FUNDAMENTAL COMPUTER SYSTEM Computer is defined in the Oxford dictionary as An automatic electronic apparatus for making calculations or controlling

operations that are expressible in numerical or logical terms. The term Computer is used to describe a device made up of a combination of electronic and electromechanical (part electronic and part mechanical) components. Basically a computer system is a combination of following six elements: (1) Hardware (2) Software (3) Data / Information (4) Procedures 5) people (6) communications A Computer is a programmable computing electronic machine, which takes inputs from various input devices, processes the inputs with the help of Central Processing Unit, store if necessary in the memory part and provide the output through various output devices. That is computer can retrieve, process, store, and distribute data and information as and when desired.

Von Neumann architecture Most of todays computer designs are based on concepts developed by John von Neumann referred to as the von Neumann architecture. Figure shows the basic structure of a conventional Von Neumann machine. Main Memory Address Interconnection Control Unit Data and instruction Interconnection

Arithmetic & logic unit

Operational Registers

Data and Control Information Interconnection

Input / Output System

Figure 1: Structure of a computer

The key features of a von Neumann machine, The hardware of the von Neumann machine consist of (i) A CPU that includes an ALU and CU. (ii) A main memory system (iii) An input/output system

 The Von Neumann machine used stored program concept, i.e., the program and data are stored in. the same memory unit. The computers prior to this idea used to store programs and data on separate memories. Entering and modifying these programs were very difficult as they were entered manually by setting switches and plugging and unplugging. Each location of the main memory of von Neumann machine can be addressed independently. Execution of instructions in Von Neumann machine is carried out in a sequential fashion (unless explicitly altered by the program itself) from one instruction to the next. A von Neumann machine has only a single path between the main memory and control uni unit (CU). This feature/constraint is referred to as von Neumann bottleneck. Several other architectures have been suggested for modem computers.

General Computer Architecture

Input Devices: It accepts or reads the list of instruction and data from the outside world. It converts these instruction and data in computer acceptable form. It supplies the converted instructions and data to the computer system for further processing. Apart from keyboard (for direct entry) some other output devices are also dev developed for inserting pictures, audio, video, touch, temperature, pressure, force, current, voltage, frequency, etc. Central Processing Unit: The CPU is the brain of a computer. Its primary function is to execute programs. Beside executing programs, the CPU also controls the operation of all other components such as CPU memory, input and output devices.

Under its control, programs and data are stored in the memory and displayed on the CRT screen or printed on the printer. The CPU of a small computer is a microprocessor. The CPU of a large computer contains a number of microprocessors and other ICs on one or more circuit boards. Each microprocessor in a large CPU performs a specific task. The major sections of a CPU are:

(i) Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) The function of an ALU is to perform arithmetic and logic operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division; AND, OR, NOT (complement) and EXCLUSIVE OR operations. All calculations are performed and all comparisons (decisions <, =, >) are made in the ALU. It also performs increment, decrement, shift and clear operations. (ii) Control Unit (CU) The CU generates timing and control signals necessary for the execution of instructions. It provides status, control and timing signals necessary for the operation of other parts of the CUP, memory and I/O devices. That is the CU acts as a central nervous system for the other components of the computer. It controls the entire operation of a computer. It is actually the control section of the CPU, which acts as the brain of a computer. (iii) Accumulator, General and Special Purpose Registers The accumulator is a register, which holds one of the operands prior to the execution of an instruction and receives result of the most arithmetic and logical operations. Some CPU contain a single accumulator, other contain several accumulators. General purpose registers store data and intermediate results during the execution of a program. They are accessible to programmers through instructions if they are working in an assembly language. Special purpose registers are not accessible to users. The computer uses them for different purposes during program execution. (Ex.- Index registers, instruction register, program counter, stack pointer, etc.)

Memory: Memory in a computer system is required for storage and subsequent retrieval of the instructions and data. It stores program, data, results or any other kind of information. The following levels of memory are present in a digital computer: Internal processor memories (CPU Register): these consist of the small set of high speed registers which are internal to a processor and are used as temporary locations where actual processing is done. Cache memory: it is placed in between the CPU and the main memory. It is much faster than the main memory; access time about 10 nano seconds. It stores instructions and data, which are to be immediately executed. It stores or catches some of the content of the

main memory, which is currently in use of the processor. It is much costlier than the main memory and hence its capacity is kept much less than that of the main memory. Primary or Main memory: it is mainly based on integrated circuits and accessed directly by the processor (CPU). It stores programs along with data, which are to be executed. It also stores necessary programs of system software, which are required to execute the users program. Semiconductor memory chips RAMs (random access memory temporary sort of memory) and more permanent memory chips - ROM (read only memory) are used as main memory. Secondary or Auxiliary memory: it stores operating system, data files, compilers, assemblers, application programs etc. The CPU does not read information directly from the secondary memory. The programs and data if needed by the CUP are first transferred from the secondary memory to the primary memory. Then the CPU reads them from the primary memory. The results are also stores in the secondary memory. It is a mass storage memory. It is slow but cheap. It is permanent memory. Hard disk, floppy disk, CD-ROM, Magnetic tape & disk are the examples.

Output Devices: The output devices receive results and other information from the computer and provide them to users. The computer sends information to an output device in the binary form. An output device converts it into a suitable form convenient to users such as printed form, display on a screen, voice output, etc. The commonly used output devices are CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) or Monitor, printers, plotters, microfilm, speaker, telephone system etc.

Complied by: Dr. Alok Bansal References: Computer fundamentals by B. Ram and by P. K. Sinha Management Information System by James A. OBrien.

Brief History of Computers

Ever since the mankind started to carry on trade with other people, they felt the need of a system to keep track of the numbers. They used different ways to do so and started evolving tools. The earlier computing devices such as Abacus were created to serve the same purpose. Let us have a look at the major milestones, which led to present day computers. 3000 B.C. The Abacus A.D. 700-900 1600 1614 1642 a rudimentary first computing device developed. Europeans started using Hindu-Arabic Math.

Hindu-Arabic Math becomes popular in Europe. John Napier introduced Logarithms. Blaise Pascal, a French Mathematician and experimental Physicist, built the first mechanical digital calculator, Pascaline that could perform addition and subtraction on whole numbers. Charles Babbage, Professor of Mathematics at Cambridge University and considered as "Father of computers", invented difference engine with mechanical memory to store results.

1822

1840s Augusta Ada, The first Programmer" suggested binary data storage rather than the decimal. 1850s George Boole, a self taught English Mathematician, realized that complex mathematical problems could be solved by reducing them to a series of affirmatively or negatively answered questions. The binary system of 1s for positive answers and 0's for negative ones could thus be implemented. This theory of Boolean logic became fundamental to the design of computer circuitry. 1880s Dr. Herman Hollerith, a Statistician, was employed by the Census Bureau, which was falling far behind in its ability to provide census reports. To find a solution to the census problem, Hollerith developed a punched card that would contain data coded in form of punched holes. Hollerith then built tabulating equipment that could read the cards and process the data. 1939 The first prototype electronic computer was conceived by Dr. John Vincent Atanasoff. a Professor of Physics and Mathematics at Iowa State College. Atanasoff teamed up with Clifford Berry, his graduate assistant and began to build the first electronic computer. They called it the "Atanasoff-Berry Computer" or ABC. The ABC used vacuum tubes for storage and arithmetic-logic function. The ABC was designed for the special purpose of solving systems of simultaneous equations.

1940s Von Neumann presented a paper outlining the stored program concept. 1944 Aiken built the Mark I, the first automatic, sequence-controlled calculator: used by military to compute ballistics data.

1947

Mauchly and Eckert built ENIAC (ENLAC is an acronym for Electronic Numeric Integrator And Calculator). It was a second general-purpose electronic digital computer. Englishman Maurice V. Wilkes of Cambridge built EDSAC (Electronic Delayed Storage Automatic Computer), the first stored program computer. Mauchly. Eckert and Von Neumann built EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer), the second stored program computer. At Harvard, An Wang, founder of Wang Laboratories developed magnetic-core memories. Jay Forrester at MIT organized magnetic-core memory to be more efficient.

1949 1949 1949 1949 1950

Turing built the ACE (Automatic Computing Engine), which can be considered the first programmable digital computer. 1950s Read Admiral (Retd.) Grace Hopper developed UNIVAC I Compiler. Mauchly and Eckert built the first computer, designed and sold commercially -UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer). Backus who was one of a group of IBM (International Business Machines) Engineers developed FORTRAN (FORmula Translation Language). Kilby and Noyce developed and perfected the integrated circuit, to be used in later computers. Hopper developed the COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language) programming language.

1951 1957 1959 1959

1960s Gene Amdahl designed IBM System/360 series of Mainframe computers, the first general purpose digital computers to use integrated circuits. 1963 Olsen with Digital Equipment Corporation produced the PDP-1 (Program Data Processor), the first mini computer.

1965 Dr. John Kemeny, a Mathematics Professor at Dartmouth and his colleague. Dr. Thomas Kurtz, developed the Computer language BASIC (Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code). 1970 Intel created a memory chip that could store a kilobit of information. A kilobit translates roughly into 25 five-letter words. Another innovation at Intel came from Ted Hoff, who has integrated circuit by compressing twelve chips into four. The arithmetic and logic functions of several chips could be contained on one chip, called microprocessor. Hoffs microprocessor was called the Intel 4004 ("forty-oh-four'). 1975 1976 1977 H. Edward Roberts, an electrical engineer who is now generally known as the "Father of the Micro Computer" designed the first Micro Computer. Seymour Cray's CRAY-1 Super Computer was delivered to Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory in New Mexico. Stephen Wozniak, the technical expert and Steven Jobs designed and built the first Apple Micro Computer.

1980s Lower-cost computer systems-Personal computers intended for home use were produced. New program products introduced.

Generations of Computers
Evolution of modern computer is commonly considered in terms of Generations of computers. These are the steps in computer technology, which provides a framework for the growth of the computer industry. Each new generation has made the following changes in computer characteristics: 1. Increase in speed. 3. Increase in reliability. 2. Increase in storage capacity. 4. Reduction in system cost. Let us consider some of the characteristics of each generation. First Generation (1942-1955): Vacuum Tube Technology 1. The 1st Generation of computers relied on vacuum tubes to store and process information. 2. Vacuum tube was a fragile glass device that could control and amplify electronic signals. These tubes consumed a great deal of power, were short-lived, and generated a grate deal of heat. 3. 1st Generation computers had extremely limited memory and processing capabilities and were used for very limited scientific and engineering work. 4. Punched cards used for feeding information. 5. Punched cards and paper used for getting results. 6. Magnetic tapes were used for external storage. 7. Oriented towards batch processing, where the entire machine is dedicated to a particular job until completed. 8. Human operators had to set switches. 9. Development of machine language and assembly language. 10. Typical Computers: UNIVAC I, IBM 650, BURROUGHS 220. Second Generation (1955-1964): Transistors 1. The transistors invented by Bell Telephone Laboratories in 1948, formed the basis for the second generation of computers. In the 2nd Generation transistors replaced vacuum tubes as the devices for storing and processing information. 2. Transistors were much more stable and reliable than vacuum tubes, they generated less heat, and they consumed less power. Through use of the transistor, these computers were much faster, more reliable and more versatile than first generation computers. However, each transistor had to be individually made and wired into a printed circuit board, a slow tedious process. 3. The enhanced processing power and memory of 2nd Generation computers enabled them to be used more widely for scientific work and for such business tasks as automating payroll and billing. 4. Punched cards and magnetic tape used for input of data. 5. Punched cards and paper used for output. 6. Magnetic core storage i.e. magnetic tape used for external storage. 7. Oriented towards far more versatile types of applications in which multiple users were capable of using the machine concurrently. 8. Human operators handled punched cards. 9. Development of high-level languages FORTRAN, COBOL, BASIC. PL/I and others. 10. Typical computers: IBM 1400 Series and 7000 series. Control Data 3600, General Electric 635 and Honeywell 200.

Third Generation (1964-1975): Integrated Circuits Third generation of computers included significant advances in machine hardware along with heavy emphasis on software, the computer programs, designed to make the machine work. These included special operating systems, which provided capabilities for automatic proceeding from one job to the next without human intervention and for multiprogramming, which made it possible for a machine to perform several jobs concurrently. A summary of main features of this generation of computers is as follows: 1. The 3rd Generation computers relied on Integrated Circuits (IC) for storing and processing information. 2. Integrated Circuits (Microelectronic) were made by printing hundreds and later thousands of tiny transistors on small silicon chips. These devices were called semiconductors. 3. 3rd Gen Computer technology introduced software that could be used by people without extensive technical training, making it possible for computers to enlarge their role in business. 4. Monitors and keyboards were introduced for data input and output. 5. Punched cards began losing their prominence as the input or output device. 6. Magnetic disks used for external storage. 7. Designed around sophisticated operating systems capable of handling several jobs concurrently. 8. A concept of computer "families" was introduced. 9. More high-level language including RPG (Report Program Generator) and PASCAL were developed. Heavy emphasis was laid on applications-oriented languages-FORTRAN and COBOL. 10. Typical computers: IBM System/360. Fourth Generation (1975-Present): Very Large Scale Integrated Circuits 1. The 4th Gen computers use very large-scale integrated circuits (VLSICs) for storing and processing information. 2. VLSICs are packed with as many as 200000 to over 3 million circuits per chip. Further miniaturization in which complete circuits are reduced to virtually microscopic sizes. Hundreds of circuits may be placed on a chip of the size of a pinhead. These developments were followed by creation of microprocessors. Based on microprocessor, many of the intelligent features are easier to use. 3. Costs have fallen to the point where desktop computers are inexpensive and widely available for use in business and every day life. 4. Further refinement of input and output devices. 5. Introduction of microcomputers. 6. Magnetic disks became the primary means of external storage. 7. Further sophistication of operating systems capable of virtual storage, in which the machine can operate as if its main storage were several times its actual size. 8. The beginning of broad use of special software for managing large databases. 9. Fourth generation languages emerged and application software for microcomputers became popular. 10. Typical Computers: IBM System/370, Burroughs B7700 and HP3000. Fifth Generation (Present and Future): Artificial Intelligence The future may hold the following possibilities: 1. Conventional computers are processes information serially, one instruction at a time. In the future, more computers will use parallel processing and massively parallel processing to

blend voice, images, and massive pools of data from divers sources, using artificial intelligence and intricate mathematical models. 2. Supercomputers capable of billions of calculations per second and advanced in artificial intelligence, computers that can "think" and "reason" and further miniaturization of ligence, computer hardware. Artificial Intelligence (AI) may be described as a branch of Computer Science that is involved with using computers to solve problems that appear to require human imagination or intelligence. The public first became aware of this discipline in 1956 first when the term was coined as the theme for a conference held at Dartmouth College. Since then, researchers have used concepts from disciplines such as Linguistics, Psychology and Computer Science in an attempt to learn, how to prepare programs or construct systems that do tasks which no machine has ever automatically done before. An example of AI in action is the use of expert systems. An expert system is a software package that attempts to encode the knowledge and decision rules established by human specialists so that package users can call on this expertise in making their own decisions. 3. For the foreseeable future, the computers will continue to be intelligence amplifiers in an alliance with humanity. This alliance would combine the current superiority of the human alliance brain in matters involving creativity, judgement and intuition with the computer's superiority in matters requiring processing, speed, accuracy and tireless attention to detail. Major trends in computer system capabilities. uter

Complied by: Dr. Alok Bansal References: Computer fundamentals by B. Ram and by P. K. Sinha IT Today by S. Jaiswal Management Information System by K. C. Laudon and J. P. Laudon And by James A. OBrien

APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER
1. Computer Application in Business:Cost & Budgetary Control Stock control & Sales Distribution Mathematical Models & O.R. Pay Roll & Personal Records Banking Insurance & Stock broking Help to Management 2. Comp. Appl. in Project Management:General & Clerical Planning & Decision Models Information Oriented Simulation (Suture Scenario) 6. Comp. Appl. in Production Plan. & Control:Reduce WIP & Buffer Stocks Reduce in Material wastage Decrease of idle machine time & increase output by proper scheduling Better coordination between depts. Optimization of product mix 7. Computer Application in Marketing:Sales & Customer Analysis Promotion & Advertising New Product Development Sales & Forecasting Product Planning Product Pricing Expenditure Control

3. Comp. Appl. in Personal & Administration:Manpower Planning HRD 8. Comp. Appl. in Science & Technology:Selection & Recruitment Scientific Research Compensations & Benefits Industrial Application Industrial Relations & Grievance Handling Weather Forecasting Establishment of Personnel Records Space Techniques Collective Bargaining Communication Training Local & Public Utilities Group Insurance Simulation Bill Inventory System Artificial Intelligence Administration Defense Application (Military) 4. Comp. Appl. in Accounting & Finance:Invoicing, Sales Ledgers & Statements Stock Control & evaluation. Pay Roll, Pay-Slips, Tax Returns. Purchase Ledger & Sales Credit Control Budgetary Control Cost Accounting Assets Registers Hire Purchase Records Financial Ratios P & L Statements Balance Sheet Ledger Day Book 5. Comp. Appl. in Material Management:Material Planning / Specification Requirements determination Inventory Management Purchasing Production Scheduling Stocking Allocation Distribution 9. Computer Application in Multimedia: Education & Research Medical Science Morphing Video Conferencing Marketing Business Presentations Virtual reality Image Processing Internet Entertainment 10. Other Application of Computer: In Offices In Book Publications In D.T.P. & Graphics In Data Analysis & Database management In Education In Medical field In Govt. etc.