RADIAL FLOW GAS TURBINES

OBJECTIVES AND OUTCOMES Students to be able to : Identify main use and why it is limited Identify main parts and important features Draw and use velocity diagrams Explain expansion on Mollier (hs) diagram Start the fluid and thermodynamic aspects of design. SCOPE Gas only, not used with steam. APPLICATION Almost only in turbochargers for small IC engines because : Easier to manufacture in small sizes than axial flow turbines Less affected by tip leakage than axial flow turbines, so in small sizes, efficiency better than for axial flow turbines Only other significant application is in production of liquid gasses. Not used in large steam and gas installations or aircraft because : Large axial flow turbines have greater efficiency Cross sectional area too large for most potential aircraft applications. MAIN PARTS AND FEATURES Similar to centrifugal compressors, but : Direction of flow is opposite Flow enters the outer part of casing called scroll (not diffuser) Flow leaves through short exit pipe, which may be fitted with a diffuser Rotating part called rotor (not impeller) If there are vanes in scroll, called inlet nozzles or inlet guide vanes. or Usually powered by exhaust gas from IC engines, so operating temperature greater than for centrifugal compressors but less than for most axial flow turbines. Hence, materials used in manufacture usually differ from those used in centrifugal compressors and axial flow turbines. OPERATION Gas enters the scroll tangentially. Due to the cross sectional area decreasing in the direction of flow : Velocity and kinetic energy of the gas increases Pressure, temperature and density of the gas decrease Gas follows a spiral path into the rotor. If inlet guide vanes are fitted, they assist with all these, but especially with the last. Whilst in the rotor the direction of flow changes from circumferential/tangential and radial to circumferential/tangential and axial or to axial only. Change in momentum exerts forces on the rotor which results in transfer of most of the kinetic and pressure energy in the gas to the rotor. Thus it becomes available as shaft power.

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TERMINOLOGY AND SYMBOLS Reference directions for angles are : Radial at entry to the rotor Axial at exit from the rotor U W C Cp Cv R angular velocity of impeller tangential velocity of impeller velocity of fluid relative to impeller absolute velocity of fluid angle between absolute velocity and reference direction angle between relative velocity and reference direction specific heat at constant pressure specific heat at constant volume ratio of specific heats = Cp/Cv gas constant

Position Subscripts (no inlet guide vanes) 0 entry to scroll conditions outside the turbine 1 entry to rotor 2 exit from rotor 3 exit from turbine Position Subscripts (with inlet guide vanes) 0 entry to scroll conditions outside the turbine 1 entry to inlet guide vanes 2 exit from inlet guide vanes and entry to rotor 3 exit from rotor 4 exit from turbine Other Subscripts Extra 0 stagnation a axial or actual i isentropic r radial x tangential or circumferential VELOCITY DIAGRAMS (No Slip, No Inlet Guide Vanes) Rotor blades are usually radial at entry so will only consider these. QUESTION : Why are rotor blades radial at entry ?

At entry to rotor, velocity diagram is a single 90 triangle because : Rotor blades which are radial at entry require relative velocity at entry (W1) which is also radial. Rotor velocity (U1) is at 90 to relative velocity. Thus, absolute velocity (C1) is third side of velocity diagram. Rotor has to extract as much kinetic energy from gas as possible, so at exit from rotor, want gas velocity as close to zero as possible. QUESTION : Why not equal to zero ?

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In general, absolute velocity at exit (C2) has components in axial direction (Ca2) and direction of rotor motion (Cx2). Need a non-zero axial component (Ca2), but do not need component in direction of rotor motion, so to maximise energy transfer, design rotor so that Cx2 = 0. Hence at exit from rotor velocity diagram is also a single 90 triangle with : Absolute velocity (C2) in axial direction Rotor velocity (U2) at 90 to absolute velocity (C2) Relative velocity (W2) forming the third side of the triangle. If inlet guide vanes are fitted velocity diagrams have same shape, but subscripts on previous page increase by 1 i.e. 1 becomes 2 and 2 becomes 3. EQUATIONS Eulers turbine equation is p = m (U1.Cx1 U2.Cx2), but from velocity diagrams, Cx1 = U1 and Cx2 = 0. So, Eulers equation becomes : p = m U12. THERMODYNAMIC ANALYSIS See fig. 7.4 pg. 278 for expansion through centrifugal turbine without inlet guide vanes. At entry to scroll (point 0) : h0 < h00 P0 < P00 QUESTION : Explain these.

Scroll (point 0 to point 1). Pressure energy is converted into kinetic energy, so : P1 << P0 h1 << h0 Also, usually assume no change in stagnation enthalpy (i.e. h01 = h00), but stagnation pressure has to decrease (P01 < P00). Due to upward slope of constant pressure lines on Mollier (hs) diagram, entropy has to increase. Rotor (point 1 to point 2). Most of remaining pressure energy is converted into kinetic energy in gas and then rotational kinetic energy in rotor, so : P2 << P1 h2 << h1 Gas only does work whilst in rotor, so all decrease in stagnation enthalpy (h01 h02, or h00 h02) occurs in rotor. Exit pipe (point 2 to point 3) is usually short and usually has an increasing cross sectional area. So, as with draft tube on water turbine, exit tube allows static pressure at exit from rotor to be less than pressure at exit from machine (usually atmospheric pressure). Thus : P3 > P2, and h3 > h2 . Since exit pipe is short, assume constant stagnation enthalpy (h03 = h02). But entropy increases so stagnation pressure decreases (P03 < P02). COMBINATION OF THERMODYNAMICS WITH VELOCITY DIAGRAMS Power obtained from Eulers turbine equation equals change in stagnation enthalpy (h01 h02 = U1.Cx1 U2.Cx2) but h01 = h1 + C12/2 and h02 = h2 + C22/2, so: h1 + C12/2 h2 C22/2 = U1.Cx1 U2.Cx2, rearranging gives : h1 h2 = (C22 C12)/2 + U1.Cx1 U2.Cx2. If ignore losses, rothalpy is constant (I1 = I2), so : h1 + C12 U1.Cx1 = h2 + C22 - U2.Cx2.

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Since rotor blades are radial at entry to the rotor, from velocity diagram C12 = W12 + U12 and Cx1 = U1. Substituting into h1 + C12 U1.Cx1 = h2 + C22 - U2.Cx2 gives : h1 + (W12 + U12) U12 = h2 + C22 - U2.Cx2, which simplifies to : h1 + W12/2 U12/2 = h2 + C22 - U2.Cx2 Absolute velocity at exit from rotor is usually axial, so from velocity diagram at exit from rotor : C22 = W22 U22 and Cx2 = 0. Substituting both into h1 + C12 U1.Cx1 = h2 + C22 - U2.Cx2 gives : h1 + C12 U1.Cx1 = h2 + (W22 U22). Combining gives : h1 + W12/2 U12/2 = h2 + (W22 U22), which can be rearranged as : h1 h2 = (W22 W12 + U12 U22)/2 If the absolute velocity at exit from the impeller is axial, Cx2 = 0 and putting it in h1 + C12 U1.Cx1 = h2 + C22 - U2.Cx2 gives : h1 + C12 U1.Cx1 = h2 + C22. Combining with h1 + W12/2 U12/2 = h2 + C22 - U2.Cx2 gives : h1 + W12/2 U12/2 = h2 + C22. Rearranging gives : h1 h2 = (C22 W12 + U12)/2. For the exit pipe, from the previous section, h02 = h03. But h02 = h2 + C22/2 and h03 = h3 + C32/2, so : h2 + C22/2 = h3 + C32/2. Rearranging gives : h3 h2 = (C22 C32)/2. EFFICIENCY From definition : tt = ha/hi = (h00 h03a)/(h00 h03i), or assuming h02 = h03, tt = (h00 h02a)/(h00 h02i). Assuming constant specific heat, tt = (T00 T02a)/(T00 T02i). Similarly, ts = (h00 h02a)/(h00 h2i), and ts = (T00 T02a)/(T00 T2i). QUESTION : Is assumption of constant specific heat as valid for single stage radial flow turbines as it is for a single stage of an axial flow turbine ? Explain. LOSS COEFFICIENTS As with axial flow turbines, loss coefficients are used to quantify losses in each part of a stage in this case, in scroll and rotor. Derivations and definitions are similar to those for axial flow turbines so for scroll : N = (h1a h1i)/0.5.C12. From fig. 7.4 pg. 278, isentropic expansion through rotor ends at point 2s, so for rotor : R = (h2a h2s)/0.5.W22. Method of relating these to efficiency is similar to that for axial flow turbines. From Gibbs equation (T.ds = dh .dP), along constant pressure lines dP = 0 and T.ds = dh. So for small enthalpy and entropy change, h T.s. Thus, at the end of the expansion in the scroll, h1 h1i T1(s1 s1i) and at the end of expansion in the rotor h2s h2i = T2(s2s s2i). Constant entropy lines on Mollier (hs) charts are vertical and parallel, so s1 s1i = s2s s2i. Thus : (h1a h1i)/(h2s h2i) = T1/T2, or h2s h2i = (T2/T1)( h1a h1i). Rearranging N = (h1a h1i)/0.5.C12 gives : h1a h1i = 0.5.C12.N. Substituting into h2s h2i = (T2/T1)( h1 h1i) gives : h2s h2i = (T2/T1) 0.5.C12.N. Similarly, rearranging R = (h2a h2s)/0.5.W22 gives : h2a h2s = 0.5.W22.R. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LOSS COEFFICIENTS AND TOTAL-TO-STATIC EFFICIENCY From section on combination of thermodynamics and velocity diagrams : h1 h2 = (C22 W12 + U12)/2.

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From velocity diagram at entry to rotor, tan 1 = U1/W1 so W1 = U1/tan 1 and sin 1 = U1/C1 so C1 = U1/sin 1. From velocity diagram at exit from rotor, tan 2 = U2/C2 so C2 = U2/tan 2. Replacing W12 and C22 in h1 h2 = (C22 W12 U12)/2 gives : h1 h2 = (U22/tan2 2 U12/tan2 1 + U12)/2, or h1 h2 = [U12(1 (1/tan2 1) + U22/tan2 2]/2. Since = 2.U1/D1 = 2.U2/D2, rearranging gives : U2 = U1.D2/D1. Substituting into h1 h2 = [U12(1 (1/tan2 1)) + U22/tan2 2]/2 gives h1 h2 = U12[1 (1/tan2 2) (D2/D1)2/tan2 2]/2. Assuming constant specific heat, h1 h2 = Cp(T1 T2). To eliminate specific heat start with Cp/Cv = , so : Cp = .Cv. Also, R = Cp Cv, so Cv = Cp R. Substituting into Cp = .Cv gives : Cp = (Cp R) = .Cp .R. Rearranging gives : Cp(1 ) = .R, and so : Cp = .R/( 1). Substituting into h1 h2 = Cp(T1 T2) gives : h1 h2 = (.R/( 1))(T1 T2). Combining this with h1 h2 = U12[1 (1/tan2 2) (D2/D1)2/tan2 2]/2 gives : (.R/( 1))(T1 T2) = U12[1 (1/tan2 2) (D2/D1)2/tan2 2]/2. Rearranging gives : T1 T2 = U12( 1)[1 (1/tan2 2) (D2/D1)2/tan2 2]/2..R. Dividing both sides by T1 gives : 1 (T2/T1) = U12( 1)[1 (1/tan2 2) (D2/D1)2/tan2 2]/2..R.T1. But .R.T1 = square of speed of sound at point 1 (a12), so substituting gives : 1 (T2/T1) = U12( 1)[1 (1/tan2 2) (D2/D1)2/tan2 2]/2.a12. Rearranging gives : T2/T1 = 1 (U12( 1)/2.a12)[1 (1/tan2 2) (D2/D1)2/tan2 2]. Ignoring the exit pipe, ts = (h00 h02a)/(h00 h2i). For the rotor alone, isentropic expansion is from point 1 to point 2s (see fig. 7.4 pg. 278). As for axial flow turbines, add and subtract h2s to and from denominator equation for total-to-static efficiency gives : ts = (h00 h02a)/(h00 h2s + h2s h2i). Recall that for rotor with radial blades at entry and only axial velocity at exit, p = m .U12 and p = m (h00 h02a). Combining gives h00 h02a = U12, so : h00 = U12 + h02a. But h02a = h2a + C22/2, so substituting into h00 = U12 + h02a gives : h00 = U12 + h2a + C22/2. In ts = (h00 h02a)/(h00 h2s + h2s h2i), replacing h00 h02a with U12 and h00 with U12 + h2a + C22/2 gives : ts = U12/( U12 + h2a + C22/2 h2s + h2s h2i). From previous section h2a h2s = 0.5.W22.R and h2s h2i = (T2/T1) 0.5.C12.N. Substituting both into ts = U12/( U12 + h2a + C22/2 h2s + h2s h2i) gives : ts = U12/( U12 + 0.5.C22 + 0.5.W22.R + (T2/T1) 0.5.C12.N). From velocity diagrams, tan 2 = U2/C2 so C2 = U2/tan 2, sin 2 = U2/W2 so W2 = U2/sin 2 and sin 1 = U1/C1 so C1 = U1/sin 1. Substituting all into ts = U12/(U12 + 0.5.C22 + 0.5.W22.R + (T2/T1) 0.5.C12.N) gives : ts = U12/[U12 + 0.5(U22/tan2 2) + 0.5. R(U22/sin2 2) + (T2/T1) 0.5.N(U12/sin2 1)]. But = 2.U1/D1 = 2.U2/D2, so U2 = U1.D2/D1. Substituting into ts = U12/[U12 + 0.5(U22/tan2 2) + 0.5.R(U22/sin2 2) + (T2/T1) 0.5.N(U12/sin2 1)] gives : ts = U12/[U12 + 0.5(U12(D2/D1)2/tan2 2) + 0.5.R(U12(D2/D1)2/sin2 2) + (T2/T1) 0.5.N(U12/sin2 1)] which simplifies to : ts = 1/[1 + 0.5((D2/D1)2/tan2 2) + 0.5.R((D2/D1)2/sin2 2) + (T2/T1) (0.5.N/sin2 1)]. This is the same as equation 7.14 pg. 280. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LOSS COEFFICIENTS AND TOTAL-TO-TOTAL EFFICIENCY Ignoring exit pipe, tt = (h00 h02a)/(h00 h02i), but h02i = h2i + C22/2, so : tt = (h00 h02a)/(h00 h2i C22/2). Also ignoring exit pipe, ts = (h00 h02a)/(h00 h2i). Rather than proceeding as in previous section, use the similarities between these two definitions of efficiency. 1/tt = (h00 h2i C22/2)/(h00 h02a) and 1/ts = (h00 h2i)/(h00 h02a), so combining gives : 1/tt = 1/ts C22/2(h00 h02a).

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From velocity diagram, tan 2 = U2/C2 so C22 = U22/tan2 2. Substituting into 1/tt = 1/ts C22/2(h00 h02a) gives : 1/tt = 1/ts U22/2(tan2 2)(h00 h02a). Recall that for rotor with radial blades at entry and only axial velocity at exit, p = m .U12 and p = m (h00 h02a). Combining gives h00 h02a = U12. Substituting into : 1/tt = 1/ts U22/2(tan2 2)(h00 h02a) gives : 1/tt = 1/ts U22/2.U12(tan2 2) = 1/ts U22.cot2 2/2.U12. This is the same as equation 7.16 pg. 281. SPOUTING VELOCITY If expansion through turbine is isentropic, change in specific enthalpy of gas = change in specific kinetic energy of gas. Velocity in this kinetic energy called sprouting velocity (Cs), so h = Cs2/2 and Cs = 2.h Isentropic enthalpy decrease can be total-to-total or total-to-static. Also, turbines can be fitted with a diffuser downstream of exit pipe, so both total-to-total and total-to-static enthalpy decreases can be with or without diffuser. Thus four different enthalpy decreases exist see table 7.1 pg. 279. Eulers turbine equation is p = m (U1.Cx1 U2.Cx2) but from velocity diagrams, Cx1 = U1 and Cx2 = 0. So, Eulers equation becomes : p = m U12. Also, p = m .h, so combining gives : U12 = h. But h = Cs2/2, so Cs2/2 = U12 and U1/Cs = 1/2. This is the maximum ratio of rotor speed at entry to spouting velocity. The ratio decreases with decreasing efficiency, so for isentropic efficiency of 95 %, U1/Cs 0.69. SLIP Recall that slip at the exit from the impellers of centrifugal pumps, fans and compressors is due to pressure difference across the blades. Similarly there is slip at entry to the rotors of radial flow turbines. Due to rotation, the leading side of the blade is moving into the flow and the trailing side is moving away from the flow. So, at entry to the rotor, the pressure on the leading side of the blades is greater than the pressure on the trailing side of the blades. Thus, relative velocity curves in the direction of blade motion. Hence, at entry to the rotor, relative velocity is not parallel to the blades. But this will cause additional losses. To compensate, at entry to the rotor the gas must have a tangential/circumferential velocity component in the opposite direction to the motion of the rotor. So : W1 > Cr1 Cx1 is reduced. Since at OD of rotor, blades are radial, Stanitz slip factor is applicable (s = 1 0.63./Z 1 2/Z). Taking slip into account, ideal entry angle of gas, is 1 = 2.U1/Z.Cr1. DESIGN Experimental and analytical work has shown that : Optimum entry angle to impeller is 1 74 For turbine without inlet guide vanes, optimum specific speed is Nsp 0.6 to 0.65 (Dixon) or somewhat larger (Sayers). (Nsp = NQ2/(h00 h02i)0.75).