ENGINEERING AND MAINTENANCE

MISS JANET OWUSU-ANSAH

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Engineering and maintenance Introduction

Engineering is basically the practical application of scientific knowledge in the design, construction and control of machines, public services such as roads, bridges, etc, electrical apparatus and appliance, chemicals, etc. Examples of engineering programmes/courses studied in the tertiary institutions elsewhere include electrical engineering, civil engineering, chemical engineering, computer engineering, etc. Work, science or profession of an engineerAn Engineer, is person who design, construct/ builds and maintains engines, machines, bridges, railways, etc, because he/she is skilled in that respect/direction. Engineering is very relevant in the environment in which we find ourselves because it is the means by which is we can obtain and control everything including equipment or machines around us. That is also enhance our lives in many ways Maintenance: To maintain means to cause to continue or keep in existence at the same level, or stand and by regular checks on the performance of a facility. The objective of forming and operating an industrial company is to make profit and hence no business can continue to function unless a profit is made. These facts although obvious, are frequently overlooked by many persons who are not ultimately concerned with company management. All activities within a company should be so organized and co-ordinate that their overall effect and ultimate aim is to increase the profitability of the business. The introduction of any new activity to the modification of an existing one should be critically examined to ensure that it assists the company to achieve us max objective. Industries function by producing goods and services which can be sold for a profit to enable the company to continue to operate. The equipment being used for production must operate efficiently and accurately at the required level of production and hence the need for regular maintenance.

Definition of some Terminologies A current is the flow of electric charge in a circuit. Its SI unit is the ampere (A) A source can also be called the voltage. Example includes the socket at home and offices. A load accepts energy from a system. Example includes blender pressing iron, mobile phones etc

Basic Theory of Electricity a. Electricity is a convenient form of energy that can produce heat, light, b. It can be generated, transmitted, and controlled. a. Electricity is present in all matter. I) All matter is made of combinations of elements called molecules, which are in turn made up of even smaller units called atoms. 2) An atom is the smallest amount of an element that retains all the properties of' the clement. 3) An atom may be broken down into smaller pieces whose relationships have been concealed or as a miniature solar system. a) The center of the atom consists of protons, which carry a positive electrical charge, and neutrons, which carry no charge. b) Electrons, which carry a negative electrical charge, orbit around the center of the atom. c) Two kinds of electrons exist: - Planetary electrons cannot be readily moved from their orbits. - Free or valance electrons are loosely held in the atom's outer orbit and may drift into orbits of nearby atoms. d) When an atom has an equal number of protons and electrons, it is said to be electrically neutral. 1. How is electric current produced? a. An atom becomes electrically charged when it has fewer electrons than protons than protons. b. The random wandering of valence electron from one atom to another does not produce permanent changes. c. The overall material will remain the same if outside influence does not disturb the balance.

d. If an outside force, such as a battery voltage, disturbs the balance, the loosely-held outer electrons will tend to move in one direction. I) when voltage is applied across the ends of a conductor, the electrons, charge up and then had been involving in different directions, are forced to move in the same direction along the wire. 2) The individual electrons all along the path forced to leave their atom and travel a short distance to another lt need~ an electron. 3) This motion of electrons is transmitted along the path from atom to atom. as the motion of the whip is transmitted one to the other. e. This nonrandom flow of electrons is called If' electric current. f. When the free electrons move randomly, the energy is small, but when they are forced to move in the same, their collective energy is large and can be used for work. B. Measuring Electric Current I. Electron Flow (Amperage) a. An electric current is a flow of electrons a conductor. b. The speed of this flow is nearly equal to t of light, mile per second. c. The of electricity is measured by the number of electrons that pa::,s a point i:l a wire in one second. d. An ampere is a measure of electron flow. It represents a of 1 coulomb of electricity (6 billion billion electrons) past a point e in one second. e. Compared to a water system, an ampere would be similar to a measure of water flow through a pipe, such as gallon per minute. Electromotive Force (voltage) a. Electromotive (electron - moving) force or voltage is electrical potential which provides energy for the movement of electron in a circuit. b. This electrical potential results from a difference in electron energies at two points in a circuit. c. This difference in electron energy levels in a circuit can be compared to the potential energy of water stored in a high water tower and the kinetic energy of water flowing through the pipe.

d. Voltage is measured in units called volts (a difference variable) and is abbreviated with the letter symbols E or V. e. Compared to system, a volt would be similar to a measure of water pressure in a pipe such as pounds per square inch. 3. Resistance to Current Flow (Resistance) a. Resistance is the ability of a material to resist electron flow. b. Materials vary in their number of valence electrons and in the ease with which electrons will be transferred between atoms. c. Resistance is measured in units called ohms. d. The symbol for resistance is R, and the symbol for ohms is the Greek letter (omega). Conductors and insulators Conductors are materials which permit current to flow through. Insulators are materials which to do not allow current to flow through. Examples of conductors includes, aluminum, copper, silver, platinum, bronze, Gold, etc. examples of insulators include, Glass,. Mica, Air, Rubber. Ceramic, Plastic, Varnish, Paper, Gold and certain Oils. c. A conductor is a material through which electrons can flow freely. d. An insulator provides great resistance to electron flow. c. Resistance is measured in units called ohms.

4. Energy a. Electrical energy is the amount of work that can be by voltage and current over a specific period of time. b. The unit for measuring electrical energy the watt-hour (more commonly spelled as kilowatt hours with is 1000 watt hours); it is usually designated by the letter kWh. c. The mathematical relation between voltage V, ampere A, resistance R, and electrical energy E, is: E = Power (watts) *Time T (hours)

5. Power a. Electrical power is the amount of work that can be done by voltage and current.

b. The unit for measuring electrical power is the watt; it is usually designated by the letter W. c. A watt of power is equal to one volt pushing one ampere of current through a conductor with one ohm of resistance. d. The mathematical relation between power and voltage, resistance and amperes IS: P=I*V where, P = power (watts) I = current (amperes) V = electrical potential (volts) Example of Usage of electricity Most household/farm shop appliances and equipment are rated in watts (see the nameplate or manufacturer's specifications). Knowing the rating in watts and the voltage to be used (normally 120 or 240), the flow of the current in the circuit for the appliance or equipment can be calculated. e.g. You have purchased a 120 volt plug-in electric space heater for use in your shop. It is rated at 400 watts. How much current will the heater drew? Solution: P=I*V Or, I = P divided by V I=P/V

where, P = 400 watts V = 120 volts Therefore, I=400/120, 1= 400 divided by 120 = 3.33 amperes f. The mathematical relation between power and voltage, resistance and amperes can be rewritten as: 1) P = I*V and, V=I*R d. Ohm's Law 1. The physicist, George Simon ohm, discovered that the flow of electrical current through a conductor is directly proportional to the electromotive force that produces it and inversely proportional to the resistance in the conductor a. If the resistance to electron flow through an electrical device is cut in half, the current amperage doubles. b. If the resistance remains constant, but the voltage is doubled, the current amperage doubles. 3. This relationship is expressed in ohm's law as E = IR. a. I equals current in amperes. b. E equals potential energy in volts. c. R equals resistance in ohms. Types of Electricity 1) Direct Current (DC) a. Electrons flow constantly in one direction. b. This is the type of electricity produced by all batteries 2) Alternating current (AC) a. Electrons flow first in one direction and then in the reverse direction at a certain rate of reversal (cycles per second).

- In the U.S, 60 cycles per second (60 Hertz) is the standard. -In Ghana, 50 cycles per second (50 Hertz) is the standard. b. AC current has many advantages over DC, i. e., transformers to increase or decrease voltage can be used only with AC current. 3) Single-phase current a. This is the typical current supplied to households and businesses where power requirements are not very high. b. Single phase current can be provided by two wires. 4) Three - phase current a. This type of current is designed especially for large electrical loads. b. It requires at least three wires. c. Three phase current is actually three single - phase currents combined so that peak voltages are equally spaced. 5. Sources of Electricity I) Friction 2) Single-phase current 3) Three - phase current 4) Heat 5) Light E.g. Photovoltaic 6) Pressure 7) Chemical Action e.g. a) Primary Cells I) The combination of certain metals in an electrolyte solution will produce electricity, for example, copper and zinc in sulfuric acid.

2) Examples of batteries that produce electricity from primary cells are dry cell (paste-like electrolyte, carbon and zinc electrodes) and mercury batteries. 3) The zinc is used up in the process and when this happens the batteries go dead. b) Storage batteries. 1) These batteries are similar to primary cells except that the process can be reversed and the battery can be recharged. 2) Examples of storage batteries are the lead-sulfuric acid batteries used in automobiles, tractors, etc, and the nickel-cadmium rechargeable batteries used in flashlights, radios, etc. c. Fuel Cells 1) A container in which fuels react in the presences of an electrolyte and electrons are made available at the negative electrode terminal. 2) Oxygen and hydrogen are used as fuels in space vehicles to produce electricity. 4. Magnetic Action a. A flow of electrons is produced in a coil of wire which is moving within a magnetic field. 1) The magnetic field can be provided by a stationary magnet. 2) Movement of the wire can be provided by: b) Falling water turning a turbines shaft c) Atomic power producing steam which turns a turbine shaft d) An internal combustion engine turning a shaft. e) This is the most common method of producing electrical energy in large quantities to serve the home, farm, and industries. Application of the heating effect of an electric current When an electric current passes thru a resistor, heat is generated and the temperature of the resistor is raised. The following applications are a few examples of the many in which this effect is utilized; (a) Electric fires, cookers etc. The heating element is usually an alloy of nickel and chromium, since this material has a higher resistivity and is capable of withstanding a high temperature without becoming oxidized when exposed to the air. (b) Incandescent Electric lamps In the incandescent lamp, the filament must be capable of operating for long periods at a higher temperature without appreciable deterioration and for this duty there are only two materials that have proved satisfactory, namely, carbon and tungsten. Owning to its relatively low efficiency, the carbon filament lamp however is obsolete.

The modern tungsten-filament lamp is gas-filled. If the gas were removed from the bulb, loss of heat from the filament by convention would be prevented: but the, vacuum was the disadvantage that the filament vaporizes at a lower temperature than it does when gas is present. This effect is very similar to the variation of the boiling point of water with pressure. The vaporization of the filament reduces the cross-sectional area of the filament, thereby increasing its, resistance and reducing the temperature and the luminous intensity of the lamp. A fuse is a wire or strip of metal inserted in a circuit for the purpose of interrupting or opening that circuit when the current exceeds a certain prearranged value. The wire is usually made of a metal such as copper, tin, lead or an alloy which melts comparatively easily. The fusing current depends upon a large number of factors, such as the material the diameter and length of the wire, the ventilation of the fuse holder and duration of the current. The fuse wire should be mounted on a fire proof holder, such as porcelain. Large fuses are often covered with asbestos sleeves to prevent any metal vapor being deposited on the porcelain when the fuse 'below', since such a deposit may be sufficient to provide a conducting path between the fuse terminals. (d) Temperature rise permissible in electrical machine. When a generator is supplying electrical power or an electric motor is supplying mechanical power lost in the machine is said to be loaded, and the power lost in the machine is converted into heat, thereby raising the temperature of the windings. The maximum temperature that is permissible depends upon the nature of the insulating materials employed. Resistivity of materials Materials fall into three categories when taking consideration. The category with resistivity of the 0 'del' of 10.8 is known as conductors, the category with resistivity falling intermediate between these two groups, of the order of I to 103 mm is known as semiconductors. Metals have resistivity that increase when the temperature increase, for some alloys the resistivity increase, with an increase in temperature, for others it decreases. For semiconductors and insulators the resistivity decreases with an increase in temp. The changes in resistivity of semiconductors and insulators with temp are much greater than the change for conductors. The electrical properties of materials can be expressed in terms of the bonding between electrons and atoms in a sold. In a conductor, the atoms have electrons which are so easily detached that we can consider there to be a cloud of free electrons in a good conductor. When a potential difference is applied to a piece of conductor these electron are able to move there the material and so give a current. On average there is about one free electron for each atom in the material. When the temp is increased the movement of there free electrons is more impeded by oscillations of the atoms and so they are not able to move so fast thru the material and hence the current is reduced.

Thus an increase in temperature leads to an increase in resistivity. In the case of an insulator there are virtually no free electrons available, all being lightly bound to the atoms. Because of this there can be little current, hence a very high resistivity increasing the temperature can however such a few more electrons free from the atoms and so increase the current, hence decrease in resistivity. Semi conductors hence, at room temp, some few electrons, generally about one per million atoms because of this they have resistivity intermediate between those of insulators a conductor. Maintenance in industry Maintenance may be defined as any activity designed to keep or restore equipment, machinery or any other assets in a good working or useable condition before or after a failure. It must increase the reliability of the asset or the operating system and to quality standards.

The main objective of forming and operating and industry or a company is to maximize profit. No business can continue to function unless a profit is made. All activities within a company should be so organized and coordinated in such a way that their overall effect and ultimate aim is to increase the profitability of the business. The introduction of any new activity to the modification of an existing one should be critically examined to ensure that it assists the company to achieve its objectives. To ensure this, the plant or equipment being used must operate efficiently and accurately at the required level of production, and hence the need for maintenance. There must be no unscheduled stoppage. In our world today, the intense competitions together with a rapidly advancing technology have wrought many changes in the pattern and outlook of industry. New products are continually being developed; new techniques, processes, systems and methods are being applied. Production levels are being raised while rigid schedules must be adhered to continual efforts are made to reduce or stabilize manufacturing costs in spite of rising material and labor costs, thus making increased machine utilization an economic necessity.

Principles of maintenance I. Preventive maintenance: Maintenance carried out regularly a, planted carefully in conjunction with production requircll1ents to prevent the failure of equipment during production. 2. Replacement instead of maintenance: This includes operating the equipment until it breaks down completely then scrapping it off to buy a new one.

3. Planned maintenance: This form of maintenance includes work organized and carried out with a forethought control and records. Thus, one can operate the equipment for a period then sell it off before it either breaks down or requires expensive overhaul. 4. Break down Maintenance: Work which is carried out and provision has been made in the form of spare materials, labor and equipment, that is to say, operate the equipment until it breaks down then repair it. Classification of maintenance Planned and Unplanned Planned maintenance is work organized and carried out with forethought, control and records to approved engineering standards. Types of planned Maintenance Planned maintenance involves the following: Preventive Maintenance. Predictive/Condition based maintenance. Corrective maintenance. Various works carried out on a facility at regular intervals with the aim of preventing or at least minimizing the risk of failure or to keep such failure and or breakdowns within predetermined economic limits. Careful preventive maintenance follow-up over a sufficient period will reduce the causes of rush job. Elements of preventive maintenance Lubrication: Indicate the type of Lubricant, how much and where to be used. Inspection: Utilizes only the five human senses, i.e. sight, sound, touch/feel, taste, and perhaps smell. Adjustment: Involve a defined tightening or clamping of component to a specific tolerance. Cleaning: Involves the removal of contaminants, caused by the equipment during operation.eg iron fillings and oil leakages, dust. Replacement: Involves units which wear out or which reliability decreases with age. E.g. filters, belts, seals, contact brushes, etc.

Corrective maintenance Work carried out after failure but for which advance preparation or provision has been made. This is designed to return the component to its normal operating condition. Planned replacements - replace only when performance fails. Planned breakdown i.e repair only when performance fails. Predictive or Condition Based Maintenance This refers to the act of maintaining a facility depending on its condition using diagnostic instruments and analytical methods. Condition Monitoring is the method of establishing the condition of the respective plant and equipment, usually while it is in operation. Monitoring can be carried out continuously or at periodic intervals on the plant or equipment being monitored. The equipment in use may be for temperature, vibration and oil (Fluid) conditions. Advantages of the condition based maintenance Minimizes unnecessary machine shutdown & opening up, thereby reducing lost production Reducing the cost of maintenance efforts, thus enhancing morale of employees Reliability of facility is assured Safe and Continuous operation Lower Energy Consumption - i.e. less vibrations, less energy Extends Bearing Service life - reduced vibration & lubrication failures Unplanned Emergency Maintenance It is referred to as emergency maintenance and it is carried out on a facility after failure and for which no advance provision has been made by way of materials (spares), lab and tools. This type maintenance IS however highly undesirable. Breakdown Maintenance

A machine is said to 'breakdown' when it is out of order or operation. Its maintenance is considered as an unplanned emergency maintenance.

Benefits of planned Maintenance Fewer equipment failures Early detection of impeding problem resulting in corrective action before problems occurs. Efficient manpower utilization and reduction of idle time Spare parts inventory control Effective replacement policy Greater productivity. Sound standards of safe working and environmental conditions for employ ces, employers and other occupants. 1. Pure maintenance, defined as work undertaken in order to keep or restore a facility to an acceptable standard. (a) Maintenance of existing plant, equipment and building, (b) Rebuilding or reconditioning old instrument and equipment 2. Installation of new equipment and services. (,1) Installation of new equipment (b)Alteration or modification of equipment and bui1jings. (c) Alteration or modification of utilities and special services. 3. Operation and supervision of particular utilities and special services. (a) Power and its generation (b) Power supplies and ventilation systems

4. Miscellaneous duties delegated to the maintenance department because often it is the only department with the ability to be able to handle or. (a) Laboratory and site cleaning - roads, f1oors, windows (b) Waste disposal. (c) Five fighting services (d) Site security (laboratory) Whatever duties are assigned to the maintenance department, the main reason for its existence is: -To ensure the availability and efficiency of existing instruments, equipment and building in a manner required by the users. (a) The instrument, equipment is available for use when required. (b) The instrument, equipment must not breakdown during use (c) The equipment, instrument must operate in an efficient manner. (d) The down time for maintenai1ce must not interfere with the work of those who make use of the instruments. (e) The down time which may be caused be breakdown should a minimum.

Maintenance in public Service From our earlier discussion, we considered maintenance in industrial manufacturing concerns in which an outage or loss in production can be measured directly in terms of loss of profit. If this loss production is the result of breakdowns due to insufficient maintenance then the economics of stand-by equipment replacement units or extra maintenance can be calculated and the profit abilities compared. Breakdown can jeopardize delivery dates and then effect on sales and future orders can be forecast. In each case, the cost can be estimated and used by the management to arrive at the effective decision. This method can also be applied partly by certain public utilities which are required to pay their way-gas boards water companies public transport, electricity generating and distribution boards. In the case of commercial offices and hotels the customer is paying for a service which includes engineering functions electrical distribution, heating, hot and could water supply, ventilation, elevators (lifts) etc.

A breakdown of any of these services may not directly, or immediately cause a financial loss but would eventually reflect back on the reputation of the establishment which in turn could affect business. There are also many other situations m which failure of engineering and maintenance services cannot be assessed solely in financial terms. Hospitals function continuously a breakdown or outage of certain equipment could prove fatal. In such case, it is necessary to install stand by equipment to carry out repairs and maintenance on the run. A comprehensive maintenance system is reliable at all times. The effective disposal of refuse and sewage together with an efficient drainage system are vital to public Health. Any failure could contribute to the spread of pests and disease within the community. The successful functioning of this stand - by equipment ready to deal with flooding or other emergencies cannot be overemphasized, as in hospitals measures must be taken to ensure that the equipment is maintained to minimize the risk of breakdown and death. The failure of engineering services would not be disastrous, or result in a loss of profit, but it would cause inconvenience which in the long term can affect productivity. * The public services do not exist to make profit; their prime function is to provide services for the community. The value placed upon any particular service and the overall expenditure on it varies, according to the priorities or the community. These priorities frequently change, being affected by national and local politics, public opinions, available resources and public or governmental pressures. Because of these diverse and often conflicting conditions, it is impossible standard by which the efficiency economics of any service can be estimated. * Each situation must be judged upon the conditions prevailing, the arms and object of the services and the boundaries within which it must operate. * Within any service, where are sectors in which the economics and efficiencies of the various factors can be measured and compared. In such cases, these measurable factors should be isolated and standards set to enable the optimum use or the existing equipment and resources to be made. ROLE OF THE ENGINEERING AND MAINTANANCE DEPARTMENT IN HCIM. The duties of the maintenance department vary from company to company, and often from factory to factory within the same company. The scope and depth to which it executes it duties depend 01, the policy of the company, size and type of plant type of production and skilled labor available to name but a few of the determinant factors. The maintenance department of a small factory may consist or only one or two person(s) who will tackle all types of maintenance to limited extent and of and elementary nature. Outside specialized contractors are called in for any faults. When a hotel's building, equipment, and

grounds are properly maintained, quests will be more likely to enjoy a positive experience during their stay and hotel's ability to increase revenue is enhanced. This is the primary job of the engineering and maintenance (E&M) department. When quests experience poor facilities such as potholes in parking areas, leaking faucets, burned-out light bulbs, poor heating/cooling capacities, or insufficient hot water, quest dissatisfaction increases, and the hotel's sales potential is diminished. In addition to quest satisfaction, however, an effective l&M department achieves other important goals including: Protecting and enhancing the financial value of the building and grounds for the hotel's owners. Supporting the efforts of the entire hotel department through the timely attention to their E&M needs. Increasing the pride and morale of the hotels staff Ensuring the safety of those working in and visiting the hotel. These goals will be achieved if E&M department, using outside consultants and/or contractors of necessary, meets its responsibilities for designing and constructing the building (engineering), maintaining the building (maintenance), and periodically renovating and modernizing it (design and renovation). Maintenance of fuses A fuse is a wire or strip of metal inserted in a circuit for the purpose in interrupting or opening that circuit when the current exceeds a certain prearranged values. The fuse was originally invented by Edison in your 1880 and IS being considered as the weakest link in the electrical circuit. It is the simplest protect device and is used as circuit interrupting device short circuit condition. It prevents over heating of the electrical appliances. Its performance is simple and its design does not need special experience. Fusing element: A fuse is essentially a small piece of metal connected in between to terminals mounted on insulated base forms a series part of the circuit. The duty of the fuse element (wire) is to carry the normal working current safely without heating, but when the normal working current is exceeded it should rapidly heat up to the vetting point. The materials which can be used as fuse wire are tin, lead, Zinc, silver, antimony, copper aluminum, etc Arcing time: This is the time accounted for the instant of arc initiated (end of pre-arcing time) to the instant of arc being extinguished or the arc current becomes zero.

Types of (uses The types of fuses include: i) Expulsion-fuses

ii) Cartridge - Fuses iii) Liquid Fuses: a) Oil - break circuit breaker fuses. b) Oil - expulsion fuses c) Oil - blast fuses. iv) Open fuses: Distribution panels (Distribution Boards) Electrical energy is generated at the generating stations by dynamos and is distributed at appropriate voltage which constant. By convention or rule, the voltage at the consumer's terminals must not vary beyond + 5 percent (%) of the declared voltage. That is to say, if the declared voltage is 230 V, the voltage at the consumer's premises must not be more than 241.5V and not less than 218.5V the consumer always connects all the lamps, fans, heaters and other appliances in parallel with supply mains. If the consumer connects all his lamps say six lamps in series and one of the lamps fuses, and then no lamp is replaced because the whole circuit has been shorted or short circuited. Moreover the voltage across each lamp will be the declared by the number of voltage across each lamp = 230v/ = 38.v 6lamps. This is too low for lamps. Also if one of the lamps develops short circuit then the potential across all the lamps will be more than the desired value which cause excessive current to flow in the filament of other lamps thus fusing one or even all of them. NB: Therefore all electrical appliances like lamps, heaters etc always connected in parallels. The transmission lines which transmit the electrical energy from the generation station to different distribution substations are called feeders. The feeders that are found underground way are called cables. These feeders terminate into distributors and the consumers are connected by means of service mains to distributors. This indicates that the consumer's supply from the mains is always received on to a distribution panel (board) from which the rest of the loads receive power supply.

Circuit breaker Is an interrupting device placed in a circuit to isolate fault circuit time of short circuit. For low voltage circuits, fuses may be used to isolate the faulty circuit but for higher voltage (e.g. 3.3kv up wards) isolation is successively achieved by circuit breakers. The difference between the fuse and the circuit breaker is that under faulty condition the fuse melts and a new one is to be replaced while the circuit breaker can closed or break the circuit without any replacement. Requirements of a circuit Breaker The power dealt by the circuit breakers is quite link between the consumers and suppliers. The following are the necessary requirement for a circuit breaker; I) It must safely interrupt the normal working current as well as the short circuit current. 2) After occurrence or fault the circuit breaker must isolate the faulty circuit as quickly as possible, i.e. keeping the delay minimum. 3) It must have a high sense of discrimination if in systems where alternate arrangements have been made for continuity of supply; it should isolate only the fault circuit without affecting the healthy ones. 4) I t should not operate when an over current flow under healthy conditions. Energy conservation opportunities - Switch off all appliances when they are not in use. -In the beginning of the nineteenth century, it was riot possible to do day-time work after sunset, due to lack of adequate light. In the year 1900, the electric filament lamps came in to the field as a source of lights and they proved to be the best competitor to gas as sources of light. The electric lamps are preferred to other sources of illumination for reasons of cleanliness, convenience steady light output and reliability. Due to proper sources of good illumination much advancement has been made in the sphere of the industrialization of countries as it has reduced the difference between day and might. Every

work which can be done in day-light can equally be done during might time with same efficiency too bright lights may not be confused as good illumination because it may cause viewing a bit painful. The best illumination is that which produces no strain on the eyes.

Nature of light Light is a form of energy which is radiated by bodies whose temperatures are increased. The main source of lig~1t is the sun which gives out energy in the form of heat and light at a very high rate (of order of fifty thousand billion horse power), but only a fraction of it reaches the earth (about 250 billion hp). Of the total energy received on earth only 40 percent is in the form of light. The energy reaches earth in a very particular way. They energy transmitted by the sun in received without heating or lighting the space in between and without any obvious transmitting agency such as copper conductors in case of electrical energy. The energy is released only when it strikes a solid object. The energy radiated in such as fashion is called radiant energy. An example of it is a room heater, in which case the heat is felt at a distance from the radiator. Light can be obtained from the incandescent bodies. The body which is at a higher temperature than the surrounding medium radiated energy into the medium. At low temperatures the radiation is only in the form of heat waves, but it becomes red hot as it emits light waves in addition to heat waves. Various colors are obtained when monochromatic wave of different wave length is radiated and these include violet, blue, and green, yellow, red. Reflecting and diffusing surfaces: In case of reflecting surface, the light falling on at is reflected back with least absorption. In order words, the angle of incidence in equal to the angle of reflection. Sometimes there will be a sharp image of the light sources and such reflection is called specula reflection. If light fall on a rough and course surfaces as diffusing glass, plastic frosted glass etc, then the inherent quantity of the light i.e. brightness is reduced and there will be now image of the source. The lighting in such cases is diffused in almost all direction. Reflectors and diffusers are used to reflect the light to a direction where it is required and to avoid brightness or direct glare respectively. The various types of reflections in use include the following; Depending upon the requirement, the lighting schemes can be divided into the following types;

1) Direct lighting: As significant from the name, in this scheme, the light falls directly on the object to be illuminated medium. At low temperatures the radiation is only in the form of heat waves, but it becomes red hot as it emits light waves in addition to heat waves. This scheme is usually employed in industries, residential lighting and commercial lighting working strictly' under a direct lighting system will cause strain on the eyes, about 60% of the light is directed downward. 2) Indirect lighting: It is a system which is widely employed for illuminating drawing offices, workshops and other places where shadows are to be eliminated. However with this type of lighting is it found that the requirement of the light is usually more than that of direct lighting? The additional requirement of light falls in the range of 50% to 100%. The light in this case does not fall on the object directly. The lamps are placed in opaque type shade and the maximum light is thrown towards the ceiling from where it reaches the object by diffusion or reflection. The lightings of both schemes must be cleared regularly so as to have good illumination. If the fittings are not properly clean the illumination will reduce tremendously. No light is directly thrown downwards. At least 80% of the total light in directed upwards. 3) Semi-direct system: This system is efficient and as well as reduces the chances of glare to the eye to a considerable extent. The shades used are such a type that about 60% of' the light is directed downwards and 40% is projected upwards. The most important characteristics of such a system provide almost distribution of the light which increases the efficiency of the system. 4) Semi-indirect lighting system: In this system the light received by any object is due to diffused reflection and is directly thrown. 5) General diffusing system: In this case the shades employed will produce equal distribution upwards and downwards. This system is fact is an ideal system. Some Terminologies in Lighting I. Light: It may be defined as that radiant energy in form of waves which produces a sensation of vision upon the human eye. 2. Luminous flux: it is defined as the energy in the form of light waves radiated per second from a luminous body e.g. incandescent lamp. 3. Luminous Intensity: The luminous intensity of an object in the flux emitted by the source per unit solid angle. 4. Lumen: It is the unit of flux per unit angle from a source of candle power.

5. Luminance or illumination or Degree or Illumination: When the light falls on surface it is illumination. The luminous flux received per unit. 6. Brightness: It is defined as the flux emitted per unit area or the luminous intensity per unity projected area of the sources in a direction perpendicular to the surface. Brightness is a term which may be applied either for emission of light directly from the source covering a large area such as an incandescent lamp in a globe or for an installation used for production of a certain illumination on the object to be seen in which case actually the light reflected by the object reaches our eyes such as the light from a cinema screen. Design of lighting scheme: The lighting arrangement should be such as to provide sufficient illumination, uniform distribution of light and avoid glare and shadow: for designing a lighting scheme the following factors should be taken into consideration: i. Space light ratio: It is defined as the ratio of horizontal distance between lamps and the mounting height of the lamps. ii. Utilization factor: The total light flux radiated out by the source is not utilized on the working planes. iii. Depreciation factor: When the lamps are covered with dust, dirt and smoke they do not radiate out same amount of flux as when they do at the time of filling. Similarly after some time the walls and surrounding at which lamps are fitted are covered with dirt and dust, so the do not reflect the same amount of light as compared with the initial conditions. The depreciation factor takes into account all such losses of flux. iv. Waste light factor: A surface when illuminated by number of lamps, there in certain amount of wastage due to over - lapping of light ways. Factory Lighting The factory lighting should be such as to provide sufficient light without glare to the workmen. If an adequate production, improve the quantity of the product and reduce the chances of accident. It should be noticed that, it is economical to have white walls as the reflection from white color is more when compared to any other color. The light scheme should be such that in addition to providing requisite, number of lumens, there should be an equal distribution. The fittings employed must be clean and in any case they should not produce any glare. There is a chance that the glare might exist due to reflection of light from any object other than reflectors; every care should be taken to eliminate such chance. The lamps should be mounted at sufficient height to provide even luminous intensity. Flood Lighting It is employed for flooding any open large surface with light. High filament lamps, or discharge lamps are employed for the purpose. It is normally used to enhance the beauty of an old monument, for advertisement and for illuminating sports stadium, railway yard, etc.

The projectors used for flood light are water tight, fitted with reflectors. The light emitted by the lamp is projected in a narrow bean. Electric lamps: For illumination, the following types of electric lamps are normally employed; i. Incandescent lamp ii. Arc lamp iii. Electric discharge lamp. Incandescent lamp When an electric current is passed through a fine metallic wire, it raises temperature of the wire, and heat energy will be radiated at low temperature. At high temperatures heat as well as light energy will be radiated, the higher the temperature of the wire, the higher the amount of light energy radiated. Utility or Demand meter (indicating Demand meter) Maintenance and serving of the demand part of the meter is purely mechanical and should only be attempted after familiarization with the manufacture's instruction. The watt-hour element is identical to meters without the demand feature and is tested and serviced in the same manner, making sure that during calibration the demand device is operated so that the additional load imposes by it is taken into account. Reading of the energy meter A practical way of reading the electrical, utility meters is demonstrated. In case of any suspicion of faulty reading or operation, the engineering and maintenance department must be informed immediately. Some more definitions Maintenance: Work undertaken in order to keep or restore every facility i.e. every part of a site, building and equipment and contents to an acceptable standard. Breakdown maintenance:-Work which is carried out after a failure, but for which advance provision has been made, in the form of spares, materials labor and equipment. Check: - To compare with an acceptable standard by suitable or defined means, whilst the faultily is non-operational. Downtime: - Period during which a facility is not ready for use. Emergency maintenance: - Work necessitated by unforeseen breakdown or damage Inspection: The process of ensuring by assessment that a facility reaches the necessary standard of quality or performance and that the level is maintained.

Inventory: A list of all facilities, i.e. all parts of a site, building and contents, for purposes of identification.

Accidents involving electricity

During 2002, there were a total of 27 deaths involving electric current in the UK. Of these, 24 occurred in England and Wales, 2 in Scotland, and 1 in Northern Ireland. The estimated number of accidental injuries caused by electricity in the home was as follows

Home accidents involving electric current 2002

Age in years

Injuries
Reported * National estimate

0-4 14 287

5-14 18 369

15-64 99 2030

65-74 3 62

75+ 1 21

UNKNO WN 1 21

Total 136 2,788

Articles reported in accidents involving electric shock include light fittings, toasters, hair dryers, electric sockets and plugs, extension leads and cables, strimmers and lawnmowers, washing machines and dishwashers. Work Injuries In Great Britain, work injury statistics are compiled from reports made to HSE and local authorities under the Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences Regulations 1995 (RIDDOR 95) which came into force on April 1st 1996. Any accidental injury which involves a fatality, a major injury or one which results in more than three days away from normal duties must be reported under the regulations. Included under the heading of reportable major injuries are those resulting from electric shock or electrical burn leading to unconsciousness or requiring resuscitation or admittance to hospital for more than 24 hours. Reported workplace injuries involving electricity during the period April 2002- April 2003 (provisional) were: Reported workplace injuries involving electricity during the period April 2002- April 2003 (provisional) were: Contact with electricity or electrical discharge Fatal Major Injury Over 3 day

Employees Self employed

12 3

124 10

441 8

Dangerous occurrences If something happens which does not result in a reportable injury, but which clearly could have done, then it may be classified as a dangerous occurrence which must also be reported. Dangerous occurrences involving electricity in 2002/2003 were: Plant or equipment either comes into contact with overhead electric line in which voltage exceeds 200 volts or causes an electrical discharge - 188 Electrical short circuit which results in stoppage of the plant for more than 24 hours - 287 Home Safety Every year in the UK almost 4,000 people die in accidents in the home and 2.7 million turn up at accident and emergency departments seeking treatment. But, because the accidents happen behind closed doors in isolated incidents they rarely attract public and media attention. There is the need of campaign for change and provide a large range of resources to inform, educate and help to prevent accidents in the home and garden.

Electrical FAQs

Which is safer, Alternating Current (AC), or Direct Current (DC)? Everyone gets a belt from electricity every now and then, dont they? How do I know if my electrical equipment is safe? How do I know if my electrical installation is safe? How do I know if someone is competent to do electrical work? Can I do my own electrical work? When should I use a residual current device (RCD)? How often should I test my electrical equipment? How often should I get my electrical installation tested? Who should I talk to about electrical safety? When should I report an accident to HSE? What should I do if I think someone is working unsafely? What should I do to avoid danger from underground cables or wires? How do I work safely near overhead lines? What should I do if I touch an overhead power line?

What voltages are dangerous? When is it safe to work on live electrical equipment? How do I make my electrical equipment safe to work on? Who has the responsibility to make sure everyone works safely? What should I do if I think I have seen an unsafe electrical installation or equipment? Much of the information on these web pages has been summarized to make it suitable for a wide audience. You should always use the published guidance listed on the resources page when deciding how to work safely and meet the requirements of the law. Which is safer, Alternating Current (AC), or Direct Current (DC)? Alternating Current (AC) and Direct Current (DC) have slightly different effects on the human body, but both are dangerous above a certain voltage. The risk of injury changes according to the frequency of the AC, and it is common for DC to have an AC component (called ripple). Someone with special equipment can measure this, but the effect on a particular person is very difficult to predict as it depends upon a large number of factors. As a consequence you should always avoid contact with high voltage electrical conductors, regardless of the type of electrical current they are carrying. More detailed technical information on electrical injury is given in the standard BS PD 6519 "Guide to the effects of current on human beings and livestock - Part 1: General aspects. Everyone gets a belt from electricity every now and then, dont they? No, not if they are careful and follow the simple rules to securely isolate electrical equipment, and check it is dead before they start work. If you have received an electric shock but were not injured, then you are lucky. Next time a slight change in events may lead to a very different result. No one is immune to an injury from electricity. How do I know if my electrical equipment is safe? You can find out if your electrical equipment is safe by carrying out suitable checks, such as inspection and/or testing. The level of inspection and/or testing should depend upon the risks. A simple visual inspection is likely to be sufficient for equipment used in a clean dry environment. In addition, equipment that is more likely to become damaged or is operated in a harsh environment is likely to require more demanding electrical tests. Checks should be carried out often enough that there is little chance the equipment will become unsafe before the next check. It is good practice to make a decision on how often each piece of equipment should be checked, write down the decision, make sure the check is carried out, and write down the results. You should change how often you carry out checks according to the number and severity of faults found. The best way to find out if specialized equipment is safe, is to have it inspected and tested by a person with specific competence on the type of equipment. This may be the original manufacturer or his authorized service and repair agent. A reputable servicing company that deals with the type of equipment should also be competent to check its safety.

How do I know if my electrical installation is safe? The best way to find out if your electrical installation is safe is to have it inspected and tested by a person who has the competence to do so, such as an Electrical Contractors Association (ECA) It is possible to do simple checks on your installation using an electrical socket tester. This is a device that can be plugged into a socket outlet, and can identify if there is a wiring fault. However, be aware that many types of socket tester cannot detect certain types of fault, and could indicate the socket is safe when it is not. Read the information provided by on Electrical Socket Testers How do I know if someone is competent to do electrical work? A person can demonstrate competence to perform electrical work if he or she has successfully completed an assessed training course that has included the type of work being considered, run by an accredited training organization, and has been able to demonstrate an ability to understand electrical theory and put this into practice. A successfully completed electrical apprenticeship, with some post apprenticeship experience is a good way of demonstrating competence for general electrical work. More specialized work such as maintenance of high voltage switchgear or control system modification is almost certainly likely to require additional training and experience. Can I do my own electrical work? You can do your own electrical work if you are competent to do so. Simple tasks such as wiring a plug are within the grasp of many people, but more complex tasks such as modifying an electrical installation may not be. It is particularly important that anyone who undertakes electrical work is able to satisfy the requirements of the Health and Safety at Work etc Act 1974 and the Electricity at Work Regulations 1989. For work on electrical installations below 1000 volts ac you should be able to work within the guidelines set out in BS7671 Requirements for electrical installations. IEE Wiring Regulations. Seventeenth edition. Other work should be carried out according to the guidelines set out in the relevant industry standard. Those who wish to undertake electrical testing work would normally be expected to have more knowledge and to be able to demonstrate competence through the successful completion of a suitable training course. More complex electrical tasks such as motor repair or maintenance of radio frequency heating equipment should only be carried out by someone who has been trained to do them.

When should I use a residual current device? It is advisable to use a residual current device (RCD) whenever possible but particularly in wet or damp locations such as outdoors. An RCD rated at no more than 30mA limits the energy in a particular type of electric shock and can save your life. However, an RCD cannot protect you from every type of electric shock, so you should still make sure that circuits are securely isolated before you work on them. It is best to use an RCD that is incorporated into the switchboard of your installation. This means that all circuits fed from that RCD are protected by the RCD. An RCD that is incorporated into an ordinary mains socket, or plugged into it, will protect anything that is attached to that socket, but it is possible that equipment may be plugged into another, unprotected, socket. RCDs should be regularly tested by pressing the test button, and by making sure that the RCD trips. Faulty or inoperative RCDs should be removed from use. RCDs rated above 30mA provide very limited protection against harm from an electric shock. If you are using electrical equipment in particularly harsh conditions it is worth selecting lower voltage equipment powered by a transformer with an output centre tapped to earth, or powered by a battery. Additional precautions may also be required depending on the specific location, BS7671:2001 Requirements for electrical installations, IEE Wiring Regulations, Seventeenth edition, Section 7, offers guidance on this. How often should I test my electrical equipment? 'Electrical equipment should be visually checked to spot early signs of damage or deterioration. Equipment should be more thoroughly tested by a competent person often enough that there is little chance that the equipment will become dangerous between tests. Equipment that is used in a harsh environment should be tested more frequently than equipment that is less likely to become damaged or unsafe. It is good practice to assess how often equipment being used for work purposes should be tested, write down your findings, make sure the testing is carried out, and write down the results of the tests. How often should I get my electrical installation tested? Electrical installations should be tested often enough that there is little chance of deterioration leading to danger. Any part of an installation that has become obviously defective between tests should be de-energized until the fault can be fixed. You should have your electrical installation inspected and tested by a person who has the competence to do so, such as an approved electrical contractor. It is possible to do simple checks on your installation using an electrical socket tester. This is a device that can be plugged into a socket outlet, and can identify if there is a wiring fault. However, be aware that many types of socket tester cannot detect certain types of fault, and could indicate the socket is safe when it is not.

Who should I talk to about electrical safety? In the first instance a competent electrical contractor should be able to give advice on electrical safety, and should also be able to direct you to a suitable electrical engineer for advice about specialist areas. When should I report an electrical accident ? You should report any work related accident that comes under the requirements of the Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences Regulations (RIDDOR) 1995. In general, an electrical accident is reportable if:

the person dies as a result of their injuries, OR the person suffers a major injury, OR as a result of the injury the person is away from work for more than 3 days, or cannot undertake their full range of normal duties for more than 3 days, OR a person receives an electric shock or burn where the person loses consciousness, or requires resuscitation, or admission to hospital for more than 24 hours, OR plant or equipment came into contact with overhead power lines, OR there is an electrical short circuit or overload that causes a fire or explosion. What should I do if I think someone is working unsafely? If you think someone is working unsafely you should ask him or her to stop immediately and tell a manager. If you are still unhappy about how someone is working, you should notify appropriate authority. How do I work safely near overhead lines? It can be difficult to identify the voltage of overhead lines so you should always assume overhead lines are dangerous when planning work near them. You can download a free leaflet What should I do if I touch an overhead power line? The free leaflet on equipment describes what you should do if you, or another person touches an overhead power line. Your local electricity distribution company can generally supply stickers describing emergency procedures and containing contact numbers that can be stuck in the cabs of vehicles likely to be used near overhead power lines. What voltages are dangerous? A wide range of voltages can be dangerous for different reasons. A very low voltage (such as that produced by a single torch battery) can produce a spark powerful enough to ignite an explosive atmosphere. Batteries (such as those in motor vehicles) can also overheat or explode if they are shorted. If a person comes into contact with a voltage above about 50 volts, they can receive a range of injuries including those directly resulting from the electrical shock (stopped breathing, heart, etc), and indirect effects resulting from loss of control (such as falling from a height or coming

into contact with moving machinery). The chance of being injured by an electric shock increases where it is damp or where there is a lot of metalwork. When is it safe to work on live electrical equipment? It is never absolutely safe to work on live electrical equipment. There are few circumstances where it is necessary to work live, and this must only be done after it has been determined that it is unreasonable for the work to be done dead. Even if working live can be justified, many precautions are needed to make sure that the risk is reduced so far as is reasonably practicable. How do I make my electrical equipment safe to work on? You can be reasonably sure that your electrical equipment is safe to work on if all sources of energy (electrical, mechanical, gas, pneumatic, hydraulic, pressure etc) have been securely isolated and any stored energy has been released from the equipment. You should always follow the procedure for doing this described in the instructions provided by the manufacturer of the equipment, and any local safety rules. If you cannot find the instructions, contact the manufacturer and get them to send you instructions before you start work. Equipment containing dangerous chemicals or other substances may have to be decontaminated before it is safe to work on. You should ask a competent person what to do. It is important that there is no chance that a source of energy can be deliberately or inadvertently re-connected to the equipment whilst it is being worked on. This can be achieved by applying a lock to each isolation device, and the person doing the maintenance should have all the keys to these locks in his or her possession. Warning notices should be posted at the points of isolation. If work is to be carried out on, or near, exposed conductors, the conductors should be proven dead, using appropriate test equipment, before work commences. Who has the responsibility to make sure everyone works safely? It is the responsibility of everyone to make sure that work is safely undertaken. Managers have a responsibility to provide the resources, instruction and training necessary to enable their workers to work safely and so that others are not endangered by the work activity. Workers have a responsibility to make sure they keep themselves, and others safe. What should I do if I think I have seen an unsafe electrical installation or equipment? If you think you have an unsafe electrical installation you should first warn everyone to stay away from it, and, if it is safe to do so, switch it off. You should then contact a competent person such as an approved electrical contractor who will be able to advise you how to make your installation safe. If the installation you think is unsafe is not owned by you or under your control, you should attempt to find out who does own it, and contact them. Electrical distribution poles, pylons and equipment should have a contact telephone number attached to them.

I. (a) Explain maintenance and state two reasons why it is important in the Hotel Catering and Institutio~al Management course. (b )Define the following; 1. Electrons v!. Energy (':) (i) A )!()lJng woman purchased at220 volts-in electric heater for use in her office. The heater is rated at 600 watts. How much current will the (i i) If the power (P) rating of the heater is 600 watts, what will be the energy consumed if it is used continuously for 3hours? 2. (a) State Ohm's law and give its mathematical representation. 37 (b) Give the symbols for the following components 111 an electrical system; (i) Diode (i i) Wattmeter (i i i) Voltage (iv) Motor (v) Gal vanometer (c) Define Engineering and programmes available. (d) Define the following; (vi) Transformer (vii) Battery (viii) Cell (ix) Earthing (x) Filament lamp gIve five examples of engmeenng (i) Conductor (ii) Insulator (iii) Fuse (iv) Load (v) Source 3. Explain the following;

(i) Reflecting surface (ii) Diffusing surface (a) State four requirements of a circuit breaker. (b) Give two sources of lighting available (c) Enumerate five electrical appliances available in your home. (d) Out! ine lour energy conservation opportunities available. 4. (a) Indicate the SI unit of each of the following quantities (i) Current (ii) Voltage (iii) Power (iv) Energy resistance (b) (i) State one objective of forming and operating an industry. (ii) How would maintenance affect tile" above objective? 5. Outline four applications of the heating effect of an electric current. 6. Give the five lighting schemes available. a) Deline engineering and give three examples of engineering programme available. b) Explain maintenance and state two importance of maintenance III our institutions. c) Enulllcrate ten electrical appliances available in your institution. a) Define the following as may be applied electrical eng1l1eenng; i) Electricity i i) Electric current i i i) Electromotive force iv) Resistance v) Power vi) Energy vii) Source viii) Load ix) l' use

x) A tom b) Define the following and give five examples of each. i) Conductor ii) Insulator c) i) A man purchased a 120 volt plug-in electric space heater for use in his home. If it is rated at 400 watts, how much current will the heater draw? ii)If the power rating of the heater in (i) above is 400 watts, what will be the energy consumed in three hours of use? a) give the symbols for the following components an electrical system; 1. filament Lamp 11. capacitor HI. earth IV. battery v. cell VI. windings .. inductor and coil VII. Vlll. transformer IX. wattmeter x. ammeter a) i) State four requirements of a good circuit breaker. ii) Briefly explain one way to maintain a fuse. b) Give two sources of light available c) Define the following; i) Reflecting surface ii) Diffusing surface d) Give five lighting schemes available for use in our institutions.