Chitra Surana (419) Rishabh Kumar (436) : 1 - Page

Name Chitra Surana (419) Rishabh Kumar (436)
Topic Approaches to Communication
Development
New World Information and Communication Order. Mac Bride Commission Report. Concept of Social Development after World War ll, Lerner (1950s) and Rogers (1960s) model of social development, Industrialisation, Urbanisation and Modernisation to HDI. Dynamics of Social Development. Dysfunctions of Development. Development Communication: Definition, Concept, Prerequisites. Models of Development Communication. Alternative Paradigm of Social Development: Gandhi, E.F. Schumacher, Ecological Intelligence. Role of Traditional Media in Social Development Communication. Development: Concept, importance and significance. Difference between change, growth, development and progress. Tracing the human development Alvin Toffler. + Editing and Compilation (of the notes).
Vidur Row (542)
Ishan Vartak (492) Neethika Brahmadi (434)
Charulata Biswas (506)
Shradha Narayanan (413)
Ahmar Zaman (483)
1|Page Development Communication Notes
1. Basic Definitions of Development Change: Change usually describes an essential difference or a complete substitution. Growth: An increase, expansion, progressive development. Development: The act or result of developing. It may also be the state of being developed. Progress: A forward or onward movement. A gradual improvement so as to develop to higher, better and more advanced stage.
Difference between Growth, Change, Development and Progress:Check-list Change Growth Development Progress
Shade
May be +ve or ve
May be +ve or ve guided but no acceleration
+ve
+ve
Direction and pace
May / May not be guided Very slow
guided with acceleration
guided with extra acceleration
Time frame Target Efforts Needed
Absent Absent Almost 0
May have May have Needs Little
It has a broad time frame It has a target Needs More
It has deadline
It is target oriented Needs Extra and more
Result
May or may not provide opportunities
Provides limited opportunities
Provides considerably good opportunities
Provides ample opportunities and privileges
Appearance
May /May not be Noticeable
Noticeable
Evident
Palpable/ conspicuous/ discernible / perceptible / appreciable Provides ample opportunities and privileges
Result
May or may not provide opportunities
Provides limited opportunities
Provides considerably good opportunities
Development:Concept Development is a broad-based, progressive movement often synonymous with growth, modernisation, industrialisation, self-realisation and social change. Development culminates into growth, modernisation, industrialisation, self-realisation, social change and national development. As Rogers puts it, Development is a widely participatory process of social change in a society, intended to bring advancement (including greater equality, freedom and other valued qualities) for the majority of the people through gaining control over their environment. Importance It embraces all aspects of social behavior like law and order, relationships between families, literacy, corporate governance, familiarity and use of technology, etc.
It leads to the upward movement of the entire social system. Significance Development aims at going beyond material advancement to constructively channel the free-flowing human energy towards peace, love and harmony It aims at multi-dimensional evolution on social, economic, cultural and human planes. 2. Tracing the human development - Alvin Toffler Alvin Tofflers Three Waves Theory: According to Alvin Tofflers Three Waves Theory, civilization can be divided into three major phases: 1. First Wave: the agricultural revolution 2. Second Wave: the industrial revolution 3. Third Wave: the information age. Each wave, or civilization phase, develops its own "super-ideology," or Zeitgeist. Super-ideology explains reality and justifies its own existence. This ideology impacts all the spheres which make up a civilization phase: technology social patterns information patterns "power" patterns. The central premise of Toffler's theory was that human history, while it is complex and contradictory, can be seen to fit patterns. The pattern he has been seeing in his career takes the shape of three great advances or waves. The first wave of transformation began when some prescient person about 10,000 years ago, probably a woman, planted a seed and nurtured its growth. The age of agriculture began, and its significance was that people moved away from nomadic wandering and hunting and began to cluster into villages and develop culture. The First Wave is the settled agricultural
society which prevailed in much of the world after the Neolithic Revolution, which replaced hunter-gatherer cultures. The transition from the earlier hunter-gatherer societies to the agrarian and agricultural societies is also known as the Neolithic Revolution. This coincides with the transition from the Mesolithic era to the Neolithic era (respectively, the Middle and Late Stone Age). Characteristics of the First Wave: i. ii. The agricultural revolution took thousands of years to play out. Extent of spread: Today the First Wave has virtually subsided. Only a few tiny tribal populations, in South America or Papua New Guinea, for example, remain to be reached by agriculture. Land was the basis of economy, life, culture, family structure and politics. Life was organized around the village. A simple division of labour prevailed and a few clearly defined castes and classes: Nobility, priesthood, warriors, helots, serfs and slaves. In all of them, power was rigidly authoritarian. In all of them, birth determined one's position in life. The economy was decentralized. Each community produced most of its own necessities. The First Wave was dominant until around 1650-1750.
iii. iv. v.
The second wave was an expression of machine muscle, the Industrial Revolution that began in the 18th century and gathered steam after America's Civil War. People began to leave the peasant culture of farming to come to work in city factories. It culminated in the Second World War, a clash of smokestack juggernauts, and the explosion of the atomic bombs over Japan. The Second Wave is Industrial Age society. The Second Wave began in Western Europe with the Industrial Revolution, and subsequently spread across the world. Key aspects of Second Wave society are the nuclear family, a factory-type education system and the corporation. Toffler writes: "The Second Wave Society is industrial and based on mass production, mass distribution, mass consumption, mass education, mass media, mass
recreation, mass entertainment, and weapons of mass destruction. You combine those things with standardization, centralization, concentration, and synchronization, and you wind up with a style of organization we call bureaucracy." The industrial revolution took three hundred years to mature. Extent of spread: having revolutionized life in Europe, North America, and some other parts of the globe [the western Soviet Union, Japan, Hong Kong, Singapore, Taiwan, Australia, New Zealand, South Korea, and parts of mainland China]. It continues to spread as many countries, until now basically agricultural, scramble to build steel mills, auto plants, railroads, etc. In all, industrial civilization embraces roughly one billion human beings- one fourth the population of the globe (Toffler 1980, 24). Changes it brought in: A rich, many-sided social system that touched every aspect of human life and attacked every feature of the First Wave.
It put the tractor on the farm, the typewriter in the office, the refrigerator in the kitchen. Produced the daily newspaper and the cinema, Sit-down strikes, Vitamin pills, and Lengthened life spans. It universalized the wristwatch and the ballot box
A shift to non-renewable energy sources -- coal, gas, and oil -- made mass production possible. A radically better distribution system mass distribution -- instead of custom distribution. This led to mass merchandising Industrialization required mobility from people. This resulted in nuclear family system. Specialized institutions like school, old-age homes or nursing homes
Mass production required giant pools of capital. To encourage investors, the concept of limited liability was introduced and the corporation was created. Bureaucracy: Factory seen as the most advanced and efficient agency for production, Other organizations adopted it: Schools, hospitals, prisons, government bureaucracies, and other organizations thus took on many of the characteristics of the factory--its division of labour, its hierarchical structural and its metallic impersonality. 2nd wave technology seems efficient because pollution costs, looking after employment etc. have been passed on to public. It favours "appropriate technologies" intended to provide humane jobs, avoid pollution, and spare the environment and to produce for personal or local use rather than for national and global marketing alone; wide recycling, cheap construction, and simple transport experiments. The Second Wave (Industrialization) has several principles that made its unique design: i. STANDARDIZATION (Identical products, government standards): We have applied this principle to almost every aspect of life: standardized tests, mass education, pay scales, lunch hours, holidays, mass media, weights and measures, currency, prices (as opposed to negotiation), language, leisure activities, lifestyle. SPECIALIZATION (of jobs): The "jack-of-all-trades" was replaced with the specialist. SYNCHRONIZATION (Punctuality, work by clock rather than daytime or seasons time.): People dealt with time differently. In a market-dependent system, time equals money. Expensive machines cannot be allowed to sit idly. If one group of workers in a plant was late in completing a task, others down the line would be further delayed.
ii.
iii.
iv.
CONCENTRATION of energy, money, and power (Urban centres, people work in factories, giant corporations): Almost totally dependent on highly concentrated deposits of fossil fuel. Countryside stripped of people and relocated in giant urban centres. Work was concentrated in the factory. The poor were concentrated in ghettoes. MAXIMIZATION (Big means efficient, growth important even if short-sighted): Infatuation with bigness and growth... 'Big' became synonymous with 'efficient. The workers and managers of Matsushita Electric Co in Japan, chant this song every morning when they exercise together: "...Doing our best to promote production, sending our goods to the people of the world, endlessly and continuously, like water gushing from a fountain. Grow, industry, Grow, Grow, Grow! Harmony and sincerity! Matsushita Electric! By 1960, the fifty largest corporations in the United States employed an average of 80,000 workers each. By 1970, AT&T, by itself, employed 956,000 people. This meant that at an average household size of 3.3 well over three million people were dependent upon pay checks from this one company alone" (Toffler 1980, 55). CENTRALIZATION (In business, in politics and in the economy): Centralizing of Power, central banking and centralized Government. RESULTS OF ALL THESE FACTORS: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. xi. The spread of literacy Improvement of roads and transport A widening split between consumer and producer A new social character: industrial man Dependence of survival on money Creation of the nuclear family Factory-like schools Man's image of world controlled by mass media Most people work for a big corporation Successive generations grew taller than their parents Nakedness came to be regarded as shameful--invention of nightclothes
v.
vi.
xii. xiii. xiv. xv. xvi. xvii. xviii. xix.
Eating became technological--diffusion of forks and other specialized table implements Damage to the earth's fragile biosphere Enslavement of Indians -- imperialism Massification of war -- unleashed the atom The biosphere will no longer tolerate the industrial assault. Non-renewable energy sources are drying up The supply of cheap raw materials is drying up as we reach the end of colonialism Disintegrative pressures inside the system --people and systems are becoming strained beyond the breaking point: the family system, the telephone system, the commuter rail system, the welfare system, the postal systems, the school system, Health-delivery systems, etc.
Third Wave: Just as the machine seemed at its most invincible, however, we began to receive intimations of a gathering third wave, based not on muscle but on mind. It is what we variously call the information or the knowledge age, and while it is powerfully driven by information technology, it has co-drivers as well, among them social demands worldwide for greater freedom and individuation. The Third Wave is the post-industrial society. It has been called the technetronic age by Zbigniew Brzezinski and Post-industrial society by Sociologist Daniel Bell. It is commonly called the information age and should take only a few decades to mature. Toffler says that since the late 1950s most countries have been transitioning from a Second Wave society into a Third Wave society. He coined many words to describe it and mentions names invented by others, such as the Information Age. The new technologies of the Third Wave will bring: Diversified, renewable, energy sources. (Example: bio-electronics, piezo-electronics, new computer
systems which shut everything down for nano-seconds between actual activities.) The new technologies of the Third Wave will bring methods of production which make factories and assembly lines obsolete. This change will driven by two factors: i. The rise of dynamic new industries based on scientific breakthroughs: quantum electronics, information theory, molecular biology, oceanic, nucleonics, ecology, and the space sciences. Enhanced manipulative abilities via computers, data processing, aerospace, sophisticated petrochemicals, semiconductors, advanced communications, solid-state physics, systems engineering, artificial intelligence, fuzzy logic, polymer chemistry.
ii.
Most people are culturally more skilled as analysts than synthesists. Four clusters of related industries are poised for major growth and are likely to become the backbone industries of the 3rd wave era, bringing with them major shifts of economic power and social and political alignments: i. ii. iii. iv. Electronics and computers, Space industry: satellites etc. The Sea: Aquaculture, mining, Biological Industries.
1) Electronics and computers will change our whole world, social structure, even family life. Copper wires gone because of fibre optics, which are thousands of times more efficient and durable. Shift in electronics requires less and less equipment. According to Computerworld magazine, "If the auto industry had done what the computer industry has done in the last 30 years, a Rolls-Royce would cost $2.50 and get 2,000,000 miles to the gallon. 2) Space industry: Satellites can outmanoeuvre other things: Cellular phones, etc. Despite delays, five space shuttles may soon be moving cargo and people back and forth between the earth and outer space on a weekly schedule. 3) Aqua-aquaculture, undersea mining, aqua villages with energy produced on the spot. Pushing into the depths of the sea: The mirror image
10 | P a g e Development Communication Notes
of our drive into space... "The first historic wave of social change on earth came when our ancestors ceased to rely on foraging and hunting, and began instead to domesticate animals and cultivate the soil. We are now at precisely this stage in our relationship to the seas." (143). Enough protein could be grown in the sea to end world hunger. Intelligent aquaculture could also preserve the fragile biosphere of our planet. Oil can be "grown" in the ocean. It has already been demonstrated that algae, high in oil content, can be grown in the ocean. The process is on the edge of becoming economically effective. The oceans contain an overwhelming wealth of minerals. The Red Sea alone holds an estimated $3.4 billion worth of zinc, silver, copper, lead, and gold. This does not include phosphate ores which are used for land-based farm fertilization, but also potato-shaped manganese nodules-- a renewable resource which constantly form on the ocean floor. 4) Gene industry: It has probably the biggest future of them all. Information on genetics is doubling every two years. Lord Ritchie-Calder explains that "Just as we have manipulated plastics and metals, we are now manufacturing living materials." Some other ideas being discussed: We could breed people with cow-like stomachs so they can digest grass and hay, thus eliminating the food problem by modifying us to eat lower down on the food chain. We could biologically alter workers to fit job requirements--for example, creating pilots with faster reaction times or assembly-line workers neurologically designed to do our monotonous work for us. We could clone ourselves, make a super race. We are truly first hand gods. Holds good and bad potentials; new plants, future of evolution itself. We could clone soldiers to do our fighting. We could use genetic forecasting to pre-eliminate "unfit" babies.
We could grow reserve organs for ourselves. We could create life forms which convert sunlight into electro-chemical energy, replacing nuclear power plants. Bringing these 4 technologies together will release a flood of innovation unlike any seen before in human history. Positive policy for managing transition to a 3rd wave future is the realization that: Eco-sphere is fragile; all new technologies must be screened to avoid harming it more. Democratization of technological decision making is required. Technology need not be big, costly or complex in order to be "sophisticated". 3rd wave does more than accelerate information flow; it transforms the deep structure of information on which our daily actions depend. It de-massified Mass media; popular magazines and periodicals are now mini-magazine and E-zines. VCRs and Video-camera consumers became own producers. New info sphere is emerging and will change our personal preferences and it has de-massified our minds as well. As the quantity of information available to people expands, they become less and less able to cope with it. People fall back to paying attention to only what is important to them. Hence, we see the loss of readership of newspapers and mass magazines, and the loss of viewers of the large, generic television channels. Instead, we see a rise in the number of specialty channels appealing to narrow segments of the population. Likewise, mini-circulation specialty weekly newsletters and magazines are explosively increasing. The new media is not "mass"; instead it is specialized, aimed at small, specialinterest, regional, or even local markets. Cable systems are being designed for two-way communication for even more refined customization. It creates an intelligent environment: Home computers (PC's) are facilitating electronic communities (The Source, Internet, listservs). Microprocessors allow the automation of our entire environment. A new social memory: "Our remarkable ability to file and retrieve shared memories is the secret of our species' evolutionary success. And anything that significantly alters the way we construct, store, or use social memory therefore touches on the very wellsprings of destiny" (176). "Twice before
in history, humankind has revolutionized its social memory. Today, in constructing a new info-sphere, we are poised on the brink of another such transformation" (176). Originally human groups stored their shared memories in the minds of individuals (like Homer, tribal elders, wise men, etc.). The Second Wave smashed the memory barrier by spreading mass literacy. Now systematic records could be kept. Libraries and museums were built. Development of the "electronic cottage": Mass production, like mass media, is nearly obsolete and on the way out. "..while 'the less highly developed countries-- [those] with a GNP of between U.S. $1000-2000 per capita per annum--concentrate on mass produced manufacturers' the 'most highly developed countries concentrate on the export of one- off and short-run manufactured goods depending on highly skilled labour. "The step beyond this, of course, is complete customization-- the actual manufacture of oneof-a-kind products. And that is clearly the direction in which we are heading: products custom-cut for individual users" (183). The home-centred society: As the electronic cottage spreads, a chain of consequences will occur in society: Greater community stability due to less forced mobility, less stress on the individual, fewer transient human relationships, and a greater participation in community life. A renaissance among voluntary organizations like churches, women's groups, lodges, clubs, athletic and youth organizations. Families will become non-nuclear: Many say the family is falling apart today. They define the family as a husband-breadwinner, motherhousekeeper, and a number of children. This is the "nuclear family" which was created and idealized by the Second Wave. It is falling apart, because the Second Wave industrial complex system is falling apart. Radically changed corporations: The big corporation was the characteristic business organization of the industrial era" (226). Just like families, the mass media, and schools, corporations are facing drastic changes: A crisis in the world economy.
An accelerated economy. The de-massified society. Public anger at corporations. New code of behaviour: Punctuality and synchronization will no longer be critical. We will have a new sense of time--witness flexitime (Gleitzeit-sliding, or flexible, time). Punctuality, like morality, will become situational. Night work will increase. Part-time work will become much more common. People will become more willing "to settle for a smaller pay-check in return for time to pursue their own hobbies. Meals will become further desynchronized; there will no longer be a standard three meals per day. More fast-food shops will appear. Flexible schedules will require new services to keep track of friends and family. Standardization will disappear. All pricing will become more like automobiles--varying with options and with what you negotiate. Consensus in politics will break down; more issue groups will pursue narrow goals. Countries will lose their sense of national culture; more regional cultures will arise. Decentralization will occur--new political parties ("neighbourhood power"), new management techniques ("matrix" organizations where you have more than one boss), and new philosophies to challenge the centralist premises of the Second Wave. National economies will break up into regional economies. Rise of the Prosumer: This began in the early 1970's with the introduction of the do-it-yourself pregnancy kit. Rapidly growing movement -- "millions of people... are beginning to perform for themselves services hitherto performed for them by doctors... what these people are really doing is shifting some production from Sector B [the "visible economy"] to Sector A [the "invisible economy"]" (267). The self-help movement is another facet of this trend. Other examples of this trend are long-distance direct- dialling, self-service fuel pumps, electronic banking, self-service supermarkets, and discount
stores. More and more thins are sold knocked down, ready for "easy assembly" at home. Appliances, like refrigerators, are starting to come with 1-800 numbers to call for repairs--they walk YOU through the repair process. The do-it-yourself industry is experiencing explosive growth. All the above demonstrates the "LAW OF RELATIVE INEFFICIENCY." "This holds that the more we automate the production of goods and lower their per-unit cost, the more we increase the relative cost of handcrafts and nonautomated services" (273). "For such reasons, we must expect the price of many services to continue their sky-rocketing climb in the years ahead... [this will] make it increasingly 'profitable' for people to produce for their own consumption" (273). Breakup of the nation state: As populations become more diverse, the hightech nations will crack up into smaller and less powerful units. Like trans-national corporations, various trans-national networks, or groups, will form to pursue their economic and other interests. (The Common Market is a good example). "Many countries are feeling the simultaneous impact of two, even three, quite different waves of change, all moving at different rates of speed and with different degrees of force behind them" (Toffler 1980, 14). "..in our personal lives and in our political acts, whether we know it or not, most of us in the rich countries are essentially either Second Wave people committed to maintaining the dying order, Third Wave people constructing a radically different tomorrow, or a confused, self-cancelling mixture of the two" (Toffler 1980, 16). "Once we realize that a bitter struggle is now raging between those who seek to preserve industrialism and those who seek to supplant it, we have a powerful new key to understanding the world" (Toffler 1980, 18).
Pre-agriculture era
Ist wave Agriculture
IInd wave Post Agriculture Industrializati on

Type Homo sapiens Modern Location Anywhere making water resource available Occupation Industry related Shelter Cement Concreted slabs, multistoried Energy resource Steam, electricity, fossil fuel etc. Social structure well defined social institutions Infrastructure Natural resources + science & technology like various machines. Economy Paper Currency Health and Education Well developed Political system (mostly) Bicameral Parliaments / Dictators Economy Industry-based and natural resources Socio-culture Industry centered (More the industries mightier the Industrialist) Power center Industry tycoons
IIIrd wave Information Technology Era

Type Homo sapience PostModern Location Anywhere making water resource available Occupation IT related Shelter Cement Concreted slabs, multistoried, IT furnished Energy resource Electricity, fossil fuel, alternative reusable resources like solar, wind and even nuclear energy Social structure well defined social institutions Infrastructure Natural resources + science & technology like various machines. + IT Economy Paper and Plastic Currency Health and Education Well developed Political system (mostly) Bicameral Parliaments / Dictators Economy Industry based, ITbased and natural resources
Type - Primitive Homo erectus Location - nomad Occupation hunting Shelter Caves Energy resource Muscle Power, firewood Social structure Not so defined Infrastructure Natural resources Economy Absent Health and Education Absent
Type - Homo sapiens Location Settled down near the water resource Occupation Agriculture Shelter Huts, Bricked walls & tiled roofs Energy resource - Muscle Power , coal and firewood Social structure well defined social institutions Infrastructure Natural resources + primitive technology like wheel, plough, axe etc. Economy Barter system and coinage. Health and Education Initiated. Political system monarchy Economy Agro based, natural resources, Socio-culture Terra Firma centered (More the land holdings mightier the holder) Power center Kings and Lords
Socio-culture IT & Industry centered (More the industries mightier the Industrialist) Power center Industry tycoons
3. Rogers theory of social development Rogers theory is a clinical one, based on years of experience dealing with his clients. He has this in common with Freud, for example. Also in common with Freud is that his is a particularly rich and mature theory -well thought-out and logically tight, with broad application. Not in common with Freud, however, is the fact that Rogers sees people as basically good or healthy -- or at very least, not bad or ill. In other words, he sees mental health as the normal progression of life, and he sees mental illness, criminality, and other human problems, as distortions of that natural tendency. Also not in common with Freud is the fact that Rogers theory is a relatively simple one. Also not in common with Freud is that Rogers theory is particularly simple -- elegant even! The entire theory is built on a single force of life he calls the actualizing tendency. It can be defined as the built-in motivation present in every life-form to develop its potentials to the fullest extent possible. Were not just talking about survival: Rogers believes that all creatures strive to make the very best of their existence. If they fail to do so, it is not for a lack of desire. Rogers captures with this single great need or motive all the other motives that other theorists talk about. He asks us, why do we want air and water and food? Why do we seek safety, love, and a sense of competence? Why, indeed, do we seek to discover new medicines, invent new power sources, or create new works of art? Because, he answers, it is in our nature as living things to do the very best we can! Keep in mind that, unlike Maslows use of the term, Rogers applies it to all living creatures. Some of his earliest examples, in fact, include seaweed and mushrooms! Think about it: Doesnt it sometimes amaze you the way
weeds will grow through the sidewalk, or saplings crack boulders, or animals survive desert conditions or the frozen north? He also applied the idea to ecosystems, saying that an ecosystem such as a forest, with all its complexity, has a much greater actualization potential than a simple ecosystem such as a corn field. If one bug were to become extinct in a forest, there are likely to be other creatures that will adapt to fill the gap; On the other hand, one bout of corn blight or some such disaster, and you have a dust bowl. The same for us as individuals: If we live as we should, we will become increasingly complex, like the forest, and thereby remain flexible in the face of lifes little -- and big -- disasters. People, however, in the course of actualizing their potentials, created society and culture. In and of itself, thats not a problem: We are a social creature, it is our nature. But when we created culture, it developed a life of its own. Rather than remaining close to other aspects of our natures, culture can become a force in its own right. And even if, in the long run, a culture that interferes with our actualization dies out, we, in all likelihood, will die with it. Dont misunderstand: Culture and society are not intrinsically evil! Its more along the lines of the birds of paradise found in Papua-New Guinea. The colorful and dramatic plumage of the males apparently distracts predators from females and the young. Natural selection has led these birds towards more and more elaborate tail feathers, until in some species the male can no longer get off the ground. At that point, being colorful doesnt do the male -- or the species -- much good! In the same way, our elaborate societies, complex cultures, incredible technologies, for all that they have helped us to survive and prosper, may at the same time serve to harm us, and possibly even destroy us. Details Rogers tells us that organisms know what is good for them. Evolution has provided us with the senses, the tastes, the discriminations we need: When we hunger, we find food -- not just any food, but food that tastes good. Food that tastes bad is likely to be spoiled, rotten, and unhealthy. That what good and bad tastes are -- our evolutionary lessons made clear! This is called organismic valuing.
Among the many things that we instinctively value is positive regard, Rogers umbrella term for things like love, affection, attention, nurturance, and so on. It is clear that babies need love and attention. In fact, it may well be that they die without it. They certainly fail to thrive -- i.e. become all they can be. Another thing -- perhaps peculiarly human -- that we value is positive selfregard, that is, self-esteem, self-worth, a positive self-image. We achieve this positive self-regard by experiencing the positive regard others show us over our years of growing up. Without this self-regard, we feel small and helpless, and again we fail to become all that we can be! Like Maslow, Rogers believes that, if left to their own devices, animals will tend to eat and drink things that are good for them, and consume them in balanced proportions. Babies, too, seem to want and like what they need. Somewhere along the line, however, we have created an environment for ourselves that is significantly different from the one in which we evolved. In this new environment are such things as refined sugar, flour, butter, chocolate, and so on, that our ancestors in Africa never knew. These things have flavors that appeal to our organismic valuing -- yet do not serve our actualization well. Over millions of years, we may evolve to find broccoli more satisfying than cheesecake -- but by then, itll be way too late for you and me. Our society also leads us astray with conditions of worth. As we grow up, our parents, teachers, peers, the media, and others, only give us what we need when we show we are worthy, rather than just because we need it. We get a drink when we finish our class, we get something sweet when we finish our vegetables, and most importantly, we get love and affection if and only if we behave! Getting positive regard on on condition Rogers calls conditional positive regard. Because we do indeed need positive regard, these conditions are very powerful, and we bend ourselves into a shape determined, not by our organismic valuing or our actualizing tendency, but by a society that may or may not truly have our best interests at heart. A good little boy or girl may not be a healthy or happy boy or girl! Over time, this conditioning leads us to have conditional positive self19 | P a g e Development Communication Notes
regard as well. We begin to like ourselves only if we meet up with the standards others have applied to us, rather than if we are truly actualizing our potentials. And since these standards were created without keeping each individual in mind, more often than not we find ourselves unable to meet them, and therefore unable to maintain any sense of self-esteem. Incongruity The aspect of your being that is founded in the actualizing tendency, follows organismic valuing, needs and receives positive regard and selfregard, Rogers calls the real self. It is the you that, if all goes well, you will become. On the other hand, to the extent that our society is out of synch with the actualizing tendency, and we are forced to live with conditions of worth that are out of step with organismic valuing, and receive only conditional positive regard and self-regard, we develop instead an ideal self. By ideal, Rogers is suggesting something not real, something that is always out of our reach, the standard we cant meet. This gap between the real self and the ideal self, the I am and the I should is called incongruity. The greater the gap, the more incongruity. The more incongruity, the more suffering. In fact, incongruity is essentially what Rogers means by neurosis: Being out of synch with your own self. If this all sounds familiar to you, it is precisely the same point made by Karen Horney! Defenses When you are in a situation where there is an incongruity between your image of yourself and your immediate experience of yourself (i.e. between the ideal and the real self), you are in a threatening situation. For example, if you have been taught to feel unworthy if you do not get A's on all your tests, and yet you aren't really all that great a student, then situations such as tests are going to bring that incongruity to light -- tests will be very threatening. When you are expecting a threatening situation, you will feel anxiety. Anxiety is a signal indicating that there is trouble ahead, that you should avoid the situation! One way to avoid the situation, of course, is to pick
yourself up and run for the hills. Since that is not usually an option in life, instead of running physically, we run psychologically, by using defenses. Rogers' idea of defenses is very similar to Freud's, except that Rogers considers everything from a perceptual point-of-view, so that even memories and impulses are thought of as perceptions. Fortunately for us, he has only two defenses: denial and perceptual distortion. Denial means very much what it does in Freud's system: You block out the threatening situation altogether. An example might be the person who never picks up his test or asks about test results, so he doesn't have to face poor grades (at least for now!). Denial for Rogers does also include what Freud called repression: If keeping a memory or an impulse out of your awareness -- refuse to perceive it -- you may be able to avoid (again, for now!) a threatening situation. Perceptual distortion is a matter of reinterpreting the situation so that it appears less threatening. It is very similar to Freud's rationalization. A student that is threatened by tests and grades may, for example, blame the professor for poor teaching, trick questions, bad attitude, or whatever. The facts that sometimes professors are poor teachers, write trick questions, and have bad attitudes only makes the distortion work better: If it could be true, then maybe it really was true! It can also be much more obviously perceptual, such as when the person misreads his grade as better than it is. Unfortunately for the poor neurotic (and, in fact, most of us), every time he or she uses defense; they put a greater distance between the real and the ideal. They become ever more incongruous, and find themselves in more and more threatening situations, develop greater and greater levels of anxiety, and use more and more defenses.... It becomes a vicious cycle that the person eventually is unable to get out of, at least on their own. Rogers also has a partial explanation for psychosis: Psychosis occurs when a person's defense is overwhelmed, and their sense of self becomes "shattered" into little disconnected pieces. His behavior likewise has little consistency to it. We see him as having "psychotic breaks" -- episodes of bizarre behavior. His words may make little sense. His emotions may be inappropriate. He may lose the ability to differentiate self and non-self, and become disoriented and passive.
The fully-functioning person Rogers, like Maslow, is just as interested in describing the healthy person. His term is "fully-functioning," and involves the following qualities: 1. Openness to experience. This is the opposite of defensiveness. It is the accurate perception of one's experiences in the world, including one's feelings. It also means being able to accept reality, again including one's feelings. Feelings are such an important part of openness because they convey organismic valuing. If you cannot be open to your feelings, you cannot be open to actualization. The hard part, of course, is distinguishing real feelings from the anxieties brought on by conditions of worth. 2. Existential living. This is living in the here-and-now. Rogers, as a part of getting in touch with reality, insists that we not live in the past or the future -- the one is gone, and the other isn't anything at all, yet! The present is the only reality we have. Mind you, that doesn't mean we shouldn't remember and learn from our past. Neither does it mean we shouldn't plan or even day-dream about the future. Just recognize these things for what they are: memories and dreams, which we are experiencing here in the present. 3. Organismic trusting. We should allow ourselves to be guided by the organismic valuing process. We should trust ourselves; do what feels right, what comes natural. This, as I'm sure you realize, has become a major sticking point in Rogers' theory. People say, sure, do what comes natural -if you are a sadist, hurt people; if you are a masochist, hurt yourself; if the drugs or alcohol make you happy, go for it; if you are depressed, kill yourself.... This certainly doesn't sound like great advice. In fact, many of the excesses of the sixties and seventies were blamed on this attitude. But keep in mind that Rogers meant trust your real self, and you can only know what your real self has to say if you are open to experience and living existentially! In other words, organismic trusting assumes you are in contact with the acutalizing tendency. 4. Experiential freedom. Rogers felt that it was irrelevant whether or not people really had free will. We feel very much as if we do. This is not to say, of course, that we are free to do anything at all: We are surrounded by a deterministic universe, so that, flap my arms as much as I like, I will not fly like Superman. It means that we feel free when choices are available to
us. Rogers says that the fully-functioning person acknowledges that feeling of freedom, and takes responsibility for his choices. 5. Creativity. If you feel free and responsible, you will act accordingly, and participate in the world. A fully-functioning person, in touch with actualization, will feel obliged by their nature to contribute to the actualization of others, even life itself. This can be through creativity in the arts or sciences, through social concern and parental love, or simply by doing one's best at one's job. Creativity as Rogers uses it is very close to Erikson's generativity. Therapy Carl Rogers is best known for his contributions to therapy. His therapy has gone through a couple of name changes along the way: He originally called it non-directive, because he felt that the therapist should not lead the client, but rather be there for the client while the client directs the progress of the therapy. As he became more experienced, he realized that, as "nondirective" as he was, he still influenced his client by his very "nondirectiveness!" In other words, clients look to therapists for guidance, and will find it even when the therapist is trying not to guide. So he changed the name to client-centered. He still felt that the client was the one who should say what is wrong, find ways of improving, and determine the conclusion of therapy -- his therapy was still very "clientcentered" even while he acknowledged the impact of the therapist. Unfortunately, other therapists felt that this name for his therapy was a bit of a slap in the face for them: Aren't most therapies "client-centered?" Nowadays, though the terms non-directive and client-centered are still used, most people just call it Rogerian therapy. One of the phrases that Rogers used to describe his therapy is "supportive, not reconstructive," and he uses the analogy of learning to ride a bicycle to explain: When you help a child to learn to ride a bike, you can't just tell them how. They have to try it for themselves. And you can't hold them up the whole time either. There comes a point when you have to let them go. If they fall, they fall, but if you hang on, they never learn. It's the same in therapy. If independence (autonomy, freedom with
responsibility) is what you are helping a client to achieve, then they will not achieve it if they remain dependent on you, the therapist. They need to try their insights on their own, in real life beyond the therapist's office! An authoritarian approach to therapy may seem to work marvelously at first, but ultimately it only creates a dependent person. There is only one technique that Rogerians are known for: reflection. Reflection is the mirroring of emotional communication: If the client says "I feel like shit!" the therapist may reflect this back to the client by saying something like "So, life's getting you down, hey?" By doing this, the therapist is communicating to the client that he is indeed listening and cares enough to understand. The therapist is also letting the client know what it is the client is communicating. Often, people in distress say things that they don't mean because it feels good to say them. For example, a woman once came to me and said "I hate men!" I reflected by saying "You hate all men?" Well, she said, maybe not all -- she didn't hate her father or her brother or, for that matter, me. Even with those men she "hated," she discovered that the great majority of them she didn't feel as strongly as the word hate implies. In fact, ultimately, she realized that she didn't trust many men, and that she was afraid of being hurt by them the way she had been by one particular man. Reflection must be used carefully, however. Many beginning therapists use it without thinking (or feeling), and just repeat every other phrase that comes out of the client's mouth. They sound like parrots with psychology degrees! Then they think that the client doesn't notice, when in fact it has become a stereotype of Rogerian therapy the same way as sex and mom have become stereotypes of Freudian therapy. Reflection must come from the heart -- it must be genuine, congruent. Which brings us to Rogers famous requirements of the therapist? Rogers felt that a therapist, in order to be effective, must have three very special qualities: 1. Congruence -- genuineness, honesty with the client. 2. Empathy -- the ability to feel what the client feels.
3. Respect -- acceptance, unconditional positive regard towards the client. He says these qualities are "necessary and sufficient: "If the therapist shows these three qualities, the client will improve, even if no other special "techniques" are used. If the therapist does not show these three qualities, the client's improvement will be minimal, no matter how many "techniques" are used. Now this is a lot to ask of a therapist! They're just human, and often enough a bit more "human" (let's say unusual) than most. Rogers does give in a little, and he adds that the therapist must show these things in the therapy relationship. In other words, when the therapist leaves the office, he can be as "human" as anybody. I happen to agree with Rogers, even though these qualities are quite demanding. Some of the research does suggest that techniques don't matter nearly as much as the therapist's personality, and that, to some extent at least; therapists are "born" not "made." Lerners theory of social development Urbanization and human development Urbanization and human development There is a strong, positive link between national urbanization and national levels of human development. Urban population, as a share of total national population in both highly industrialized countries (HIC) and those countries with a high Human Development Index (HDI1) is above 70 percent. Urbanization falls to less than 30 percent in countries that are classified as Least Developed Countries (LDC) or have a low HDI. All HICs score high in their provision of urban services and infrastructure to all citizens and low in incidence of absolute poverty. Development and urbanization, thus, precede handingglove. Without substantial investment in the infrastructure and services that support both, neither can occur. The Human Development Index In their attempt to assess the progress of nations in pluralistic terms of human development, rather than a single-minded focus on economics (Sen 2000), the United Nations designed the Human Development Index (HDI),
The Human Development Index is based on three variables: life expectancy, per capita gross domestic and a combined educational indicator, consisting of adult literacy rates and primary, secondary and tertiary school enrollment rates. The Human Development Index has been criticised on a number of grounds: Failure to include any ecological considerations, focusing exclusively on national performance and ranking. Not paying much attention to development from a global perspective. Other authors claimed that the Human Development Reports "have lost touch with their original vision and the index fails to capture the essence of the world it seeks to portray". The index has also been criticized as "redundant" and a "reinvention of the wheel", measuring aspects of development that have already been exhaustively studied. The index has further been criticised for having an inappropriate treatment of income, lacking year-to-year comparability, and assessing development differently in different groups of countries.
Economist Bryan Caplan has criticised
the way HDI scores are produced; each of the three components is bounded between zero and one. As a result of that, rich countries effectively cannot improve their rating (and thus their ranking relative to other countries) in certain categories, even though there is a lot of scope for economic growth and longevity left. The HDI has data error in the underlying health, education and income statistics used to construct the HDI which can lead to severe misclassifications of countries in the categories of being a 'low', 'medium', 'high' or 'very high' human development country. The cut-off values seem arbitrary and have the potential to misguide politicians, investors, charity donators and the public at large towards a nation which uses the HDI. Moving toward urban-rural equilibrium
The current worldwide rate of urbanization (that is, the percentage rate, per year, that the urban share of total population is expanding) is about 0.8 percent, varying between about 1.6 percent for all African countries to about 0.3 percent for all HICs. Worldwide, nearly all cities continue to grow in absolute terms. The rates at which they are capturing a portion of a countrys total population, however, vary. In Asia and North America, cities are still taking in national population at an increasing rate, although the rate in North America is very low at 0.26 percent. In Africa, Europe and Latin America, urbanization rates are slowing. In Latin America, urbanization rates - now at about 0.5 percent have been slowing since 1950 when the average for all countries in the region was 1.8 percent per year. With the exception of the small island states of Oceania, that actually had negative urbanization rates since 1975 and are now moving into positive territory, rates of urbanization are projected to drop in all regions after 2015. Slowing urbanization rates mean that the combined rate of (1) domestic rural-tourban migration, (2) immigration of foreigners directly to cities and (3) the natural rate of population growth in cities is dropping Development after World War II After World War II a number of developing countries attained independence from their former colonial rulers. One of the common claims made by leaders of independence movements was that colonialism had been responsible for perpetuating low living standards in the colonies. Thus economic development after independence became an objective of policy not only because of the humanitarian desire to raise living standards but also because political promises had been made, and failure to make progress toward development would, it was feared, be interpreted as a failure of the independence movement. Developing countries in Latin America and elsewhere that had not been, or recently been, colonies took up the analogous belief that economic domination by the industrial countries had thwarted their development, and they, too, joined the quest for rapid growth. At that early period, theorizing about development, and about policies to attain development, accepted the assumption that the policies of the industrial countries were to blame for the poverty of the developing countries. Memories of the Great Depression, when developing countries
terms of trade had deteriorated markedly, producing sharp reductions in per capita incomes, haunted many policymakers. Finally, even in the developed countries, the Keynesian legacy attached great importance to investment. In this milieu, it was thought that a shortage of capital was the cause of underdevelopment. It followed that policy should aim at an accelerated rate of investment. Since most countries with low per capita incomes were also heavily agricultural (and imported most of the manufactured goods consumed domestically), it was thought that accelerated investment in industrialization and the development of manufacturing industries to supplant imports through import substitution was the path to development. Moreover, there was a fundamental distrust of markets, and a major role was therefore assigned to government in allocating investments. Distrust of markets extended especially to the international economy. Experience with development changed perceptions of the process and of the policies affecting it in important ways. Nonetheless, there are significant elements of truth in some of the earlier ideas, and it is important to understand the thinking underlying them. Alternative paradigm of Social development M.K Gandhi, E.F Schumacher Role of Traditional Media in Social Development Communication Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi Sarvodaya: It was the first ever concept of sustainable development developed by M K Gandhi. This means greatest good of all instead of greatest good of greates number. Antyodaya: Rise of the last. Gandhi wanted the socially backward class to rise. What he wanted? He wanted a self sufficient village economy where the villagers will be the independent economic units. Every village should be a self contained republic.
He encouraged use of eco friendly production technique by using lesser and lesser amount of fertilizers, insecticides and pesticides. He stressed on growth of the rural industries like khaadi handlooms, sericulture and handicrafts. CV Raman, Vishweshwara and Jawaharlal Nehru played a major role in forming industrial policies. They said, Industrialise and flourish. Gandhi opposed this and said, Industrialise and perish. This shows that he was totally against industrialisation which suppresses an individuals talent. In his context, large scale industries make people lazy and help concentration of wealth in the hands of few. On the contrary, rural industries are based on family labour and require less amount of capital. Raw materials are also collected from local markets and the goods thus produced are sold in the local markets. Therefore, there is no problem of production and market. Large scale production creates conflicts between labour and capital. Here, capital takes upper hand over labour. Such conflicts may not occur in the case of rural industries. Rural industries are the symbols of unity and equality. Concentration of large scale industries in few cities has led to a number of problems like: The major problem is the problem of over population in the industrialized areas. Rise in pollution in the air and water Large scale industries promoted monopolistic trends and unequal distribution of income. These industries are not related to a vast population living in rural areas. Rural industries on the other hand help in decentralization. How? The incomes generated in these industries get distributed among the workers and among a very large number of people. Industrialisation does not help the growth of the personality; contrarily it helps only the material progress of a few. Machines create a Pareto optimum situation in the sense that it improves the economic conditions of a few at the cost of many unfortunate rural people leaving them unemployed and exploited.
Solution given by Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi: The national income will increase if each and every person (whether skilled or unskilled) is employed fully. Thus, full employed of human resources is the basic need of a country. Self sufficient village economy is an alternative solution and in this context the role of institutions in the rural sector like the village panchayat and rural multi-purpose co-operative can play a vital role. This will be eco-friendly and hence, sustainable development. Apart from that he also gave solutions which had spiritual approach. He said each person should follow: Yama Ahimsa Asteya Brahmacharya Apagriha For the economy he suggested: Small scale industries to come up more Less machines and more man power Decentralisation Promotion of swadeshi goods For health he wanted people to get natural healing or natural medicines. Life style: Swavalamban: Self-reliance Sanyam: Self imposed control Voluntary simplicity: a lifestyle characterised by minimising the more is better pursuit of wealth and consumption. Adherents may choose simple living for a variety of personal reasons, such as spirituality, health. E.F Schumacher He was an economist who believed in small is beautiful. On his trip to third world countries he realised that Rogers modernisation model was not real. He worked on developing intermediate technology for development in the third world.
Appropriate Technology is technology that is designed with special consideration to the environmental, ethical, cultural, social and economical aspects of the community it is intended for. Appropriate technology requires: fewer resources easier to maintain lower overall cost less of an impact on the environment compared to industrialised practices He developed the set of principles he called Buddhist economics, based on the belief that individuals needed good work for proper human development. He proclaimed that production from local resources for local needs is the most rational way of economic life. He travelled throughout many third world countries, encourages local governments to create self-reliant economies. It led him to become the pioneer of what is now called appropriate technology: user friendly and ecologically suitable technology applicable to the scale of the community. Schumacher was one of the first economists to question the appropriateness of using GNP to measure human well being, emphasizing that the aim ought to be obtain the maximum amount of well being with the minimum amount of consumption. Todays technology is energy concentrated i.e. consumes more energy. Energy type is capital energy. This energy type is non-renewable and creates pollution. Schumachers philosophy is one of enoughness, appreciating human needs, limitations and appropriate use of technology. It grew out of his study of village based economics, which he later termed Buddhist economics. Why Appropriate Technology? It is advanced as compared to ancient technology but simple and economical as compared to the ultra modern technology. Self helping and uncomplicated Such, technology is complimentary to the human hands and brains to enhance the productivity.
It is needed to be implemented in the rural areas to give work to every individual. 4. Role of Traditional Media in Social Development Communication The role of communication has been very significant since the beginning of history. With the development of science and technology, the forms and way of communication have become more specialized. In a country like India, so vast and varied, modern mass media alone does not constitute the sum total of communication channels. We have T.V., newspaper, internet etc. But the millions of people in rural areas have no regular access to such mass media due to poverty and illiteracy. With 35 per cent of the population unlettered and with the media's reach largely restricted to urban areas-information; education & entertainment do not reach a large majority of the people. Our society is characterized by a complex social system with different caste, classes, creeds, and tribes. The high rate of illiteracy and poverty added to the inadequacy of the mass media to reach almost 700 million people who reside in village. To them, the mass media proved to be glamorous, impersonal and unbelievable in comparison with the familiar performance of traditional artist whom the villagers could not only see and hear but even touch emotionally. The traditional media can be used to reach these people in the process of change and development of the country. Traditional folk media have a remarkable impact on rural society because of their acceptable idioms, functional significance and entertainment component. Folk media can overcome the difficulty of language, speech, words and other barriers of communication like, interest, understanding, interpretation, attitude and perception. Traditional folk media are the most important vehicle of social change. While a lot of modification may be needed to convey social as well as agricultural messages, traditional media will easily carry social issue related to the rural development. Today, both the traditional and modern media are complementing each other. Therefore, we need to keep our traditional media alive by continuously and cautiously, as well as possible with the modern media. These traditional media will not only help in the development activities, but will also help in preserving
and transmitting our culture, tradition and values to the next generation. 5. Dynamics of development Development for whom: Brazil or China? Studies suggest that increasing development does not lead to decreasing poverty With development, some nations or individuals benefit, their std of living rise; But for the majority of nations or peoples in them it is continued poverty (Dasgupta, 1982) Brazil: In 1965 (the year after the military took over) GNP growth rate was 3.9% In 1972 it reached 11.3% Between 1964 and 1970, GNP increased 52% Industrial production increased 69% Who gained from the phenomenal growth? Employment? Between the censuses of 1960 and 1970 the percentage of labour force in employment declined from 32.3% to 31.7% (Does not match the economic miracle: Berger, 1976). Who gained from the phenomenal growth? Share of national income? Share of top 5 % of the people went up from 29 % to 38 % (Berger, 1976) Weaver and Jameson: Top 5 million people were receiving as much of the national income as the bottom 90 million Conclusion:
Economic condition of the poor declined not just in relative terms, but also in absolute terms. For a large number of people in Brazil, the development process had further underdeveloped them. China: Development paradigms and standards are set which are mandatory and binding on every citizen. Limited information available No starvation PQLI has significantly improved Everyone has a job Basic necessities are taken care of Impressive, isnt it? Now, let us look at the Human cost: Chu (1987) and Berger (1976): People killed numbered 1 million to 5 million Physical suffering between 3 million and 4 million during the Land reform movement (1951-52), Suppression of Counterrevolutionaries Movement (1951), Thought Reform Movement (1951-52), Elimination of Counter-revolutionaries Movement (1955), Great Leap Forward (1958), Cultural Revolution (1966-68). More to eat today than in 1949: this is because there are fewer mouths to feed. Policy-maker and Theory-maker Blaming the victim: Focused on the victims origin. They criticize the social stresses that produced such defects, but turn a blind eye to the onslaught of the victimizing social forces Social Darwinism - Herbert Spenser and William Sumner:
Any state-enforced effort to achieve equality, even equality of opportunity an anathema coz Evolution depended for its force on inequality Culture of poverty recycled: Recall Lerner: The reason for underdevelopment were thought to be the social psychological make-up of individuals The traditional culture of peasants in the Third World Myths of subcultures: Poor or the peasants are so different from mainstream that they constitute separate and distinct subcultures Studies to test empirically the hypothesis on differences in values, attitudes, and priorities between different class groups These surveys have shown that there is no significant difference (Morgan, et al, 1974) A false reality is presumed to be objective and scientific Reality constructed from information Communication systems are manipulated in all politico-economic systems, be it totalitarian, communist, dictatorial,, religious, capitalist free Used to depict the reality of the central political and/or powerful corporate interests. Developing Countries and the Concept of Development: The low standard of living of the mass of the population in developing countries is a key issue in development. The development of per capita income over time and the factors that influence economic development or stagnation are important. However, the interplay between economic and non-economic factors is also of great importance for our understanding of the dynamics of socio-economic development. Economic growth cannot be explained by economic factors only, and the
concept of development includes more than mere changes in economic indicators. Development of the International Economical Order, 1450-2000: The differences in income levels, which characterise the present-day international economic order, are not self-evident. In the past these differences used to be much smaller. Around 1450 by far the greater part of world population was employed in agriculture. Although some countries were richer than others, most people across the world lived close to subsistence levels. The distribution of world income by region was relatively equal. In the long run, growth accelerated in one part of the world, while the disparity of income levels increased dramatically. Growth and Stagnation: There has been long-run divergence in the world economy. Some economies have moved ahead and others have fallen far behind. Former colonies such as the USA, Canada and New Zealand or Asian economies such as Japan, Singapore and Korea moved up the income ladder. Other countries such as Argentina, the Ottoman Empire and the Russian Federation slipped downward. Technological change: Technological change is one of the important sources of growth and development. Technological change is one of the key issues in the study of development. Two main questions are raised: a. To what extent is technological change really one of the driving forces in growth and development? b. What are the consequences of accelerating global technological change for developing countries? Does technological change constitute a threat to their chances for development? Does technological change offer new opportunities for development? Population growth: Malthusian perspectives, argue that population growth is a threat to sustainable development are contrasted with more optimistic assessments which indicate that technological change has the potential to outpace the growth of population.
Health and education: Health and education are important aspects of development. They belong to the basic needs every development strategy tries to meet. Improving the state of health and the level of education also contributes to the realisation of other developmental objectives such as economic development, labour productivity growth, responsiveness to innovation, and future orientation. From the perspective of economic development, investments in education and health care can be regarded as investments in human capital. In turn, economic development can contribute to improvements in health and education. Education is one of the basic human rights and a developmental goal in its own right. Education also contributes to the realisation of other important developmental goals, such as economic growth, changes in attitudes, development of political consciousness and increased social mobility. After World War II, expansion and improvement of education were generally considered as essential to development. Since the 1970s, optimism about the contributions of education has been shaken and more emphasis is given to improving the quality of education. Not all investment in education proved beneficial to development. Resources were often insufficient and the quality of education was disappointing. Economic development: Economic development is linked to structural change and the emergence of the industrial sector. The role of primary exports in development is crucial. There are export pessimists who focus on the drawbacks of primary exports and optimists who see primary exports as a potential engine of growth. Industrialisation: There have been changes in industrialisation experiences and industrialisation strategies in developing countries, since 1945. There were inward-looking industrialisation strategies in the post-war period. As time passed, the shortcomings of the post-war approaches became more apparent. Alternatives arose such as unbalanced growth, the
balanced growth path approach, encouraging small scale and informal enterprises and export-oriented industrialisation. In the export-oriented industrialisation, the roles of multinational enterprises and the emergence of global production chains are vital. Agriculture and Rural development: Green revolution and biotechnology have played a significant role in the development of agriculture. These have addressed issues of food consumption and malnutrition. Rural development is a broader concept than agricultural development. First, various non-agricultural economic activities take place in rural areas. Second, rural development refers to the transformation of rural society as a whole, rather than only to the economic aspects of rural life. Political and economic development: Political and economic developments are closely interconnected. Political instability and ethnic conflict can be a major obstacle to economic development. The characteristics of political systems and political developments largely determine the course of economic as well as social development. Social and Cultural development: Development is not limited to the economic sphere. It also involves a broad range of social changes. An important dimension of development is cultural change. We cannot study economic developments in isolation, but also have to take into account cultural aspects such as attitudes, religious precepts, life styles, identities, and values. Culture as a dimension of development is extremely important. It is also hard to define, as many different things can be classified under the heading of culture: culture as art, identity, religion, language, nationalism, attitudes, institutions, material artifacts and so forth. International economic orders: International economic orders are characterised by typical patterns of flows of goods and services, financial capital, people and knowledge. Other characteristics include the intensity of relationships between economies and the institutional structure of these relationships.
Developments in the international order have been significant for developing countries, since 1945. In addition to the economic aspects of the post-war international economic order, the political and institutional aspects of the international order such as the international balance of power, the role of international organisations such as the United Nations, the World Bank and the IMF and important international conventions and treaties have been important for developing nations. However, there have been debates concerning the advantages and dangers of globalization. Foreign aid: Under certain conditions foreign aid may contribute to an acceleration of growth and development, but in itself cannot transform processes of stagnation into dynamic processes of development. Until the 1990s, the desirability of development aid was not questioned in the political debate. Although there has been a lively debate on the effectiveness of aid flows, development aid was supported by political parties across the political spectrum and by the general public. In the early 1990s the consensus started to unravel. This manifested itself in a substantial decline in the real value of aid flows and a renewed urgency of the debates on the desirability and effectiveness of aid.
6.
Dysfunctions of Development
No Proper Coordination: i. ii. iii. Peoples participation Local Leadership Effective Development Administration
The Affordances (i.e. an action that an individual can potentially perform in his or her environment) of the social system resulted in weak local leadership, ineffective functionaries in the development bureaucracy and masses who remained dependent. Result: i. ii. iii. Partial Development Communication strategies successful in one part is inappropriate for another part Rural and urban social structures differ
The communication strategies that do not fit the local community are themselves a source of discontent. It is true that the planners and the administrators have the opportunity to initiate change, as they have the material resources and more importantly cognitive flexibility acquired through education and exposure to other cultures; they fail to establish rapport among themselves, the development agents and developing masses. Other serious concerns: i. ii. Discontent and personal inefficacy Constant discontent leading to withdrawal from participation
Discontent is a natural symptom of healthy development and not an unnatural associate of problems There is no magic formula solution to do away with discontent But there are ways of coping with discontent To see discontent as inevitable to development The discontent with development is more bearable. Inequality: Its evident within-country inequality is back on the radar of some of the major international organisations including UNICEF and UNDP who are leading the wider UN body but, perhaps surprisingly, also the World Economic Forum and the International Monetary Fund. The basic case is as follows: inequality matters because high inequality can inhibit growth, discourage institutional development towards an accountable government and undermine civic and social life leading to conflict especially in multi-ethnic settings. Five years ago the World Banks World Development Report on inequalities was important in that it opened a wider debate on the interaction between types of inequality and how inequality reproduces itself across generations as a result of inequality traps or persistent
differences in power, wealth and status between socio-economic groups that are sustained over time by economic, political and socio-cultural mechanisms and institutions. Gender inequalities have held back economic growth and health inequalities impede growth. Recently, the IMF too published a paper by Berg and Osty outlining how high inequality impedes the sustainability of growth spells. High inequality has also been linked to fragility and conflict. The great majority of regions and countries have a relatively similar distribution of income inequality because countries with low inequality at the outset (1985) have got more unequal and countries with highinequality have got slightly more equal. The middle classes generally get half of the economic pie wherever you look and the middle classes are incredibly successful about protecting their half. Politics is increasingly a fight for the remaining half between the richest 10% and poorest 40% meaning the other half of the distribution is increasingly up for grabs between the very rich and the very poor and who can win over the middle classes. 7. Development Communication Development Communication has been alternatively defined as a type of marketing and public opinion research that is used specifically to develop effective communication or as the use of communication to promote social development. Defined as the former, it often includes computerized linguistics analysis of verbatim responses to qualitative survey interviews and may, at times also involved consumer psychological "right brain" (emotional) research techniques. Defined at the latter, it refers to the practice of systematically applying the processes, strategies, and principles of communication to bring about positive social change. As most providers of "communication development" research use proprietary approaches that cannot be elaborated upon without revealing proprietary trade secrets, the remainder of this article describes the latter definition.The practice of development communication can be traced back to efforts undertaken in various parts of the world during the 1940s, but the widespread application of the concept came about because of the problems that arose in the aftermath of World War II. The rise of the communication sciences in the 1950s saw recognition of the field as an academic discipline, with Daniel Lerner, Wilbur Schramm, and Everett Rogers being the earliest
influential advocates. The term "Development Communication" was first coined in 1972 by Nora C. Quebral, who defines the field as "The art and science of human communication linked to a society's planned transformation from a state of poverty to one of dynamic socio-economic growth that makes for greater equity and the larger unfolding of individual potential." The theory and practice of development communication continues to evolve today, with different approaches and perspectives unique to the varied development contexts the field has grown in. Development communication is characterized by conceptual flexibility and diversity of communication techniques used to address the problem. Some approaches in the tool kit of the field include: information dissemination and education, behavior change, social marketing, social mobilization, media advocacy, communication for social change, and participatory development communication. Concept: What is Development Communication? Development communication is the integration of strategic communication in development projects. Strategic communication is a powerful tool that can improve the chances of success of development projects. It strives for behavior change not just information dissemination, education, or awareness-raising. While the latter are necessary ingredients of communication, they are not sufficient for getting people to change longestablished practices or behaviors. All development requires some kind of behavior change on the part of stakeholders. Research shows that changing knowledge and attitudes does not necessarily translate into behavior change. In order to effect behavior change, it is necessary to understand why people do what they do and understand the barriers to change or adopting new practices. It is not enough to raise awareness of the "benefits", it is critical to understand peoples' barriers or the "costs" they perceive such a change would entail. Meaningful communication is about getting information out to particular audiences, listening to their feedback, and responding appropriately. Whether discussing a development project or broader economic reforms from health, education or rural development to
private sector development, financial reform or judicial reform the idea is to build consensus through raising public understanding and generating well-informed dialogue among stakeholders. Well-conceived, professionally implemented communication programs that are tied directly to reform efforts or development project objectives that bring understanding of local political, social and cultural realities to bear in the design of development programs can make the difference between a project's success and failure. The Development Communication Division supports the Bank's mission of reducing poverty by providing clients with strategic communication advice and tools they need to develop and implement successful projects and propoor reform efforts. Development communication involves creating mechanisms to broaden public access to information on reforms; strengthening clients' ability to listen to their constituencies and negotiate with stakeholders; empowering grassroots organizations to achieve a more participatory process; and undertaking communications activities t hat are grounded in public opinion research. Prerequisites for Development During the past decade good governance has become central to the World Banks mission of poverty alleviation, as a result of mounting evidence of the links between good governance and growth. Partnering with the rest of the World Bank Group, with outside organizations, and with the many stakeholders within client countries, WBI has developed an integrated approach to capacity development, governance, and anticorruption that emphasizes rigorous empirical diagnostics and analysis, policy advisory services, collective action, and knowledge products. The Governance Program Team applies action-learning methods to link empirical diagnostic surveys, their practical application, and collective action and learning at the local level. Key components of the approach are empirical analysis, learning programs, country specific action programs, and follow-up activities. The analytical component comprises three levels of data collection and analysis for targeted action planning and capacity development: A macro-level component, for an initial vulnerability assessment based on WBIs Worldwide Governance Indicators Database and Analysis, which covers more than 200 countries since 1996
A meso-level component, for a quantitative evaluation of the business climate in more than 100 countries A micro-level component, for action planning and specific capacity development based on in-depth diagnostic surveys of governance administered to a representative sample of public officials, business people, and users of public services. Several of WBIs programs take a global perspective while also delivering activities tailored to country needs. These multidisciplinary programs collect and analyze data on specific countries, presenting it in forms that are used worldwide. WBIs two largest global programs are Governance and Knowledge for Development (K4D). The first gathers data on governance, corruption, security threats, and rule of law, voice, ethics, and human rights. The second studies the state of the knowledge economy in the countries of the world. Learning programs focus on developing capacity to gather statistics related to governance, the effective use of public resources, the nexus between the public and private sectors, the role of youth in promoting good governance, media development and accountability, anti-money laundering, parliamentary oversight, and legal and judicial reform. Action programs are formulated by country, building on WBIs participatory learning programs and followed by presentations of findings and discussion of draft action programs at national or regional workshops. Follow-up activities are undertaken in collaboration with World Bank units and other donors. WBIs governance indicators and in-country databases provide an institutional map to policymakers and practitioners striving to design reforms and monitor policy progress around the world. Governance and corruption can now be measured, monitored, and analyzed at an aggregate international comparative level and at a much more disaggregated and in-depth country level. The governance indicators make it possible to evaluate the quality of a countrys governance along six dimensions: Voice and external accountability Political stability and lack of major violence and terrorism Government effectiveness Quality of the regulatory framework Rule of law Control of corruption. These aggregated indicators which are available for the years 1996 to 2004 make it possible to track changes and trends in governance, as shown
in figure 6. Coupled with the trend toward voice and democratic accountability in many countries, these tools and indicators empower reformists in government and civil society. But more work is needed to improve citizens participation so as to make their voice more effective and to promote transparency related reforms in public institutions. Mechanisms for collective action need to be deepened, engaging the private sector, parliaments, civil society, and the judiciary. More effective cross-border collaboration is also needed, including addressing the challenge of bribery by some multinationals. Practitioners and policymakers stand today at a crossroads on governance issues. On the one hand, new initiatives signal an increased commitment to better governance. Progress is possible at the country level, as shown in Botswana, Chile, and Slovenia, and at the project level, as exemplified by the citizens report card developed in Bangalore, India, and expenditure tracking surveys in Uganda, which have led to a reduction in budgetary leakages. On the other hand, the sobering reality supported by WBIs databases is that each success is matched by inaction or deterioration elsewhere. For example, the variation in performance across countries, cities, and institutions in controlling corruption is enormous. An important lesson from the past is that efforts to improve governance cannot be sustained without the involvement of key segments of civil society, the media, parliament, the judiciary, and the private sector through democratic accountability mechanisms. WBIs governance indicators and recently collected data on human rights suggest that countries that restrict freedom of the press, citizens rights, and voice and participation are unlikely to be able to reduce corruption. Recent strides in governance-related matters include new empirical research on transparency. The links between political structures and the private elite are a vital area in governance reform to ensure openness and competition and avoid capture of state institutions by monopolistic vested interests. Such undue influence by some conglomerates affects political structures. To respond to these challenges WBI continues its meso-level work on multi-country enterprise surveys. These empirical tools make it possible to analyze recent developments in institutional quality, performance, and constraints in the public and private sectors from the firms perspective. Development and implementation of in-depth diagnostic tools in many countries by the World Bank in partnership with bilateral agencies and non-governmental organizations has furthered our understanding of the governance challenge at the local level. In the past year, countries have
included Guinea, Guatemala, Mozambique, and Zambia. It has also allowed WBI to begin thinking about cross-sectoral issues, such as the impact and costs of poor governance and corruption in the social sectors. Monitoring governance and its impact on poverty alleviation requires a multidisciplinary national capacity, both human and institutional, which is weak in many developing countries. To address this challenge, WBI has developed an innovative learning program to strengthen the statistical and analytical capacity of selected developing countries. The program, already offered in Latin America, targets policymakers and staff from national statistical agencies and provides a general framework to assess governance by: Promoting a better understanding of how good governance can be measured and monitored Familiarizing statisticians and policymakers with existing diagnostic tools, monitoring systems and statistical approaches used by the World Bank and other policy institutions Helping participants select an appropriate diagnostic tool for indepth governance and corruption assessments in their countries Introducing alternative approaches to data collection and policy design, focusing in particular on in-depth diagnostic tools and analysis of survey data. 8. Indian Models of Development At the core: Socialism Planned economy Influenced by Gandhian thought Cooperative movement: an offshoot of socialism Socialism Two broad meaning: 1. Collective ownership of the forces of production, either through worker cooperatives or state-run business On the decline the world over 2. Society should be organised, as reflected in public assistance and works, programmes and projects of all sorts, and
Significant sovereign collective involvement in the lives of the people
Historically, two ways of rapid economic growth: Capitalism Communism Developing nations: Middle way Label attached: Socialism Represents ideal of social justice Raise the poor masses to a higher level and narrow the gap between the small upper class of the privileged and the vast mass of the impoverished. In tribal organisation of the society: Julius Nyerere: The foundation and the objective of African Socialism is the extended family. The true African socialist does not look on one class of men as his brethren and another as his natural enemies. He does not form an alliance with the brethren for the extermination of the non-brethren. He rather regards all men as his brethren as members of his ever extending family. (Julius Nyerere, Ujamaa: The Basis of African Socialism, 1962) In India: Indira Gandhi: What we all want is a better life, with more food, employment, and opportunity in conditions of economic justice, equality, and with individual freedom. The term often stands for non-alignment The fundamental division of the world not political but economic. Nyerere: Developing countries should guard against being used by the rich nations as their tools. The third meaning: Emphasis on planning Economic growth looked at with a sense of urgency Basic elements of modern economy -- highways, means of transportation, hospitals, housing, schools cannot attract private enterprise
Example of steel manufacturing The difference in meaning of socialism: Historical reasons. In the wealthier countries of the west: Socialism meant not to industrialise an undeveloped economy, but to distribute the fruits of a wealthy society, The concept of welfare state has virtually absorbed the idea of socialism In the developing countries, fruits of the industrial economy hardly exists, Socialism is confronted with the task of building an industrial economy so as to raise the economic and educational level of the masses. Socialism in western countries generally developed within a framework of established constitutional government Socialism in developing countries often evolves with authoritarian rule by imperialist or native power holder Socialism in developing countries show greater tolerance for authoritarian practices than in western socialism Socialim vs Communism Communisms three absolutes: Capitalism Revolution Communist dictatorship Socialisms three relative concepts: Predominantly capitalist economy A period of gradual change A predominantly socialised society Planned economy Planning Commission Inspired by the Communist Russia Importance: Headed by the prime minister
Determines the thrust areas, and allocates resources accordingly Agriculture, industrialisation have predominantly been in focus Nehruvian economy: Centralised, large-scale, heavy industry Cooperative movement An offshoot of socialist movement Tribhuvandas Patel Verghese Kurien Very powerful and potent in some southern states, specially AP, and western India, Gujarat and Maharashtra Gandhian influences Predominantly rural and agrarian society Hence, rural development at the core Socio-political front: Gram swaraj (local self-governance)Industrial front Swadeshi Dignity of labour Trusteeship Gram Swaraj: Gram swaraj should be understood and viewed within the context of the twin beacons of Truth and nonviolence. Put simply, every village should be its own republic, "independent of its neighbours for its own vital wants and yet interdependent for many others in which dependence is necessary. Making provision for all necessities of life - food, clothing, clean water, sanitation, housing, education and so on, including government and selfdefence, and all socially useful amenities required by a community. Socially useful amenities might include a theatre and public hall, for example. For India as a whole, full independence would mean that every village would be a republic with full powers. Then, as now, these were revolutionary ideas. When the world talked of top-down development model, Gandhi proposed bottom up! Top political leadership never gave serious thought to it. It was never incorporated in the Constitution.
To Gandhi, political and industrial life should be focused on villages organised as countless oceanic circles, not as a pyramid with the millions of villagers at the bottom supporting an elite at the apex. However, Nehru and the others of the elite - though all great patriots - were quite comfortable with their positions at the top. Swadeshi: Simply put swadeshi is home economy People outside India know of Gandhi's campaigns to end British colonialism, but this was only a small part of his struggle. Greater part of Gandhis work was to renew India's vitality and regenerate its culture. Gandhi was not interested simply in exchanging rule by imperialist power for rule by natives. He wanted the government to surrender much of its power to local villages. Maximum economic and political power - including the power to decide what could be imported into or exported from the village - would remain in the hands of the village assemblies. Whatever is made or produced in the village must be used first and foremost by the members of the village. Trading among villages and between villages and towns should be minimal, like icing on the cake. Goods and services that cannot be generated within the community can be bought from elsewhere. Avoid economic dependence on external market forces that could make the village community vulnerable. It also avoids unnecessary, unhealthy, wasteful, and therefore environmentally destructive transportation. The village must build a strong economic base to satisfy most of its needs, All members of the village community should give priority to local goods and services. The British believed in centralized, industrialized, and mechanized modes of production. Gandhi turned this principle on its head and envisioned a decentralized, home-grown, hand-crafted mode of production. In other words, "Not mass production, but production by the masses. By adopting the principle of production by the masses, village communities would be able to restore dignity to the work done by human hands Swadeshi is the way to comprehensive peace: peace with oneself, peace between peoples, and peace with nature.
Global economy drives people towards high performance, high achievement, and high ambition for materialistic success. This results in stress, loss of meaning, loss of inner peace, loss of space for personal and family relationships, and loss of spiritual life. Gandhi realized that in the past, life in India was not only prosperous but also conducive to philosophical and spiritual development. Swadeshi for Gandhi was the spiritual imperative. I have never considered the exclusion of everything foreign under every conceivable circumstance as a part of Swadeshi. The broad definition of Swadeshi is the use of all home-made things to the exclusion of foreign things, in so far as such use is necessary for the protection of home industry, more especially those industries without which India will become pauperized. In my opinion, therefore, Swadeshi which excludes the use of everything foreign, no matter how beneficial it may be, and irrespective of the fact that it impoverishes nobody, is a narrow interpretation of Swadeshi. (Young India, 17-6-1926, p. 218) Trusteeship Economic equality is the master key to nonviolent independence. Working for economic equality means abolishing the eternal conflict between capital and labour. It means the levelling down of the few rich in whose hands is concentrated the bulk of the nations wealth on the one hand, and the levelling up of the semi-starved naked millions on the other. Trusteeship invites the capitalist to regard herself/himself as a trustee for those on whom s/he depends for the making, the retention and the increase of her/his capital. If capital is power, so is work. Either is dependent on the other. Immediately the worker realizes his strength, he is in a position to become a co-sharer with the capitalist instead of remaining his slave. Supposing I have come by a fair amount of wealtheither by way of legacy, or by means of trade and industryI must know that all that wealth does not belong to me; what belongs to me is the right to an honourable livelihood, no better than that enjoyed by millions of others. The rest of my wealth belongs to the community and must be used for the welfare of the community I enunciated this theory when the socialist theory was placed before the country in respect to the possessions held by zamindars and ruling chiefs. They would do away with these privileged classes. I want them to outgrow their greed and sense of possession, and to come down in spite of their wealth to the level of those who earn their bread by labour. The labourer
has to realize that the wealthy man is less owner of his wealth than the labourer is owner of his own, viz., the power to work. In concrete form, the trusteeship formula reads as follows: (i) Trusteeship provides a means of transforming the present capitalist order of society into an egalitarian one. It gives no quarter to capitalism, but gives the present owning class a chance to reform itself. It is based on the faith that human nature is never beyond redemption. (ii) It does not recognise any right of private ownership of property except so far as it may be permitted by society for its own welfare. (iii) It does not exclude legislation of the ownership and use of wealth. (iv) Thus under state regulated trusteeship, an individual will not be free to hold or use his wealth for selfish satisfaction in disregard to the interests of society. (v) Just as it is proposed to give a decent minimum living wage, a limit should be fixed for the maximum income that would be allowed to any person in society. The difference between such minimum and maximum incomes should be reasonable and equitable and variable from time to time, so much so that the tenancy would be towards the obliteration of the difference. (vi) Under the Gandhian economic order, the character of production will be determined by social necessity and not by personal greed. The theory of trusteeship applies equally to both tangible and intangible property, "such as the muscular energy of the labourers and the talents of a Helen Keller" (K.G. Mashurwala, Gandhi and Marx, Navajivan Trust, Ahmedabad, 1951, p. 79). Cooperative movement Around the world modern cooperatives have developed for over 200 years. Cooperative philosophy originated with revolutionary writings and activities of Robert Owen and Charles Fourier. In 90 countries of the world, more than 700 million individuals are members of cooperative institutions. Globally, cooperatives have elevated its position as a powerful economic model. In some countries they are a sizeable force within the national economy. In India, the movement basically organized against the exploitation of unscrupulous money-lenders.
Cooperative movement in India India: Cooperative Society Act in 1904 Inspired by Raiffersen model of German agricultural credit cooperatives Currently an estimated 230 million members nationwide Cooperatives have advanced more credit in the Indian agricultural sector than commercial banks Some achievements In fertiliser production and distribution the IFFCO commands more than 35 per cent of the market. In the production of sugar the cooperative share of the market is more than 58 per cent In the marketing and distribution of cotton they have a share of around 60 per cent. Cooperatives accounts for 55 percent of the looms in the handweaving sector. Cooperatives process, market and distribute 50 percent of edible oils. Dairy cooperatives operating under the leadership of the NDDB and through 15 state cooperative milk marketing federations has now become the largest producer of milk in the world! Reforms Co-operative societies in India in fact are playing multi-functional roles both in rural and urban areas. Changes in 1912: Other than credit Changes in 1942: Multi-unit societies An Expert Group constituted by the GoI in 1990 recommended to i) facilitate building up of integrated co-operative structure; ii) make the co-operative organizations responsive towards their members; iii) minimize government interference and control in the functioning of cooperatives; iv) eliminate politicization of the co-operative sector. Based on the recommendations, Centre enacted the Multi State Cooperative Societies Act, 2002 It provided for democratic and autonomous working of the cooperatives, which came into force with effect from August 19, 2002. Impact on socio-economic life Cooperation in a vast country like India is of great significance because:
It is an organization for the poor, and often illiterate and unskilled people It is an institution of mutual help and sharing It softens the class conflicts and reduces the social cleavages It reduces the bureaucratic evils and follies of political factions It overcomes the constraints of agricultural development It creates conducive environment for small and cottage industries The share of Co-operatives in National economy is as follows : Rural Network (villages covered) - 100% Agricultural credit disbursed - 46.15% Fertilizer disbursed (6.049 million tonnes) - 36.22% Fertilizer production (3.293 M.T. - N&P) Nutrient - 27.65% Sugar produced (10.400 million tonnes) - 59.0% Capacity Utilization of Sugar Mills - 111.5% Wheat Procurement (4.50 million toones) - 31.8% Animal Feed Production/Supply - 50% Retail Fair Price Shops (Rural + Urban) - 22% Milk Procurement to Total Production - 7.44% Milk Procurement to Marketable surplus - 10.5% Icecream Manufacture - 45% Oil Marketed (Branded) - 50% Cotton yarn/Fabrics Production - 23.0% Handlooms in Co-operatives - 55.0% Fishermen in Co-operatives (Active) - 21% Storage Facility (Village level PACS) - 65.0% Rubber processed and marketed - 95.0% Arecanut processed and marketed - 50% Direct employment generated - 1.07 million Self-Employment generated for persons - 14.39 million Salt Manufactured (18,266 metric tonnes) - 7.6% The statistics here indicates that modern cooperative movement has made tremendous progress in every walk of its activities and occupies a major place in the share of the national economy. Causes of slow progress Government interference Mismanagement and manipulation Lack of awareness Restricted function (single purpose) Functional weakness
Why cooperatives? Market is never friendly to the poor people or backward regions. It creates sharp regional imbalance. It has created a dangerous process of marginalization and contractualisation (Das 1993). Any development route which bypasses the rural people of India is unlikely to be sustainable. Neither private sector nor public sector shall promote social welfare. (Exceptions are there only to prove the rule) The cooperatives have inherent advantages in tackling the problems of poverty alleviation, food security and employment generation. Cooperatives have immense potential to deliver goods and services in areas where both the state and the private sector have failed. 9. Approaches to Development Communication The field of development communication is dominated by two conceptual models: diffusion and participation. These models have distinct intellectual roots and differing emphases in terms of program designs and goals. Diffusion model Definition of communication: information transfer - vertical Definition of development communication: information dissemination via mass media Problem: lack of information Solution: information transfer: Knowledge Attitudes Practice Goal: outcome oriented: behavior change Frameworks: Types of interventions Modernization Social marketing Diffusion of innovations Entertainment-education Participatory model Definition of communication: information exchange/dialogue - horizontal
Definition of development communication: grassroots participation via group interaction Problem: structural inequalities/local knowledge ignored Solution: information exchange/ participation Goal: process-oriented: empowerment, equity, community Frameworks: Types of interventions Social change/praxis (Freire) Empowerment education Social mobilization/activism Participatory Action Research (PAR) Rapid Participatory Appraisal (RPA) Community Involvement in Health (CIH) The diffusion model, derived from Everett Rogerss (1962) diffusion of innovations theory, regards behavior change as the goal of a communications campaign, and views the purpose of communication campaigns as to persuade individuals to change their behavior by providing them information. The standard formulation of this model is Knowledge/Attitudes/ Practice, or KAP: information provides Knowledge, which leads to a change in Attitudes, which in turn leads to Practice the desired behavior change. Within the diffusion model fall such activities as entertainment-education and social marketing. The participatory model emerged in part as a reaction to the underlying assumptions of the diffusion model (Waisbord 2000: 17). It holds that development communication is not a vertical process of information transmission from the knowledgeable to the less- knowledgeable, but rather a horizontal process of information exchange and interaction. Proponents of this approach stress the model of empowerment adopted from the work of Brazilian educator Paulo Freire (1970). This model posits that the purpose of development is to empower people to have greater control over decisions that affect them and in this way to foster equity and democratic practices. In its purest form, the participatory approach sees development interventions less as means to an end than as offering ends in themselves: the emphasis is not on outcomes but on processes.
People are regarded as agents rather than objects; capable of analysing their own situations and designing their own solutions (Cornwall 1995: 1670). Many participatory health researchers cite as a guiding principle the 1978 World Health Organization Declaration of Alma Ata which states the people have the right and duty to participate individually and collectively in the planning and implementation of their health care. The essence of the participatory approach lies in working with community members to determine their needs and design programs to address them, rather than imposing an intervention from above. Community participation can extend from the formative research phase through program planning and execution to evaluation of the program (Cornwall and Jewkes 1995; Roe et al. 1997). Such activities as empowering evaluation (Roe et al.), empowerment education (Wallerstein, Sanchez-Merki and Dow 1997: 196), participatory learning (Laverack et al. 1997), Participatory Action Research (PAR), Community Involvement in Health (CIH), and Rapid Participatory Appraisal (RPA) fall into the participatory communication category. Although participatory communication is often defined in contrast to the more traditional diffusion model, the two are not polar opposites. As Waisbord (2000: 5) explains, the diffusion model has evolved in a participatory direction since its initial formulation. Further, participatory projects necessarily involve some element of information transfer. Nonetheless, most development communication projects tend to identify themselves quite clearly as belonging in one or the other camp. The extension approach uses the extension teaching methods for educating the people. It believes that the extension service can transform static economy into a dynamic economy. While improving the quality of family and community life, it emphasis the communication of information about innovative technical practices. It is mostly followed in America and Asia today and is referred to as the conventional or classical model of extension. This model was prepared by the Professors of the Land Grant Colleges who sought to make agricultural extension a separate scientific profession with its basic concepts, theory, principles and methodologies. The disciples who propagated this idea are the Americans and those who studied in the
American Universities. They helped to establish this model in developing countries. Objectives: 1. The main objective is to persuade and help farmers in increasing agricultural production by adopting improved agricultural practices. 2. It also aimed at improving the rural family life be educated the women and youth in the rural family life by educating the village people. Mass Media Approach Rural radio Radio remains the most powerful, and yet the cheapest, mass medium for reaching large numbers of people in isolated areas. Thanks to the revolution of the transistor, even the remotest villages have access to rural radio, which builds on the oral tradition of rural populations. Although men own the majority of radio receivers, women can listen to programmes at home in the evenings when the main chores of the day are finished. Radio is an important tool for the rapid diffusion of important messages on new agricultural production ideas and techniques as well as on health, nutrition, family planning and other social and cultural issues. Combined with other media, it can be used for training and the transfer of technologies. It can promote dialogue and debate on the major issues of rural development as well as providing a platform for the expression of rural women's needs, opinions and aspirations. Radio enables women to voice their concerns and speak about their aspirations with external partners such as national policy-makers and development planners. Finally, radio is a tool that can be used to develop community cohesion and solidarity. Community involvement is fundamental for the successful use of radio with rural populations. Radio programmes are most effective when produced with audience participation, in local languages and with consideration for cultural traditions. Successful features include live public shows, quizzes and village debates.
Community-based radio Democratization, pluralism and deregulation policies adopted in many developing countries, together with the decreasing cost of FM transmitters, have favoured the proliferation of local community radio stations. In Mali alone there are more than 75 radio stations, established by private individuals, associations, local communities and commercial, religious and political organizations. Community stations treat issues concerning the everyday life of their listeners and also promote local development. They are an important channel for the motivation and education of women and they raise consciousness of gender issues as well as informing women about their rights. They offer rural women the opportunity to use the microphone to talk about the issues that interest them and they play women's music that is seldom heard elsewhere. More and more women are receiving training in the programming and management of communitybased radio stations so that the programmes can reflect their real needs. Integrated Approach The guiding philosophy of communication for social change can readily be traced to the work of Paulo Freire (1970), the Brazilian educator who conceived of communication as dialogue and participation for the purpose of creating cultural identity, trust, commitment, ownership and empowerment (in todays term).The proposed model builds on this principle and a broad literature on development communication developed by practitioners, communication activists and scholars (such as Beltrn, Daz Bordenave, Calvelo, Shirley White, Prieto Castillo, Everett Rogers, Mata, Simpson, Servaes, Portales and Kincaid), as well as on theories of communication, dialogue and conflict resolution. In bringing together the work of practitioners and scholars we have found that there is considerable agreement on the role of communication in development even though at various times over the last 30 years the two groups have diverged. In this sense, special recognition should be given to the practitioners convened by the Rockefeller initiative for reigniting the dialogue and reexamination of the role of communication in development. We are also indebted to other issue-framing activities, such as the recent UNAIDS communication framework, that was developed through a worldwide
process that brought together communication specialists and practitioners working in the field of HIV/AIDS prevention. Many of the practitioners and scholars involved in these activities also participate actively in online debate through the Communication Initiatives Drumbeat. This interaction between theory and practice, through the dialogue among practitioners and scholars, will undoubtedly produce valuable contributions and insights for the field of development communication. It is inappropriate to base a model of communication for Social change on a linear model of communication that describes what happens when an individual source transmits a message to a receiver or group of receivers with some desired and predetermined individual effect. For social change, a model of communication is required that is cyclical and relational and leads to an outcome of mutual change rather than one-sided, individual change. The community as defined in this document is a multilevel concept ranging from local, geographically defined entities, such as villages, cities and nations, to international entities widely dispersed in space and time, such as activists organized by means of the Internet to protest the World Trade Organization. It also includes issue-related groups, such as the gay community, professional organizations and even the development communication community itself. A more complete definition of community for purposes of measurement is provided in Section 2. The model also recognizes that communities are not homogeneous entities but are comprised of subgroups with social strata and divergent interests. As a consequence, disagreement and conflict are also incorporated into the communication for social-change model. The full layout of the model is presented in this section. The model also acknowledges that external constraints and supports often hinder or facilitate community dialogue and collective action. The key to achieving the Millennium Development Goals lies in sharing resources, opportunities, and benefits, and in ensuring that those who wield power become responsible and accountable. Every day is a new beginning for hope and betterment in the village of Charampa in Orissa state, India. On an ordinary day two years ago, at the
crack of dawn, Lila, a mother of three, hurried to the village well. She went to draw water for her home and for the tiny patch of land where she grows vegetables and jowar, barely producing enough for two meals a day. Today, due to erratic rainfall, the well had nearly gone dry and the land almost became infertile. Lila sighed, My husband went to Cuttack to find work. He never returned. I have to feed the family. Without rain, what should I do? I have a ration card. We walk all the way to the fair-price shop, but there is nothing in stock or the grains are rotten! Her eldest daughter, Mala, dropped out of school at age nine to help with the household chores and care for her younger siblings. School for Mala was humiliatingthere was no closed toilet for girls. Lila approached the village council several times with little luck until one day, Mr. Mohan, a civil servant from Tamil Nadu state, was deputed to Lilas district. Previously, Mr. Mohan had undertaken several successful poverty reduction projects, including the creation of womens self-help groups, provisions for micro credit, and implementation of the free midday meal scheme for students in government primary schools. Mr. Mohan transferred these experiences to Charampa. Additionally, he enlisted various non-governmental organizations to train the villagers in watershed management to ensure a sufficient water supply during the dry season and, under his supervision, the fair-price shops improved the villagers access to grain storage and food distribution services. Today, Lila does not suffer from a lack of rain; the stored water is sufficient for dry spells. Her family does not go to bed hungry, and all of her children go to school. There is much emphasis on the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) in India, yet there are many achievement gaps. Greater integration of initiatives for the MDGs could quicken the pace. Even if the MDGs were achieved, how could the results be sustained and the remaining gaps bridged? For example, MDG 1 calls for halving by 2015 the proportion of people living on less than a dollar a day. What about the remaining half? What if some people fall back into poverty? Solutions must be sustainable. For this to happen, it is vital to understand the links between the MDGs and to adopt an integrated approach. In this article, we try to identify sustainable solutions linking the three MDGs concerning poverty and food security, environmental management, and gender equality.
MacBride Commission Report Many Voices One World, also known as the MacBride report, was a 1980 UNESCO publication written by the International Commission for the Study of Communication Problems, chaired by Irish Nobel laureate Sen MacBride. Its aim was to analyze communication problems in modern societies, particularly relating to mass media and news, consider the emergence of new technologies, and to suggest a kind of communication order (New World Information and Communication Order) to diminish these problems to further peace and human development. Among the problems the report identified were concentration of the media, commercialization of the media, and unequal access to information and communication. The commission called for democratization of communication and strengthening of national media to avoid dependence on external sources, among others. Subsequently, Internet-based technologies considered in the work of the Commission, served as a means for furthering MacBride's visions. While the report had strong international support, it was condemned by the United States and the United Kingdom as an attack on the freedom of the press, and both countries withdrew from UNESCO in protest in 1984 and 1985, respectively (and later rejoined in 2003 and 1997, respectively). The International Commission for the Study of Communication Problems was set up in 1977 by the director of UNESCO Ahmadou-Mahtar MBow, under suggestion by the USA delegation. It was agreed that the commission would be chaired by Sen MacBride from Ireland and representatives from 15 other countries, invited due to their roles in national and international communication activities and picked among media activists, journalists, scholars, and media executives. The members of the MacBride Commission were: Alie Abel (USA) Hubert Beuve-Mry (France) Elebe Ma Ekonzo (Zaire) Gabriel Garca Mrquez (Colombia) Sergei Losev (Soviet Union) Mochtar Lubis (Indonesia)
Mustapha Masmoudi (Tunisia) Michio Nagai (Japan) Fred Isaac Akporuaro Omu (Nigeria) Bogdan Osolnik (Yugoslavia) Gamal El Oteifi (Egypt) Johannes Pieter Pronk (Netherlands) Juan Somava (Chile) Boobli George Verghese (India) Betty Zimmerman (Canada), in substitution of Marshal McLuhan, then ill The commission presented a preliminary report in October 1978 at the 20th General Conference of UNESCO in Paris. The Commission's seminal session on new technologies to address the identified problems, was hosted by India at New Delhi in March 1979. The final report was delivered to MBow in April 1980 and was approved by consensus in the 21st General Conference of UNESCO in Belgrade. The commission dissolved after presenting the report. Because of controversy surrounding the report and the withdrawal of support by the UNESCO leadership in the 1980s for its ideas, the book went out of print and was difficult to obtain. A book on the history of the United States and UNESCO was even threatened with legal action and forced to include a disclaimer that UNESCO was in no way involved with it. The MacBride report was eventually reprinted by Rowman and Littlefield in the US, and is also freely available online.
New World Information and Communication Order History The fundamental issues of imbalances in global communication had been discussed for some time. The American media scholar Wilbur Schramm noted in 1964 that the flow of news among nations is thin, that much attention is given to developed countries and little to less-developed ones, that important events are ignored and reality is distorted. From a more radical perspective, Herbert Schiller observed in 1969 that
developing countries had little meaningful input into decisions about radio frequency allocations for satellites at a key meeting in Geneva in 1963. Schiller pointed out that many satellites had military applications. Intelsat which was set up for international co-operation in satellite communication was also dominated by the United States. In the 1970s these and other issues were taken up by the Non-Aligned Movement and debated within the United Nations and UNESCO. NWICO grew out of the New International Economic Order of 1974. From 1976-1978, the New World Information and Communication Order was generally called the shorter New World Information Order or the New International Information Order. The start of this discussion is the New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO) as associated with the United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) starting from the early 1970s. Mass media concerns began with the meeting of non-aligned nations in Algiers, 1973; again in Tunis 1976, and later in 1976 at the New Delhi Ministerial Conference of Non-Aligned Nations. The 'new order' plan was textually formulated by Tunisia's Information Minister Mustapha Masmoudi. Masmoudi submitted working paper No. 31 to the MacBride Commission. These proposals of 1978 were titled the 'Mass Media Declaration.' The MacBride Commission at the time was a 16-member body created by UNESCO to study communication issues. Among those involved in the movement were the Latin American Institute for the Study of Transnationals (ILET). One of its cofounders, Juan Somavia was a member of the MacBride Commission. Another important voice was Mustapha Masmoudi, the Information Minister for Tunisia. In a Canadian radio program in 1983, Tom McPhail describes how the issues were pressed within UNESCO in the mid-1970s when the USA withheld funding to punish the organization for excluding Israel from a regional group of UNESCO. Some OPEC countries and a few socialist countries made up the amount of money and were able to get senior positions within UNESCO. NWICO issues were then advanced at an important meeting in 1976 held in Costa Rica. The only woman member of the Commission was Betty Zimmerman, representing Canada because of the illness of Marshall McLuhan, who died in 1980. The movement was kept alive through the 1980s by meetings of
the MacBride Round Table on Communication, even though by then the leadership of UNESCO distanced itself from its ideas. The UNESCO Convention on Cultural Diversity of 2005 puts into effect some of the goals of NWICO, especially with regard to the unbalanced global flow of mass media. However, this convention was not supported by the USA, and it does not appear to be as robust as World Trade Organization agreements that support global trade in mass media and information. Issues A wide range of issues were raised as part of NWICO discussions. Some of these involved long-standing issues of media coverage of the developing world and unbalanced flows of media influence. But other issues involved new technologies with important military and commercial uses. The developing world was likely to be marginalized by satellite and computer technologies. The issues included: News reporting on the developing world that reflects the priorities of news agencies in London, Paris and New York. Reporting of natural disasters and military coups rather than the fundamental realities. At the time four major news agencies controlled over 80% of global news flow. An unbalanced flow of mass media from the developed world (especially the United States) to the underdeveloped countries. Everyone watches American movies and television shows. Advertising agencies in the developed world have indirect but significant effects on mass media in the developing countries. Some observers also judged the messages of these ads to be inappropriate for the Third World. An unfair division of the radio spectrum. A small number of developed countries controlled almost 90% of the radio spectrum. Much of this was for military use. There were similar concerns about the allocation of the geostationary orbit (parking spots in space) for satellites. At the time only a small number of developed countries had satellites and it was not possible for developing counties to be allocated a space that they might need ten years later. This might means eventually getting a space that was more difficult and more expensive to operate.
Satellite broadcasting of television signals into Third World countries without prior permission was widely perceived as a threat to national sovereignty. The UN voted in the early 1970s against such broadcasts. Use of satellites to collect information on crops and natural resources in the Third World at a time when most developing countries lacked the capacity to analyse this data. At the time most mainframe computers were located in the United States and there were concerns about the location of databases (such as airline reservations) and the difficulty of developing countries catching up with the US lead in computers. The protection of journalists from violence was raised as an issue for discussion. For example, journalists were targeted by various military dictatorships in Latin America in the 1970s. As part of NWICO debates there were suggestions for study on how to protect journalists and even to discipline journalists who broke "generally recognized ethical standards". However, the MacBride Commission specifically came out against the idea of licensing journalists. Response of the United States The United States was hostile to NWICO. It saw these issues simply as barriers to the free flow of communication and to the interests of American media corporations. It disagreed with the Macbride report at points where it questioned the role of the private sector in communications. It viewed the NWICO as dangerous to freedom of the press by ultimately putting an organization run by governments at the head of controlling global media, potentially allowing for censorship on a large scale. The US attacked UNESCO as an organization and eventually withdrew its membership at the end of 1984. The matter was complicated by debates within UNESCO about Israel's archaeological work in the city of Jerusalem, and about the Apartheid regime in South Africa. The U.S. rejoined in 2003.

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Name Chitra Surana (419) Rishabh Kumar (436)

Topic Approaches to Communication

Vidur Row (542)

Ishan Vartak (492) Neethika Brahmadi (434)

Charulata Biswas (506)

Shradha Narayanan (413)

Ahmar Zaman (483)

1|Page Development Communication Notes

May be +ve or ve guided but no acceleration

Direction and pace

May / May not be guided Very slow

guided with acceleration

guided with extra acceleration

Time frame Target Efforts Needed

Absent Absent Almost 0

May have May have Needs Little

It has a broad time frame It has a target Needs More

It is target oriented Needs Extra and more

2|Page Development Communication Notes

May or may not provide opportunities

Provides limited opportunities

Provides considerably good opportunities

Provides ample opportunities and privileges

May /May not be Noticeable

May or may not provide opportunities

Provides limited opportunities

Provides considerably good opportunities

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8|Page Development Communication Notes

xii. xiii. xiv. xv. xvi. xvii. xviii. xix.

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Ist wave Agriculture

IInd wave Post Agriculture Industrializati on

IIIrd wave Information Technology Era

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Significant sovereign collective involvement in the lives of the people

50 | P a g e Development Communication Notes

51 | P a g e Development Communication Notes

53 | P a g e Development Communication Notes

54 | P a g e Development Communication Notes

58 | P a g e Development Communication Notes

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