detailed analysis method: This is the most accurate and reliable method of cost
estimating. However, this is also the most time consuming methods, the complete
analysis involve:
1. Calculating all raw material usage including scrap allowance and salvage
material.
2. Processing each individual component of the product i.e. write the operation
sheet.
3. Calculating the production time and hence the direct labour cost for each
operation
4. The equipment required
5. Tools, gauges and special fixtures or dies. Inspection and testing equipment
6. Packaging and shipping requirements.
Data requirements for cost estimating
The following detailed data are required by the estimators to arrive at an accurate
estimate of the new product:
1. General design specification i.e., a brief description of the
product, its function, performance and purpose.
2. Quantity and rate of production.
3. Assembly or layout drawings
4. List of sub-assemblies of the product.
5. Detailed drawings and the bill of the material for the product
6. Material release date
7. Operation analysis
8. Standard time data
9. Machine tools and equipments required
10. Tools, gauges and special fixtures, jigs or dies required
11. Manufacturing routings
12. Test and inspection equipments and procedures
13. Area and building requirements
155
4.6.13 Steps in making a cost estimate the cost of a new product may be
established by the following the basic steps given below:
The cost of a new product may be estimated by the following the basic steps
given below:
1. Make a complete and thorough analysis of the cost request to understand it
fully.
2. Make an analysis of the part or product and make separate lists of standard
parts and the part to be fabricated within the plant.
3. Make a manufacturing process plan for the parts to be fabricated.
4. Determine the material costs for the standard and the fabricated plants
5. Estimate the total production time for each operation listed in step 3
6. Apply the labour and burden rates to each operation
7. Apply the profit factors to arrive at selling price
8. Add (step4) & (step 6) this will give total manufacturing costs
4.6.14 CHIEF FACTORS IN COST ESTIMATING
Each cost estimate may be exactly the same the same as the actual manufacturing cost
. the most significant caused for the cost deviation can be:
1. Fluctuations in material and labour costs
2. Incomplete design information at the time of estimate
3. Unexpected delays resulting in premium paid for overtime and material and
the unexpected machining or assembly problems.
Following factors should be considered for arriving at an accurate and complete cost
estimate
a) Each estimate should contain complete costs of direct material, direct labour,
factory overheads, spoilage, engineering, administration and selling
b) The cost of new product is estimated on the basis of previous estimates of
comparable parts, detailed estimations should be used. It is necessary to make
substitute in the past estimates for the individual operations
c) The volume of pieces to be produced also effects the costing rates since the
time and therefore the cost of performing an operation decreases as the no. of
units produced id increased
d) The addition of new types of equipments and special buildings require the
development of new overhead charges etc
4.6.15 CALCULATION OF MACHINING TIME
The basis relationship for determining the machining time for any machining
operation is that the cutting time in minutes is equal to the Distance the tool is fed, in
mm, divides by the feed in mm per minute, i.e.,
Tm=L/F, per cut or per pass
Where Tm=cutting time in minute
L=Total tool travel in mm
F=Feed of tool in mm per minute
156
The distance a tool is fed to make a cut (L) is the sum of distance the tool travel while
cutting the material plus its approach distance plus its over travel. The approach is
the tool is feed from the time its touches the work piece until it is cutting to full depth.
Approach distance for a drill is the length of its point, which is about one fourth the
diameter of the standard drill. The approach of most of the single point tool is
negligilible. Over travel is the distance the tool is fed while it is not cutting. It is the
distance over which the tool idles before it enters and after it leaves the cut. This
distance is calculated for face milling and slotting, but in other caser like drilling or
trimming it is taken as 0.8 to 6 mm. Fig 4.2 shows the cutting operation on a lathe,
advance of the tool is from the position 1 to 3, the feed is engaged. The tool travels to
position 4, when it is contracts the job. The distance 4 5 is the tool approach, i.e., the
tool travel before its starts the cutting the required depth of material. So,
Fig. 4.6
Total cutting distance =( 4 5 ) + (5 6), The distance (6 7) is total tool over travel,
so that the tool completely clears the job. The distance (3 4) is also the tool over
travel and this is provided so that the tool contacts the job smoothly and not with the
jerk. So,
Total tool travel = length of job + approach + Two over travels
F = f n
N = r.p.m. Of work or cutter.\relation(4.8) becomes,
Tm = L/Fn
Principle element of metal machining:
The principal elements of metal machining are:
(a) Cutting speed (b) Feed (c) depth of cut
a) CUTTING SPEED. The cutting speed can be defined as a relatively small
movement per cycle of the cutting tool, relative to the work piece in a direction,
which is usually perpendicular to the cutting speed directions. It is expressed in
millimeters per revolutions (mm/rev) or millimeter per stroke (mm/str). It is more
complex element as compare to cutting speed, since it is expressed differently for
various operations. For example, in turning and drilling, the feed is axial advance of
the tool along or through the job during each revolutions of the tool or job; for the
shaper or planner, it is latest offset between the tool and work for each stroke and for
multi tooth milling cutters, feed is the advance of work or cutter between the cutting
action of two successive teeth (expressed basically as mm/per tooth).
157
b) DEPTH OF CUT: The depth of cut is the thickness of the layer of metal removed
in one cut, or pass, measured in a direction perpendicular to the machined surface.
The depth of cut is always perpendicular to the direction of feed motion. Selection of
cutting speed: The cutting speed to be used will depend upon the following factors:
(1) Work material: hard and strong materials require a lower cutting
speed; whereas soft and ductile materials are cut a higher cutting speed.
(2) Cutting tool material: Special cutting tool materials, for example,
cemented carbides; ceramics, satellite and H.S.S. will cut as much higher cutting
speeds than alloy or carbon steel tools.
(3) The depth of cut and feed: A light finishing cut with a fine feed may
be run at higher sped than a heavy roughing cut.
(4) Desired cutting tool life: The tool life is a direct function of cutting
temperature, which increases with increase in cutting speed. Thus as the cutting
speed is increased, cutting tool life is decreased.
(5) Rigidity and condition of the machine and tool and the rigidity of
the work: An old, loose machine working with a poorly supported tool on a thin
bar, will not cut as such a high speed, as a good machine with rigid tool operating
on a well supported bar of reasonable dimensions.

c) SELECTION OF FEED. Feeds, to be used, will depend upon the following
factors:
(i) Smoothness of the finish required. A coarse feed will give wider and deeper
machining marks and an inferior finish to a fine feed. A blunt nosed tool will give
a better finish than a sharp for the same feed.
(ii) Power available, condition of the machine and its drive. The product of the
speed, feed & depth of cut gives the amount of metal being removed and hence
the power necessary. A coarse feed on a poor or badly driven machine will be
harmful both for the machine and the tool. This will also result in slipping of the
drive or belt.
(iii) Type of cut. As a general rule, give coarest feed possible for a roughing
cut because finishing is unimportant. For a finishing cut, the feed should be fine
enough to give the class of finish required.
(iv)Tool Life. The cutting temperature increases with increase of feed, resulting in
decreased tool life.
D) SELECTION OF DEPTH OF CUT. The depth of cut to be used will depend on
the following factors:
(i) Type of Cut. Use large depths of cut for roughing operations than for finishing
operations.
(ii) Tool Life. The cutting temperature increases with increase of depth of cut,
resulting in decreased tool life.
(iii) Power Required. As discussed above, the cutting speed multiplied by area
of cut (feed x depth of cut) gives the metal removal rate, which gives the power
requirements. For a given area of cut, a large ratio of depth of cut to feed usually
gives the most efficient performance as well as a better surface finish.
Procedure for assigning cutting variables.
A definite order should be followed in selecting and assigning the cutting variables,
that is, speed, feed & depth of cut. First, the depth of cut is established and than the
158
rate of cut is established. After determining or assigning the values of depth of cut &
rate of feed, the cutting velocity is established.
(a) Depth of Cut. The depth of cut is determine primarily from the magnitude of
the machining allowance. The machining allowance is the layer of metal (Stock) that
is to be removed from the surface of a blank in machining to obtain a finished part.
Allowances are specified on one side that is in the case of round parts; it equals one
half of the difference in diameters of the blank and finished part. The nearer is the
blank to the finished part in the shape & size, that is, the smaller the machine
allowance, the less the amount of metal that will be converted into chips, the shorter
the time required for machining, the higher the productivity in manufacturing the
given part and the cheaper the machine of which it is a component. It is advantageous
to remove the whole machining allowance in a single pass or cut as is done in rough
machining. In that case, the depth of cut will equal the machining allowance. In
removing large allowances or when the depth of cut is limited by : available power of
the machine tool drive, lack of rigidity of the workpiece, insufficiently reliable
clamping of the workpiece in the machine, and other factors, it becomes necessary to
remove the total machining allowance in several passes, there by reducing the depth
of cut.
The depth of cut may be taken equal to 4 to 5 mm in rough turning 0.5 to 2mm in
semi finish turning and from 0.1 to 0.4 mm fro finish passes.
The depth of cut is always associated with the type of machining being done. For
example, A grinding allowance is always removed in several passes.
(b) Feed. In order to reduce the machining time, that is, to increase the
productivity, it is advantageous to apply the maximum possible rate of feed, taking
into account all the factors which may influence this value. In rough machining, when
no special requirements are made to the surface finish of the workpiece, but the acting
forces in the cutting process are of considerable magnitude, the maximum rate of feed
may be limited by the available strength and rigidity of the cutting tool, rigidity of the
blank and the capacity of the machine tool. Procession factors, namely machining
accuracy and surface finish are of prime importance only for finish operations and
especially when high classes of finish are required. The actual numerical values must
be taken for those available on the machine tool. These are usually given in the
service manual and handbooks. For example, in rough turning with an ordinary
carbide tipped lead angle lathe tool, with a depth of cut equal to 5 mm, the
recommended rate of feed is maximum equal to 1.2mm/ rev. When higher quality of
machined surface is required, as in semi finish and finish machining, the maximum
rate of machining is restricted by the specified surface finish, since, the heavier the
feed, the greater the roughness of the surface produced. For example, to obtain a
surface finish of class between roughness grade number 7 to 8, with a turning tool on
which tip radius = 1mm, approach angle = 45
o
and end cutting edge angel 5
o
, the
recommended rate of feed is maximum = 0.25 mm/ rev.
(c) Cutting Velocity. Having established the depth of cut and the rate of feed, it is
possible to determine the cutting speed, V, from formulas give in metal cutting theory.
Both these variables greatly affect the cutting speed permitted by the tool. The
heavier the feed and depth of cut, the greater the forces acting on the tool, the higher
the cutting temperature, the more intensive the tool wear will be and the lower the
159
cutting speed permitted by the tool for the same tool life. The relationship between
cutting speed, depth of cut and rate of feed, for a given tool life, can be expressed by
the formula:
min / ,
.
m
x
f
m
d
C
V
Where C = constant factor depending upon the work material, tool
material, tool geometry, tool life, cutting fluid etc.
d =depth of cut, mm
f =rate of feed, mm/rev.
m and x = exponents which differ work materials, tool materials and
machining variables. In turning and boring work pieces of carbon steels with high-
speed steel tools and with tool life of 60 min.
m= 0.25 and x = 0.33 for f 0.25 mm/rev.
= 0.25 and x = 0.66 for f > 0.25 mm/rev.
The values for C can be taken from handbooks. For example, for turning with a single
point tool tipped with cemented carbide and a tool life of 90 min, C = 141.5 for
working material of carbon steel with a tensile strength of 750 N/mm
2
.
It follows from the values for X and m that the exponent for feed is higher than for
depth of cut, that is, an increase in feed leads to a greater reduction in cutting speed
than an increases in the depth of cut. This is due to more intensive tool wear with an
increase in f than with an increase in d
In equation (4.11) the values of the variables C, m and x will depend upon the tool
life. A more general equation incorporating the tool life also is written as:
Where T = tool life, min
For turning structural carbon and alloy steels with tensile strength equal to 750 N/mm
2
with a carbide-tipped tool, the various exponents and constant C have the values
(from hand books) :
C = 273, n = 0.2, m = 0.15
X = 0.2 for
rev mm f / 3 . 0
= 0.35 fro
rev mm f / 75 . 0

= 0.45 for
rev mm f / 75 . 0 >
The common values of cutting speeds and feeds are given in table 4.1 and also, for the
individual operation their values have recommended in the following pages.
1. Turning. The turning operation is shown in
160
Fig. 4.7 Turning Operation
Note the diameter D which will be used in equation (4.9) to obtain the r.p.m of the
cutter of work. To obtain the machining time for turning operation, equation (4.10) is
used.
161
Example 4.11. What is the machining time to turn the dimension given in Fig 4.4.
The material is brass the cutting speed with H.S.S tool being 100 m/mm, and feed is
7.5 mm/rev.
Solution First find the time to turn 38 mm diameter by 76 mm length of cut. Using the
formula.
T
m
=
fN
L

Now N =
D
V

1000
=
m p r . . 62 . 636
50
100 1000

T
m
=
min 16 . 0
62 . 636 75 . 0
76

Next, to turn 25 mm diameter by 38 mm length,

N =
m p r . . 65 . 837
38
100 1000

T
m
= 380.75 837.65 = 0.06 min
Total time = 0.16 + 0.06 = 0.22 min.
The turning is done in one pass only as the maximum depth of cut of 6 mm on a side
in general shop practice for brass.
2. External relief. An external relief operation is the removal of material from a
previously turned surface along the same axis and within the limits of turned area,
Fig. 4.5. The cutting tool is similar to turning tool except that it is square nosed.
Table 4.7 Cutting Speeds and Feed Rates
Work
Material
Cutting Speed V in rpm Feed rate f in
mm/rev. H.S.S tool Carbide tool Stellite tool
162
Turn
Ream
and
Threa
d
Dril
l
Turn Turn
Rough
Finis
h
Rough Finish
Roug
h
Finish
Roug
h
Finish
Mild Steet 40 60
7.5 to
15
30 90 180 50 75
0.625
to 2.0
0.125
to 0.75
Cast Steel 15 24 3.5 12 45 100 24 33
0.5 to
1.25
0.125
to 0.5
Stainless
Steel
15 18 3 12 27 45 22 25
0.5 to
1.0
0.075
to
0.175
Grey C.I 18 27 3.5 13 60 100 33 45
0.4 to
2.5
0.2 to
1.0
Aluminum 90 150 15 72 240 360 120 180
0.1 to
0.5
0.075
to 0.25
Brass 75 100 18 60 180 270 90 150
0.375
to 2.0
0.2 to
1.25
Phosphor
Bronze
18 36 4.5 13 120. 180 30 50
0.375
to 0.75
0.125
to 0.5
Example 4.12. Find the time to turn the external relief shown in figure 4.5 . The
material is mild steel and feed is 0.379 mm/rev.
Solution
From table 4.1 with H.S.S cut cutting speed V=60 M/min
N= 1000 x 60 =502.6
x38

T
m
= L = 32
fN 0.375X502.6


=0.17
163
3. Point. Pointing is the process of removing stock at the end of a bar to facilitate the
approach of a cutter turner. It helps the cutter turner rolls to find their work place.
This operation which is usually hand feed operation may be done either from cross
slide or turret of a lathe fig 4.6 .The time calculations are done on the same line as for
plain turning.
4.Chamfer. Chamfering is the operation of removing material from edges of external
or internal diameter to facilitate the entering of mating parts to form a seat or to
remove sharp edges fig 4.7.This is hand feed operation and machine time is relatively
short .The time may be calculated by formula as for plain turning.
5. Knurling. Knurling is the operation of upsetting material so as to produce diamond
shape or straight lined patterns on the surface of material. This is done to gripping
when the job is grasped by hand the handles of gauges, hand screws slip bushing etc.
are often knurled .The knurling is obtain with help of tools called knurls and
operation may be either from cross slide or from turret of a lathe .In turret knurling
tool is feed in & out the out feed is being of two to three times of in feed. The cutting
time for knurling operation is estimated on the same lines as for plain turning fig 4.8.
164
6. Forming is the operation of producing surfaces that would be difficult to produce
by conventional methods of turning, boring or facing. The tool used is called
form Tool and carries the counter of the part to be formed, fig 4.9. The cutting time
is estimated in same way as for plain turning, i.e.
1000V
N =
D
avg.
Example 4.13 Calculate the machining time to face on a lathe a cast-iron flanges
shown in fig. 4.11.
Solution. As is clear from fig 4.11.
Length of cut =7.5cm
Average dia (Davg)= (25+10) =17.5
Now from table 4.1, for H.S.S. tool,
V=27m/min & let f = 0.8mm/rev.

N = 1000 V = 1000 27 = 49 r.p.m.
Davg x175
Tm = L = 75
F x N 0.8x49

= 191 min.
Drilling. Drilling is the cutting holes in the material, in which length of drill travel is
L =A + t + A
Where A =. 029 D For Point angle of 120
Drilling operation can be done drill presses, turret lathes and engine lathe. On engine
lathe the drill is held in tail stock spindle and feed is given by rotating manually hand
wheel of the tailstock. Here the drilling time cannot be calculated with help of
formula. Drilling cutting speed is general are lower than turning cutting speeds.
165
Harder the material to drill, lower the cutting speed. Feed varies with the diameter of
drill, increasing with the diameter. It is between about 0.05 mm/rev for small drills of
1.5 mm dia to about 0.25 mm/rev for drill of 25mm dia Table 4.8& 4.9 give cutting
speeds and feed rates for drills
Table 4.8 Table 4.9
Cutting speed, m/min feed rates, mm/rev
Work material V Drill size, mm f
Stainless steel 9-12 0-3.2 0.025-0.05
C-steels (0.4-0.5%
C)
21-24 3.2-6.35 0.05-0.10
C-steels (0.2-0.3%
C)
24-33 6.35-12.7 0.10-0.175
Soft grey C.I. 30-45 12.7-25.4 0.175-0.375
Brass and Bronze 60-90 >25.4 0.375-0.625
Magnesium alloys 75-120
9. Boring. Boring is the operation of enlarging or finishing an internal hole which
has been previously drilled. The tool is usually a single point tool and it is mounted on
tool post, a square turret or boring bar is operated from a, spindle, across slide, a
hexagonal turret, and so on .The cutting speed relation and relation to find machining
time is similar to that used for simple turning.

166
10. Undercutting. In under cutting operation , a previously bored hole is made
larger along the same axis and with in the longitudinal limits of the main bore,
cutting time is obtain in same manner as boring time.
11. Shaping planning and slotting. In all the case operations, relative motion
between the tool and work piece is reciprocating. The shaper operation is shown in fig
4.14 forward stroke is cutting stroke and return stroke is idle stroke, so it should be in
min possible time, usually,
Return stroke = 2/3
Forward stroke
i.e. time for forward stroke (cutting stroke) = 3 Total time ( of both strokes)
5
Now cutting speed is given as
V = N L (1+K) m/ min

1000
N =Number strokes per min
L = Length of strokes ,mm
K = Ratio of return time to cutting time
Now time taken by cutting stroke = L

1000 V

Return Time = K Cutting stroke time = K L

1000 V
Time taken to complete one cycle
L K L
= +
1000 V 1000 V
Now total number of strokes required to complete one cut on full breadth, of the
job =W/f
where f= feed/ stroke
Total time for compleating one cut == L (1+ K) W

1000 V f
Cutting speeds and feeds for shaping ,planning and slotting
167
Table 4.10
Work
material
Types of tool
H.S.S Cast alloys carbides
V,mpm f,mm V,mpm f,mm V,mpm f,mm
Steel(hard) 6-10.5 0.75-1.25 . . 30-54 0.9
Steel
(medium)
18-21 0.75 . . 54-75 1.25
Steel(soft) 21-30 0.75-3.0 . . 54-90 1.25
Cast steel 7.5-18 1.25 18-24 1.0 30-54 1.00
C.I. (hard) 9-15 1.50 15-24 1.25 30-60 1.25
C.I.(soft) 15-24 3.0 27-36 1.25 33-675 1.25
Malleable
iron
15-27 2.25 14-36 1.25 45-75 1.0
Brass 45-75 1.25-1.50 . . . .
Bronze 9-18 2.0 . . 45-90 1.25
Auminium 60-90 0.75-1.25 . . . .
BROCHING: The cutting time for broaching may be calculated as:

Tm = Length of stroke + length of stroke

Cutting speed return speed
The return stroke being idle is after than cutting stroke and so return is usually twice
the cutting speed. Cutting speed for various materials with H.S.S. broaches is given in
the table 4.11.
Table 4.11
Material V, m/mm
168
Steel(hard)
Steel(medium)
Steel(soft)
C.I.(HARD)
C.I.(soft)
Bronze
Brass
beryllium, copper
3
6
9
6
12
12
12
3
For carbide broaches, the cutting speed ranges from 9 to 27 m/mm. feed is usually
0.075mm or less between teeth.
Sawing. For power hack saw,
Length of cut
Tm =
Stroke per min.
The recommended strokersper min are as folls:
1. cold-rolled brass,copper etc. 140
2.Annealed tool steels,medium steels, 100
3.hard steels, special alloys, 70
Formula for time to saw is, Length of cut in cm.
Tm =
Cutting speed ,mpm
169
4.6.16 ESTIMATION OF TOTAL UNIT TIME

As already mentioned the total time to produce one unit will consist of set up time,
machining time, handling time and tear down time. Tear down time is usually very
small and is considered along with set up time. After the machining time for
individual operations has been calculated and the total obtained, including the set up
time and handling time, a percentage of about 10% to 20% is added to allow for
contingences. That will give the total cycle time. The set up time, which occurs, for a
lot is given in table for new machine tools.
Average set up time
Table 4.12
Machine tool
Time, hr
Machine tool
Time, hr
Min. Max Min Max
Engine lathe(9 x
48)
0.3 1.5 Turret
lathe(3x 21)
1.0 2.5
Engine lathe(12 x
102)
0.5 2.0 Shaper 0.3 0.8
Engine lather(24 x
144)
0.75 2.0 Planer 0.5 1.5
turret lathe(1 x
10)
0.3 1.5 Surface
grinder
0.3 0.5
turret lathe (1.5 x
21)
1.0 1.0 Radial drill 0.3 1.0
Mills 0.75 1.0
The handling times for various operation on engine lathe and turret lathe are given in
the table.
Handling times on the engine lathe
Operation Time,hr
Use drill, reamer, etc, in tailstock in fixed
position-place and remove from tailstock
spindle
Set tool to face-turn-bore, etc, includes feed
on and off.
Clamp and release taper attachment on
machine bed.
Index square turret when used.
Change speed-includes stop and start
machine.
Change feed
Pull out drill to relieve chip
0.006
0.005
0.008
0.003
0.002
0.001
0.002
Handling time on turret lathe
170
Table 4.13
Operation Time, min
Change speed
Changed feed
Index tool post
Engage feed
Feed to bar stop
Chuck in 3 jaw chuck
0.05
0.05
0.06
0.02
0.06
0.75
171
Example.4.1 from the following data, calculate the total cost of the and selling
price for the job:
Direct material cost =Rs 5500
Manufacturing wage =Rs 3000
Factory overheads to manufacture wages=100%
Non-manufacturing overheads to factory cost=15%
Profit on total cost =12%
Solution. Direct material=5500
Manufacturing wages = Rs5500
Factory overheads = 100% of Rs 3000
= Rs 3000
So factory cost = Direct material cost + direct labour + factory over
heads
= Rs 5500 + 3000 + 3000
= Rs11, 500
Non-manufacturing overheads, i.e., administrative and selling overheads
= 15% of Rs 11,500
= Rs 1725
Total cost = factory cost + Rs 1725
= Rs 11,500 + Rs 1725
= Rs 13,225
Profit = 12% of total cost
= Rs 1587
Selling price = total cost + profit
= Rs 14,812
..
Example 4.2. From the records of a company, the following data are available
;
(1) Raw material
Opening stock = Rs 20,000
Closing stock = Rs 30,000
Total purchase during the year = Rs 1, 70,000
(2) Finished goods
Opening stock = Rs 10,000
Closing stock = Rs 15,000
Sales = Rs 4, 89,500
(3) Direct wages = Rs 1, 20,000
(4) Factory expenses = Rs 1, 20,000
(5) Non-manufacturing expenses = Rs 50,000

Find out what price should be quoted for a product involving an expenditure of
Rs 20,000 in material andRS30, 000 in wages.
Solution; first of all, we shall determine he the rates of factory expenses, non-
manufacturing expenses and profits, from the given data above.
Direct material cost = opening stock+ total purchase during the year closing
stock
172
= Rs 20,000+ 1, 70,000- 30,000
= Rs 1, 60,000
Direct wages = Rs 1, 20,000
Factory expenses = 1, 20,000
So Factory cost = Rs 1, 60,000 +1, 20,000+1, 20,000
= Rs 4, 00,000
Non- manufacturing expenses = Rs 50,000
So total cost = Rs 4, 00,000 + Rs50, 000
= Rs 4, 50,000
Cost of finished goods sold = opening stock + cost of goods manufactured-
Closing stock
= Rs 10,000+ Rs 4, 50,000- Rs 15,000
= Rs4, 50,000
Total sales = 4, 89,500
Profit = 4, 89,500-4, 45,500
= Rs 44,500
(1) factory expenses (%of direct wages)
= 1, 20,000100/1, 20,000
(2) non-manufacturing expenses to factory cost
= 50,000100/4, 00,000
=12
(3) Profit to cost of sales = 44,500100/4, 45,000 = 10
Now the cost of the product can be quoted as follows:
Direct material = Rs 20,000
Direct wages = Rs30, 000
Factory expenses (100 of wages) = Rs 30,000
Factory cost = 20,000+30,000+30,000 = Rs80,
000
Non-manufacturing expenses (12 of factory cost)
= 80,00012.5/100
= Rs 10,000
Total cost =Rs 80,000+ Rs 10,000
= Rs 90,000
Profit (10 of total cost) = Rs9, 000
Selling price= Rs 90,000+Rs9, 000
=Rs 99,000

Example 4.3. Find the factory cost of a part made from solid brass bar 38 mm
diameter and length of bar used being 25 mm. the machining time taken to
finish the part is 90 minute and the labour rate is Rs 2.00 per hour. Factory
overheads are 50 percent of direct labour cost .the density of the material is
8.6gms.per cube.cm and its cost is Rs.1.625 per Newton.
Solution. Weight of raw material = 22(3.8)2.58.69.81/41000 .newtons
=2.4 newtons
material cost = 2.41.625 =Rs3.9
Labour cost =2 90/ 60=Rs 3.00
Factory overheads = 50%of 3.00 =Rs 1.5
Factory cost = 3.90+3.00+1.5
=Rs 8.40
173
Example 4.4. An electric immersion rod is being sold in the market for Rs
65,000.find its production or manufacturing cost assuming 20% profit of the
selling price and selling expenses to be 40% of production cost.
If the cost of material used for rod is Rs 15.00 and the overheads
of the department in which it is being made is 40% of labour cost. find the time
taken for its manufacture if the labour rate is Rs 2.00 per hour.
Solution; Selling price =Rs 65.00
Profit = 20 % of Rs65.00= Rs 13.00
So, Total cost =65-13 =Rs. 52.00
If P, is the production or manufacturing cost, than
Overheads = 0.4 w
P= Direct material +direct labour + overheads
So 37.14 = 15+ w+0.4w
w = 22.14/1.4 = Rs15.81
Time taken = 15.81/2 =7.905 Hours
Example 4.5. The market price pf a machine is Rs 6000 and the discount
allowed to distributor is 20% of the market price. For a certain period it was
found that the selling cost was the half the factory cost. The material cost labour
cost and overheads charges of the factory are in the ratio 1:4:2 .if the ma= terial
cost is Rs 400.What profit is made by the factory on each machine?
Solution. Market price of the machine =Rs 6000
Discount = 20% of Rs 6000
= Rs 1200
Selling price of the factory = 6000-1200
= Rs4800
Now selling price = factory cost administrative cost and selling
expences+profit
=f+0.5f +p = 1.5f+p
now f = material cost+ labour cost+ factory overheads
= 400+1600+800
= 2800
4800= 1.52800+p
p (profit) =Rs 600
Example 4.6. the monthly requirement of a company is 1500 components. the
cost of each part is rs 5 and the cost of each set up is Rs 30 lot if the carrying
charge factor is 20% determine;
(a) economic lit size
(b) set up time for each lot
Solution. From equation
(a) N = 5askc
A= 1500, s= Rs30, k= 0.20 c= Rs6
N =5 1500 30/ 0.205
= 1061 pieces
(b) time for each set up, equation
174
(c) S =NS/A = 106130/1500 =21.22 hours
Example 4.7. What is the unit time to change a milling cutter if it takes 10
minute for the operator to change the cutter .the cutter works 2 minute during
during each cycle and tool life is hours?
Solution from equation
t= tc. tk/T
Her tc= 2min, Tk =10 min, T=240min
t= 210/240=0.83min

Example 4.10. 40 forging are to be machined in four set ups. Calculate the cost
of production with the help of following given data;
Machine time = 12min per forging
Non machine time = 21 min per forging
Set up time = 45min per set up
Tool sharpening = 5 min per forging
Fatigue = 20%
Personal needs =5%
Tool change time =10 min
Tool life =8 hour
Checking time = 15 sec with 5 check per forging
Performa Nance factor = 1.4
Direct labour cost = Rs 5 per hour
Solution. Machine +nonmachingtime= 33 min.
Fatigue = 20%of 33 min. = 6.6min.
Personal needs= 5%= 1.65 min
Tool sharpening time t= tc.Tk/ T
=1210/480=0.25 min. per forging
Measuring and checking time = 155/60 =1.25 min. per forging
Sum of the above times = 12+12+1.65+6.6+0.25+1.25
=42.75
Time for 40 forgings= 42.7540
=1710 min.
Set up time =454 =180 min.
Total estimated time, Te=1890 min.
Total actual time, Ta =TeR
=1890 1.4
=2646 min.
Direct labour cost =Rs 220.5