Bamboo resources conservation and utilization in Malaysia

FRIM, Kepong, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Introduction Peninsular Malaysia has a total land area of 32.86 million hectares on approximately 330 000 km2. The size is similar to Norway. About 72% of land includes forests of about 19.4 million hectares and tree plantations of 4.2 million hectares. In the country, the permanent forest reserve area is 14.1 million hectares. The area designated as protected forest amounts to about 2.9 million hectares, with no logging whatsoever and it would remain in pristine condition without any disturbance. About 330 000 hectares of the Protection Forest plus another 1.8 million hectares of forest outside of it constitute national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and nature reserves. Approximately 11.2 million hectares of the Permanent Forest Reserve are earmarked as Production Forest (Fig. 1). Areas within the Production Forest are commercially logged on a rotational cycle, supporting sustained-yield management. Malaysia consists of Tropical Evergreen Forest with upper montane forest at the topmost level that occupies a few peaks which tower over 1700 m. The montane forest extends from 800 m to about 1700 m above sea level. The hill forest occupies between 300 to 800 m on the inland Malaysian mountain ranges where many lowland species, including numerous dipterocarp species are found. The vegetation in lowland forest is influenced by sunlight, wind and other elements. It is the most abundant from lower exposed ridges to higher sheltered valleys, the abundance of dipterocarp species gives these forests the name hill dipterocarp forest. The lowland dipterocarp forest covers the elevation of 300 m above sea-level, with many species densely crowded together (Anon 1992). The temperature ranges from 26C-34C and annual rainfall between 400 mm-1600 mm throughout the country. Malaysia is a heavily forested country, and forest products including bamboo are important sources of income. While bamboo has been an important resource, widely and easily available, it has remained a poor man's crop compared to timber and other non-timber crops like rattan. However, the potential for growth of the bamboo industry is tremendous. This has been recognized by researchers. In the last decade or so, Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM) has given very high priority for bamboo development, both in terms of growth and the manufacturing aspects. The production and industrial development that has taken place for bamboo in Malaysia is reviewed, and the important research areas, as well as the other sectoral issues that need to be addressed before the industry can improve in the region are highlighted. Area and habitats Bamboos are abundant and widely distributed in Malaysia. Most of Malaysian bamboos grow gregariously, but in localized patches on river banks, in disturbed lowland forests, and on hillsides and ridge tops (Ng and Noor 1980; Wong 1989; Azmy 1991b). The populations are pure stands as well as mixed with other species in the forest. In general, bamboos were regarded as weeds in the context of Malaysian Forestry (Watson and Wyatt-Smith 1961; Chin 1977). Nevertheless, at present, it is ranked second to rattan in economic importance in Peninsular Malaysia among the minor or non-timber forest products (Aminuddin and Abd. Latiff 1991). In 1970, the estimated total area of bamboos in Peninsular Malaysia was about 20 000 ha (McGrath 1970), and now the area has increased to about 329 000 ha (Abd. Razak and Abdul Latif 1988). The present standing stock has been estimated at 7.0 million tons (average 20 tons/ha), out of which only 6000 tons are of commonly used species with an estimated value of RM 3 million1. There has never been a complete inventory of bamboo resources in Malaysia (Salleh and Wong 1987). The Second National Forest Inventory

(NFI II- 1981/82) showed that the average number of bamboo cuttings (6 m/ cutting with more than, 3 cm in diameter at breast height) extracted per ton basis was about 95.5 and 118.3 pieces from the undisturned and disturbed forests, respectively. From these figures, it was estimated that there were 587 million culms of bamboo in the forests (Kamaruzaman 1992).
1

IUS$ = RM3.8

Based on Table 1, the Kelantan has the highest density of bamboo within forest districts in Peninsular Malaysia, comprising of 31035 750 number of culms, followed by Pahang (23 480 760 culms), and Perak (20 174 160 culms). The total number of culms in Peninsular Malaysia was 110 584 148 covering 42 172 238 ha of forest areas (Lockman et al. 1992). The most useful bamboo found in these areas is Gigantochloa scortechinii, found in Kedah, Kelantan, Perak, Selangor and Terengganu. In terms of density, the richest area is in Selangor where 20% of having more than 20 clumps per ha, 13% with 11 to 20 clumps per ha and the rest with less than 11 clumps per ha (Lockman et al. 1992). In one study, 3780 culms of G. scortechinii were obtained from 204 clumps per ha (Azmy 1991b), (Figs. 1, 2) Genera and species Malaysia has about 70 species of bamboo: 50 in Peninsular Malaysia, 30 in Sabah and 20 in Sarawak (Wong 1989). The 10 available genera are Bambusa, Chusquea, Dendrocalamus, Dinochloa, Gigantochloa, Phyllostachys, Racemobambos, Schizostachyum, Thyrsostachys and Yushania (Wong 1989; Azmy and Abd. Razak 1991). There are 12 bamboo species commonly exploited for commercial purposes (Azmy and Abd. Razak 1991) (Table 2). The most common species extracted are Gigantochloa scortechinii, G. levis, G. ligulata, Dendrocalamus asper, Bambusa blumeana, Schizostachyum grande and S. zollingeri. (Figs. 3, 4). Malaysian bamboos grow wild in the forests and also cultivated by villagers in rural areas (Azmy 1992a). The most widespread species are: Gigantochloa scortechinii, Dendrocalamus pendulus and Schizostachyum zollingeri; found from the Main Range from Pattani in Thailand to Malacca on the southwest coast, up to about 1200 m altitude, more abundant at lower elevations (Fig. 2). Bambusa farinacea, G. ligulata and G. latifolia are also encountered up to about 750 m on the Main Range although they are best represented in the northern states of Perlis, Kedah and Kelantan. The rare bamboo, Schizostachyum terminale was collected at Krau Game Reserve in Pahang in 1988, adapted to swampy and inundated conditions. Another rare species is Gigantochloa rostrata, planted in FRIM, Kepong, and in the natural state at Gunung Raya, Langkawi. The endemic lowland bamboo Racemobambos setifera is rare or extinct outside the upper Endau River area and does not occur in southern part of Peninsular Malaysia. Another rare lowland species is Soejatmia ridleyi from a collection from Bukit Timah forest in Singapore, at the southern tip of Peninsular Malaysia and a small population in Kemasul Forest Reserve, Bukit Ibam area and the Rengit Forest reserve, all in Pahang state. The endemic montane bamboos are Gigantochloa holttumiana, G. holttumochloa and Maclurochloa montana. G. holttumiana found at the summit area of Fraser Hill, Pahang-Selangor area (highest peak just over 2000 m). Maclurochloa montana occurs only in the montane forest on Western Hill (Penang Island), Gunung Jerai (or Kedah Peak, in Kedah) and in the Frasers hill area on the Pahang-Selangor border between altitude of 8301300 m (Wong 1995). Table 1. Density of bamboos by forest districts, Peninsular Malaysia Source: Lockman et al. 1992 Compartment areas Hectares Johor South 0.00 (%) 0.00 Stock No. of culms 0 (%) 0.00

State

Districts

Species

Center East North Total Kedah South Center North Total Kelantan West South East Total Melaka N. Sembilan Jasin West East Total Pahang Bentong Jerantut Kuantan Kuala Lipis Rompin Temerloh Total Perak Kinta/Manjung Kuala Kangsar Larut/Matang South Ulu Gerik Total Perlis P. Pinang Selangor Hulu Selangor Pantai Kelang Center Total Terengganu West South North Total

0.00 4205.25 27 615.51 13585.85 4 834.00 2 482.70 5 788.00 58 489.00 26 470.00

0.00 13.22 86.78 64.99 23.13 11.88 6.38 64.45 29.17

0.00

739 260 15.14 B. heterostachya 4 142 340 84.86 S. zollingeri 3 881 600 100.00 2967150 46.32 D. asper 2 358 900 36.82 G. scortechinii, S. grande 1 079 850 16.86 6 405 900 100.00 3 389 800 10.92 20 990 850 67.64 G. scortechinii, S. grande 6 655 200 21.44 G. species, D. pendulus 31 035 750 100.00 249 750 100.00 D. asper 5 993 910 80.83 D. sinuatus, S. zollingeri 1 421 550 19.17 D. sinuatus, S. zollingeri 7415460 100.00 442 290 1 986 540 1.88 8.46 S. brachycladum, S. gracile

31 615.51 100.00

20 902.55 100.00

90 747.00 100.00 563.37 100.00 20 930.25 3 353.97 2 948.67 12 112.12 9 485.00 88814.83 5 342.29 1 664.72 5 297.45 10 676.90 5 481.00 6 179.74 40 045.40 0.00 86.19 13.81 2.45 10.06 7.88 73.79 4.44 1.38 7.83 15.78 8.10 9.13 59.16 0

24 284.22 100.00

2 456 730 10.46 15684210 66.80 S. brachycladum, S. gracile 2 288 130 622 860 9.75 B. vulgaris 2.65 D. asper, B. ridleyi

120 367.63 100.00

23 480 760 100.00 2 383 860 11.82 B. vulgaris, S. zollingeri 2 703 000 13.40 B. vulgaris, G. wrayi 1 492 050 1 388 700 7.40 D. scandens 6.88 S. grande, G. scortechinii

12 206 550 60.50 B. vulgaris, S. grande 20 174 160 100.00 0 0 1 096 950 100.00 S. zollingeri, B. arundinacea 7 563 510 61.01 G. scortechinii, D. asper 0 0.00 4 833 900 38.99 B. vulgaris 12397410 100.00 1 209 000 35.08 G. scortechinii, D. asper 1 952 250 56.65 285 150 8.27 D. sinuatus 3 446 400 100.00

67 680.49 100.00 2 739.00 100.00 12 193.36 0.00 27 448.00 8 060.00 13 015.00 1 901.00 30.76 0.00 69.24 35.08 56.62 8.27

39 641.36 100.00

22 976.00 100.00

W. Persekutuan P. Malaysia

0.00

0.00

0 0.090 110 584 100.00 140

421 722.38 100.00

Table 2. Uses of twelve commercial bamboo species in Malaysia Source: Azmy and Abd. Razak 1991 Species Bambusa blumeana Bambusa heterostachya Bambusa vulgaris Local Name Buluh duri Buluh galah/tilan/pering/pengat Buluh minyak/aao/aro/gading/ Tamalang/pa Uses Chopstick, tooth picks, furniture, musical instrument, poles, shoots as food Poles, frames, tooth picks, blinds, skewer sticks Ornamental, tooth picks, chopsticks, skewer sticks, shoots as food Ornamental Shoots as food, higo materials, chopstick Shoots as food, higo materials, chopstick Frames, shoots as food, poles for vegetables support Handicraft, smallscale industries, incense sticks Handicraft, blinds, tooth picks, skewer sticks, shoots as food Handicraft, rice vessels (lemant) Frames, leaves used for wrapping Chinese glutinous rice dumpling Handicraft, toothpick, skewer sticks

Bambusa vulgaris var. Buluh gading striata Dendrocalamus asper Gigantochloa levis Gigantochloa ligulata Gigantochloa scortechinii Gigantochloa wrayi Schizostachyum brachycladum Buluh beting/pering Buluh beting/bisa Buluh tumpat/tikus belalai Buluh semantan/rayah/gala/paao/ Seremai/telur Buluh beti/raga Buluh nipis/lemang/padi/urat/rusa/ Pelang

Schizostachyum grande Buluh semeliang/semenyeh Schizostachyum zollingeri Buluh dinding/kasap/telor/pelang/ nipis

Table 3. Culm characteristics of common bamboo species Source: Azmy and Abdul Razak 1991 Species Bambusa blumeana Bambusa heterostachya Bambusa vulgaris Bambusa vulgaris var. striata Dendrocalamus asper Height (m) 16-18 10-13 10-18 8-18 18-23 Internode Length (cm) 35 40 33 35 35 DBH (cm) 7-9 4.5-5.0 7-9 5-10 9-13 Wall thickness (mm) 12-18 8-10 10-12 8-16 10-14 No. of culm/ clump 40-60 40-60 50-90 30-60 33-35

Gigantochloa levis Gigantochloa ligulata Gigantochloa scortechinii Gigantochloa wrayi Schizostachyum brachycladum Schizostachyum grande Schizostachyum zollingeri

18-23 7-10 17-20 15-18 12 18-21 12-15

35 35 42 40 58 85 55

11-13 2.7-3.5 9-11 8.5-10 6-7 8-11 5-7

11-15 9-11 7-12 6-10 3-5 6-10 4-7

40-50 30-40 50-80 40-70 30-50 40-60 50-70

Fig. 1. Map of forest and tree cover: Peninsular Malaysia Fig. 2. Distribution of natural bamboo stands in Peninsular Malaysia Source: Lockman et al. 1992. Fig. 3. Growing shoot of Giagantochloa scortechinii Fig. 4. Clump of Bambusa blumeana Ground inventory in Malaysia takes into consideration species, quality and density classes, major forest types, stocking, clump distribution, clump size and bamboo regeneration conditions (Wan Razali and Azmy 1994). Remote sensing techniques and aerial photographs are very promising in locating the extent of the bamboo areas in forests. The estimated total bamboo clumps according to such forest inventories are stratified into forest areas, and are as follows: Gigantochloa scortechinii and Gigantochloa wrayi - 10 133 368 clumps of which 5 231 150 clumps were in the 11-20 years of logged over forest areas; Schizostachyum grande, S. zollingeri and Dendrocalamus pendulus - 2 8842 500 and 1 1754 935 clumps fall in the medium dense forest areas; Gigantochloa ligulata - 5 474 144 clumps, of which some 2 355 062 were estimated to be in original forests (Poh et al. 1994). Conservation No major conservation work has been done. However, conservation has been partially achieved in the planting of bamboos for several purposes. For stabilization of land, species such as Bambusa vulgaris, Gigantochloa levis, G. scortechinii and Schizostachyum jaculans have been planted (Abd Razak 1989b). Conservation has been done by farmers in Sungei Senang, Mukim Jeneri and Nami, Kedah where 2 ha and 1.3 ha respectively were planted in an agroforestry system, planting them along with rubber trees. Gigantochloa scortechinii natural stand bamboos have been maintained in between rubber rows to obtain culms (Azmy and Abd. Razak 1992). Two farmers have managed natural stands of bamboos in between rubber rows in Kedah, Northern Peninsular Malaysia. The first place is at Nami, where there are 35 clumps of this species managed in between 5-year-old rubber trees with a planting distance of 3 x 6 m on a contour hill. The other is at Sungei Senang, where there are 50 clumps maintained in between 20-year-old trees of spacing 3 x 6 m (Azmy and Abd. Razak 1992). The clumps in both areas grew naturally before the rubber trees were planted. These clumps were culled and left at reasonable distances. From 1992 to 1995, the Forestry Department in Peninsular Malaysia planted bamboos in Kedah - 20 ha; Kelantan - 40 ha; Malacca - 20 ha; Negeri Sembilan - 24 ha; Pahang - 62 ha; Perak - 64 ha; Penang - 1 ha; Selangor - 30 ha, a total of 261 ha altogether (Anon 1995). Gigantochloa ligulata flowered gregariously at Kuala Nerang, Kedah (Azmy 1992d). About 40-45 seeds per inflorescence were collected. The flowering period lasted for six months from November to April. Malaysian bamboos are often attacked by diseases at the establishment stage or at the onset of maturity, three years onwards. According to Azmy and Maziah (1990), most bamboos are easily infested by leaf spot

and shot-hole diseases. The former caused by Collectotrichum and Nigrospora species, the latter by Glomerella cingulata. Abd. Razak and Azmy (1991) reported that young leaves of Bambusa vulgaris were attacked by the caterpillars of Pyrausta coclesalis and systemic insecticides such as dimethoate was sprayed to overcome the problem. Estigmina chinensis and Conarthus jansonii stem borer beetles damaged G. scortechinii natural stand culms by boring into the internodes. Removal of the infected culms was the only way to reduce the attack. Growth In natural stands of Gigantochloa scortechinii at Nami, Kedah, the average number of culms per clump was 19, the basal area in the 1 ha research trial plot was 12.32 m2 (Azmy 1991b). The shoots grew faster during the day time and the maximum height was 12.5 m after 10 weeks. Rain influenced the sprouting of shoots in the natural stand (Azmy and Hall 1992). FRIM initiated studies on the management of natural bamboo stand of G. scortechinii at Chebar Forest Reserve, Nami, Kedah. A single application of 2 kg of compound fertilizer NPK (15:15:15), increased the sprouting of shoots by 30% annually (Azmy 1992c). A 40% felling intensity increased the number of culms produced. The mortality values of G. scortechinii sprouts of age one year and below, two years and three years were 10, 20 and 40% respectively. Propagation methods Malaysian bamboos are propagated by using rhizome offsets, culm cuttings and branch cuttings. According to Hashim (1998), branch cuttings of Bambusa vulgaris gave the highest percentage sprouting (90%), followed by G. levis (85%), B. blumeana (80%), D. asper (65%) and G. ligulata (40%). Culm cutting using mid-culm portion was the best in propagation and culms planted horizontally (Abd. Razak 1992). By applying NPK and chicken dung together, G. scortechinii rhizome offsets survived upto 85% about 30 months after planting. Propagation of bamboo in the tin-tailing areas was also tried by Abd. Razak. The mixtures of organic fertilizer and NPK (15:15:15) enhanced the growth. Bambusa vulgaris was found to grow better than Dendrocalamus asper and Gigantochloa levis. In the propagation of G. scortechinii by means of marcotting at FRIM, the treatments and media used were 200 g each of top soil (3:1), machined coconut husk, burned paddy husk, and palm oil mill effluent (POME). G. scortechinii grew better with POME (Azmy 1992b). Exotic bamboos Phyllostachys glauca, P. nigra, P. pubescens and P. viridis from China, were planted at Bukit Fraser and Genting Highlands using rhizomes. P. glauca grew best producing an average of 12 sprouts with mean height of 171.8 cm in 24 months after transplanting. The other species, showed slow growth (Abd. Razak 1989a). Gigantochloa ligulata (Buluh tumpat) seedlings were raised at FRIM, Kepong, (Azmy 1991a). The seedlings developed in the second week after sowing. With 1:3 soil-sand ratio, the germination was 76% and it was better to sow deglumed seeds. Fertilizer was applied in the seventh week after sowing. According to Krishnapillay et al. (1993) using cryopreservation methods worked better on bamboo seedlings of Thyrsostachys siamensis, Bambusa bambos, Dendrocalamus membranaceus and Dendrocalamus brandisii, after drying them in laminar flow cabinet (25+-2C with a relative humidity of 55%) for a period of 5 hours. When seed moisture was reduced from 9-15% to 2-4% there was no real loss of viability over a period of 9 months. Micropropagation of Bambusa vulgaris, Bambusa vulgaris var. striata and G. levis was possible through multiple shoot formation method using nodal segments from lateral branches of mature plants. (Aziah and Warus 1992). Extraction and sustainable utilization The highest annual royalties collected from bamboo from 1980 to 1987 were in Perak (44%), followed by Kedah (33%), Johore (10%), Selangor (8%), Perlis and Pahang (about 2% each). The total revenue collected from bamboo taxation in Peninsular Malaysia in 1987 was RM 65 951 (This was 57 tonnes of estimated availability of bamboo production based on 180 culms equivalent to 1 tonne dry-weight and an average royalty of three cents per culm) (Abd. Latif and Abd. Razak 1991). According to Dahlan (1994), in Pahang alone, 192 101 culms of more than 2 cm and less than 5 cm diameter and 154 447 culms of more than 5 cm diameter were extracted and the total royalty of RM 19 998.11 was paid. The number of culms extracted and

catered according to its specific uses were as follows: baskets - 37 810 pieces; Joss-paper - 2 911 845; Skewer sticks - 1974; fish traps - 7000 and chicken house flooring - 10 000 (Poh et al. 1994). The production and sustainability of Malaysian bamboos found naturally in the forest can be managed so that the resources will not be depleted. According to Azmy et al. (1997), natural stands of Gigantochloa scortechinii especially in Kedah, Northern Peninsular Malaysia can be managed with recommended felling intensity of 70% per clump, only mature culms of 3 years and above can be felled. Further more, rotational felling at every 2 consecutive years can be applied in sustaining the production of quality culms. Culms should not be clear felled. Research in progress For Malaysian natural stand bamboos, on going research has focused on the application of organic fertilizers at Nami, Kedah, Peninsular Malaysia. Various combinations of fertilizers was applied on the bamboo clumps in the assigned trial plots. This involved two species, Gigantochloa scortechinii (Buluh semantan) and Dendrocalamus pendulus (Buluh akar). The objectives of this study are: To develop improved management and sustainable use of bamboos in Malaysia; To determine different management practices on basic culm properties; To optimize the processing and promotion of advanced technology to improve raw material (e.g. parquet); and To disseminate information to user groups. Malaysian commercial bamboos will be cultivated on a large scale in Pahang, on a 100 ha area in the Federal Land Development Authority (FELDA) estate. Four species, Bambusa vulgaris, Dendrocalamus asper, Gigantochloa sp. (brang) and Gigantochloa levis will be planted. The objective is to increase the resource supply on a sustained basis in future. In addition, the culms will be used for making high value added products such as parquet. The project will also help train the settlers and make them successful entrepreneurs in the bamboo production area as well in the industry. In terms of developmental strategies, this will help to encourage the local people in other states of the country to venture and establish bamboo plantations. In addition, other government agencies such as the Department of Aborigines Affairs in Peninsular Malaysia is also involved in the training. Utilization and economic value Bamboo has been used in the making of products such as chopsticks (Razak and Tamizi 1989), vegetable baskets (Azmy 1989) tooth-picks (Wong 1989) and others. There are 2 joss paper factories, one each in Pahang and Perak. The joss paper factory in Perak produced 1.3 million kg in 1992, and was mainly exported to Taiwan (Lockman et al. 1992). There are 9 bamboo entrepreneurs who develop bamboo basket industry in Perak. Daily, about 6000 vegetable baskets are sent to Cameron Highlands (Lim and Roslan 1992). This is a home industry involving family members as workers. Of the total 382 workers, 47% are full-time workers while the rest work on a part-time basis. Women constitute 61% of the workers in the manufacturing of bamboo baskets (Lim and Roslan 1992). The export of bamboo increased from 329 tonnes in 1991 to 7348 tonnes in 1995 (valued at RM 193 019). The import value increased from 2097 tonnes in 1991-94 426 tons in 1995 (valued at RM 2 586 188) (Anonymous 1995). The main buyers for Malaysian bamboos were Singapore and Vietnam. Malaysia also imported finished bamboo products such as chopsticks from Taiwan (Anonymous 1991) (Table 4). Table: 4. Exports and imports of bamboo (1991-1995).

Year Trade Quantity (Tonnes) Value (RM) 1991 Export Import 1992 Export Import 1993 Export Import 1994 Export Import 1995 Export Import Source: Anon, 1995. The culm characteristics of the 12 commercial bamboos are shown in Table 3. The maximum weight of one culm each of G. scortechinii, S. zollingeri and S. grande was 27.2 g, 16.3 g and 4.3 g, respectively (Azmy 1993). There is a positive linear relationship between green weight and solid volume of G. scortechinii, B. blumeana, S. grande and S. zollingeri (Azmy et al. 1991). Studies on comparative vascular anatomy of 1 to 3 year old bamboo species of B. blumeana, B. vulgaris and G. scortechinii were conducted. The fibre length and cell wall thickness were not significantly influenced by the increment of age and culm height. The average fibre length of the 3 bamboo species varied from 1.74-4.24 mm. With the increment of age, all the fibre dimensions (except fibre diameter) increased (Abd. Latif et al. 1990a,b; Abd. Latif and Wan Tarmeze 1990). According to Abd. Latif (1987), the selection of bamboo for industrial uses and housing should be based on the physical and mechanical properties. The physical properties vary within and between the culms of the bamboo species. The moisture content of bamboo was highest near the basal portion, and density the lowest (Abd. Latif et al. 1989; Abd. Latif and Wan Tamizi 1990). The density of G. scortechinii was lowest at the basal portion of 1-year-old culm (0.49) and highest at the top portion of the 3-year-old culm (0.58) (Jamaludin et al. 1992). The older bamboo showed better processing qualities. G. scortechinii has the potential to produce fermented products such as ethanol by enzymatic saccharification (Nor Azah and Azmy 1991). In addition, according to Mohd Nor, the younger culm of G. scortechinii was easier to pulp due to its lower lignin content compared to the older culm. It is a good raw material for pulping (Jamaludin et al. 1992). Bamboo flooring can be made from B. vulgaris and G. scortechinii which were better than kempas (Koompasia malaccensis). According to Chew et al. (1992), B. vulgaris also was used for producing medium density particle board. Research and development needs There are several constraints in Malaysia in the area of bamboo production and utilization which require attention They are as follows: 1. The difficulty of acquiring enough land for large scale plantation and exploitation of commercial Malaysian bamboos. With the Federal Government and State policy in the country, for every 100 ha of land to be developed for any purpose, it has to get approval from the state Exco Committee and this has hindered the interest of the entrepreneurs to venture into the planting of bamboo because the decision making process takes long time. 2. Poor management system of the cottage industry which is family managed. They lack the knowledge in modern factory management, and this has hindered development of the industries. In addition, it is difficult for such families to obtain bank loans. 329 2 097 208 3 510 111 4 120 692 3 761 7 348 94 426 314 086 1 472 276 148 284 2 339 551 122 130 2 966 321 168 899 2 804 197 193 019 2 586 188

3. Lack of product technology development, especially better designing for export markets. 4. Most of the bamboo entrepreneurs currently in the industry cannot compete in the international market, with the high production costs and poor product quality. 5. Lack of supply of quality bamboo culms due to the haphazard way of felling and mixture of various ages of bamboo culms, which reduces the quantity and quality of the products. 6. Lack of quality planting materials especially for mass propagation. Suggestions for improvement include: 1. Land policy should be flexible, especially in acquiring large tracts of land in the Forest Reserve areas which can be managed on a plantation basis. 2. Courses in business management in bamboo industry should be conducted to the public, especially to cottage industry entrepreneurs. 3. Product development for higher value added like parquet and new product designs with international standards. 4. In situ and ex situ conservation measures should be stressed especially for commercial species for future supply of materials. 5. Good germplasm should be identified and collection of quality planting materials should be implemented. 6. Management regimes for commercial plantation purposes should be highlighted for future research. References Abd. Latif, M. 1987. Guideline on blinds and satay sticks production. P. 8 (Malay) in FRIM Technical Information 2. Abd. Latif, M. and O. Abd. Razak. 1991. Availability, distribution of bamboo and its industrial status in Peninsular Malaysia. Pp. 60-67 in Proceedings of The Fourth International Bamboo Workshop, 27-30 Nov, 1991, Chiangmai, Thailand, IDRC, Singapore. Abd. Latif, M., S. Mohd Rashid and H. Jalaludin. 1989. Effect of bleaching on mechanical properties of commercial Malaysian bamboo. Pp. 27-33 (Malay) in Proceedings of National Symposium on Analytical Chemistry. Agriculture University of Malaysia, Serdang. Abd. Latif, M. and W. A. Wan Tarmeze. 1990. Anatomical properties and mechanical relationship of some natural stand Malaysian bamboo. Paper presented at IUFRO XIX World Congress, 5-12 Aug 1990. Montreal, Canada. Abd. Latif, M., W. A. Wan Tarmeze and A. Fauzidah. 1990a. Anatomical features and mechanical properties of three Malaysian bamboo. Journal Tropical Forest Science 2(3):223-227. Abd. Latif, M., M. Mohd Tamizi, S. Mohd Rashid and M. Mohd. Shukari. 1990b. Wear resistance of two commercial bamboo species in Peninsular Malaysia and their suitability as flooring material. In Proceedings of The International Bamboo Workshop, (I.V.R. Rao, R. Gnanaharan and C.B. Sastry, eds.). Cochin, India, 14-15 Nov 1988. Kerala Forest Research Institute Peechi, and IDRC. Singapore. Abd. Razak, M.A. and M. Abd. Latif. 1988. Prospects of small-scale wood-based industries. Paper presented at the Seminar on Opportunity and Technological Development in Small-Scale Industries held in Kuala Lumpur, 28-29 Mar 1988.

Abd. Razak, O. 1989a. Note on the plantation of bamboo species of the temperate zone in Malaysia. Journal Tropical Forest Science 2(l):84-85. Abd. Razak, O. 1989b. A Note on Bamboo for Soil Stabilization and Erosion Control on Forest Roads in FRIM. P. 8 in FRIM Technical Information No. 10. Abd. Razak, O. and H. M. Azmy. 1991. Pests of Bamboo in Peninsular Malaysia. P. 4 in FRIM Technical Information No. 6. Abd. Razak, O. 1992. Vegetative propagation of selected bamboos. Proceedings of the National Bamboo Seminar I. Pp. 46-57 in Towards the Management, Conservation, Marketing and Utilization of Bamboos, 24 Nov 1992, FRIM, Kepong, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Aminuddin, M. and M. Abd. Latif. 1991. Bamboo in Malaysia: Past, present and future research in Bamboo in the Asia Pacific. Pp. 349-354 in Proceedings of the Fourth International Bamboo Workshop, 27-30 Nov, Chiangmai, Thailand, FAO, Bangkok. Anonymous 1991. External Trade Statistics Department. Kuala Lumpur, Pp. 5. Anonymous 1992. Forever Green. Pp. 28 in Malaysia and Sustainable Forest management. Ministry of Primary Industries, Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur. Anonymous 1995. Forestry Statistics Peninsular Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur, P. 135. Aziah, M. Y., and H. A. Darus. 1992. Production of bamboo propagules via tissue culture for large scale planting programmes. Pp. 64-72 in Proceedings of the National bamboo Seminar I. Towards the Management, Conservation, Marketing and Utilization of Bamboos, 2-4 Nov 1992. FRIM, Kepong, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Azmy, H. M. 1989. Guideline on the Production of Bamboo Baskets. P. 8 (Malay) in FRIM Technical Information No. 8. Azmy, H. M., W. M. Wan Razali, and A. Fauzidah. 1991. Characteristics and volume-weight relationship of four Malaysian Bamboos. Journal of Tropical Forest Science 4(l):87-93. Azmy, H. M. 1991a. Germination and fertilization of Gigantochloa ligulata seedlings. in Bamboo in Asia and The Pacific. Pp. 120-122 in Proceedings of the Fourth International Bamboo Workshop, 27-30 Nov, Chiangmai, Thailand, FAO, Bangkok. Azmy, H. M. 1991b. The structure and demography of Gigantochloa scortechinii natural stand. Japan Bamboo Journal No. 9: 21-26. Azmy, H. M. 1992a. Potential of Malaysian Bamboo Shoots. P. 42 (Malay) in siri Alam dan Rimba No. 2. FRIM, Kepong, Kuala Lumpur. Azmy, H. M. 1992b. Marcotting of bamboo. P. 9 in Buletin Buluh (Bamboo), Vol 1 (2):4. FRIM, Kuala Lumpur. Azmy, H. M. 1992c. Effect of fertilizer and felling intensity on natural bamboo stands. Bamboo and Its Use. Paper presented at The International Symposium on industrial use of bamboo. 7-11 Dec 1992, Beijing, China. Azmy, H. M. 1992d. A note on the occurence of flowering of Gigantochloa ligulata (buluh tumpat). Journal of Tropical Forest Science 4(4):354-355.

Azmy, H. M. 1993. Relationships between height, diameter at breast height (dbh) and culm weight of three Malaysian bamboos. Journal of Tropical Forest Science 6(1): 85-86. Azmy. H. M. and O. Abd. Razak. 1991. Field Identification of Twelve Commercial Malaysian Bamboos. P. 12 in FRIM Technical Information No. 25. FRIM, Kuala Lumpur. Azmy, H. M. and O. Abd. Razak. 1992. Management of Bamboo in Rubber Plantation. FRIM Reports No. 58:1-8. Azmy, H. M. and J. B. Hall. 1992. Observation on the growth of Gigantochloa Scortechinii (buluh semantan) shoots at Nami, Kedah. Pp. 89-96 in Proceedings of the National Bamboo Seminar I. Towards the Management, Conservation, marketing and Utilization of Bamboos, 2-4 Nov 1992. FRIM, Kepong, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Azmy, H. M. and Z. Maziah. 1990. Leaf Diseases of Bamboo. P. 4 in FRIM Technical Information No 18. FRIM, Malaysia. Azmy, H. M., H. Norini and W.M. Wan Razali. 1997. Management Guidelines and Economics of Natural Bamboo Stands. P. 40 in FRIM Technical Information No. 15, FRIM, Kepong, Malaysia. Chew, L. T., S. Rahim, and K. Jamaluddin. 1992. Bambusa vulgaris for urea and cement-bonded particle boards. Journal Tropical Forest Science 4(3):249-256. Chin, T. Y. 1977. Effects of cutting regimes on bamboo infested forest areas. P. 12 in paper presented at the Asean Seminar on Tropical Rainforest Management, 7-10 Nov, Kuantan, Pahang, Malaysia. Dahlan, T. 1994. Resources and industrial prospects of bamboo in Pahang State. Pp. 20-25 (Malay) in proceedings of The National Bamboo Seminar I. Towards the Management, Conservation, marketing and Utilization of Bamboos, 2-4 Nov 1992. FRIM, Kepong, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Hashim, M.N. 1988. To Select Bamboo Species For Cultivation. Pp. 15 in FRIM Annual Research Report, Kuala Lumpur. Jamaluddin, K., H.A. Abd. Jalil, A.J. Ashari and M. Abd. Latif. 1992. Variation in specific gravity of 1-, 2-, and 3-year-old Gigantochloa scortechinii (buluh semantan). P. 182-187 in Proceedings of the National Bamboo Seminar I. Towards the Management, Conservation, Marketing and Utilization of Bamboos, 2-4 Nov 1992. FRIM, Kepong, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Kamaruzaman, A.B. 1992. Bamboo Resource in Peninsular Malaysia. Buletin Buluh (Bamboo) 1(1):8-9. Krishnapillay, B., M. Marzalina and M. Haris. 1993. Liquid nitrogen storage prolongs bamboo seed longevity. Buletin Buluh (Bamboo) 2(2):1-3. Lim, H.F. and I. Roslan. 1992. Some socioeconomic aspects of bamboo basket making Industry: A Case Study in Tapah, Perak. Pp. 128-146 in Proceedings of the National Bamboo Seminar I. Towards the Management, Conservation, Marketing and Utilization of Bamboos, 2-4 Nov 1992. FRIM, Kepong, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Lockman, M.S., H.O. Mohd Shahwahid, L.Y. Poh and J. Saroni. 1992. Distribution of bamboo and the potential development of the bamboo industry. Pp. 6-19 in Proceedings of the National Bamboo Seminar I. Towards the Management, Conservation, Marketing and Utilization of Bamboos, 2-4 Nov 1992. FRIM, Kepong, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. McGrath, K.P. 1970. The Potential of bamboo as a Source of Pulp and Paper in West Malaysia. P. 8 in UNDP-FAO Technical Report.

Ng, F.S.P. and A.M. Nor. 1980. Bamboo Research in Asia. Pp. 91-96 in Proceedings of the workshop, Singapore, 28-30 May 1980. International Union Forestry Research Organization and International Development Research Centre, Singapore. Nor Aziha, M.A. and H.M. Azmy. 1991. Preliminary study on the four Malaysian commercial bamboo species. Bamboo Information Centre, India Bulletin 1(2):6-10. Poh, L.Y., Mohd. H.O. Shahwahid and J. Saroni. 1994. P. 176 (Malay). Analysis of Bamboo Industry in Peninsular Malaysia. Department of Forestry, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Razak, W. and M. Tamizi. 1989. Guidelines on Chopsticks Manufacturing. Pp. 8 (Malay) in FRIM Technical Information No. 11, Kepong, Malaysia. Salleh, M.N. and K.M. Wong. 1987. The bamboo resources in Malaysia: Strategies for development. Pp. 4549 in Current Research on Bamboo. Proceedings of the International Bamboo Workshop held in Hangzhou, China. (I.V.R. Rao, G. Dhanarajan and C. B. Sastry, eds.). The Chinese Academy of Forestry and IDRC, Singapore. Wan Razali, W. M. and H.M. Azmy. 1994. Appropriate methodologies in research on natural stands of bamboo. P. 22 paper presented at The INBAR production Working Group, 8-13 May 1994, Bangalore, India. Watson, A.A. and J. Wyatt-Smith. 1961. Eradication of bamboo Gigantochloa levis. Malayan Forester 24:225-229. Wickneswari, K., H.M. Azmy, and M. Norwati, 1992. Intra and inter-clump electrophoretic variation in Gigantochloa scortechinii: Preliminary Results. Pp. 58-63 in proceedings of The National Bamboo Seminar I. Towards the Management, Conservation, Marketing and Utilization of Bamboos. 2-4 Nov. 1992, FRIM, Kepong, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Wong, K.M. 1989. Current and potential use of bamboo in Peninsular Malaysia. Journal American Bamboo Society 7(1&2):1-15. Wong, K.M. 1995. The bamboos of Peninsular Malaysia. Malayan Forest Records, No. 41. FRIM, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Genetic diversity of woody bamboos - their conservation and improvement - A.N. Rao
Consultant, International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI), Serdang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia. Introduction Bamboos are very interesting plants in their growth, morphogenesis, taxonomy, distribution, ecology and reproduction. The monopodial or sympodial habit, well-segmented culms and rooting patterns characterize various growth forms of bamboos. The functioning of intercalary meristem that supports rapid growth of internodes and their elongation to establish the erect stem axis that reaches 30-40 m in certain species, characterizes the morphogenesis of bamboo plants. The perennial woody habit of bamboos separates them from herbaceous grass genera. The interrelationship between various bamboo genera and species is not well understood. The complicated life history and widely variable vegetative characters create impediments in solving the taxonomic problems.

The grass family Gramineae is one of the biggest of the five among flowering plants, the tribe bambuseae includes 85% of woody and 25% herbaceous genera. Of these about 10 genera and 30 species are commercially important worldwide. In the priority list, prepared in 1993, nine genera and nineteen species were included which indicate the fact that traditionally only a small part of bamboo resources are used to date (Williams and Rao 1994; Rao et al. 1998). The scientific details available on bamboos are inadequate, except taxonomic categorization, to promote work on genetic analysis and conservation. Regarding distribution, most of the woody genera are present in South and South East Asia which include Yunnan province in China bordering the lower Himalayas that extend to the east (Tewari 1992; Pei 1997; Rao et al. 1997; Rao et al. 1998). Ecology of bamboos is diverse in terms of habitats, soil, altitudes, water requirements, species association and others. Most of them are rapid colonisers. Vegetative growth is varied even between two species belonging to same genus. Gregarious or sporadic flowering with long or short interval of time with varying degrees of sterility would characterize sexual reproduction (Tewari 1992). No correlation has been observed between vegetative and reproductive growth phases. The clumps of woody bamboos can grow up to 100 or 120 years and each culm can last 4-10 years. The present state of knowledge on some of the important topics that help to understand the genetic variations, conservation and production of woody bamboos are discussed and lines of research that need to be pursued in the near future are briefly specified in this paper. Taxonomic status Gramineae, or the grass family, has 14 tribes and Bambuseae is one of them that includes bamboos. Seedling characters, leaf anatomy, number as well as morphology of chromosomes of panicoid, chloridoid, festucoid and bambusoid members were compared to assess the evolutionary trends. The bambuseae is regarded as the early or primitive tribe among all grasses (Stebbins 1950, 1971). This generalization was made on the data obtained from temperate grasses and the criteria 'established cannot be uncritically followed' with reference to all the species, especially when the groups are distantly related to one another (Stebbins 1971). It was suggested that the data obtained indicate the need for the revision of various tribes of the whole family (Stebbins 1971). It is not certain whether bambusoid grasses examined by the above authors were of woody or herbaceous groups. A normal or standardized bamboo classification system, which is easy to use, is very much needed consolidating all the criteria so far used by different researchers in various parts of the world (McClure 1966; Ohrenberger and Goerrings 1989; Tewari 1992; Dransfield and Widjaja 1995). Taxonomic problems in species identification are common to all the bamboo growing countries in Asia with the difference that in some countries few species remain yet to be identified while in others more than 30-40% of the species remain unidentified. Further, the variations that may be present within the same species that has very wide or Pan Asian distribution have yet to be accounted and recorded (E.g. Bambusa bambos, Dendrocalamus strictus and others), because no individual scientist has studied the populations of the same species in different countries or geographical areas. Nearly 10-20% of bamboo species that have been used for ages have no scientific names. Herbarium specimens are inadequate in many Asian countries in evaluating all the diagnostic characters. The living plants show many more useful characters. Such details are illustrated with reference to bamboos in Southeast Asia (Chua et al. 1996; Dransfield and Widjaja 1995). Nevertheless the extraction, use and trade of bamboos continue in all the countries using common and local names. Some species in certain countries are identified only with numbers. Up to 90% of the sympodial bamboos presently used are extracted directly from the forests. Resources are dwindling. Very few countries have made any efforts so far to assess the bamboo resources available in terms of forest land area covered with bamboos, all the species present, the quality and quantity of species distributed etc (Fu and Xiao 1996; Bennet and Gaur 1990; Anon 1995, 1997; Rao et al. 1987; Rao et al. 1990). Species delimitations in bamboos are determined by using a number of vegetative and reproductive characters and their coefficients. Since bamboos flower irregularly and at very long intervals it is not easy to

study the flowering materials hence both vegetative and floral characters are used simultaneously (Holltum 1956, 1958; Gilliland 1971; Tewari 1992). The difficulties encountered in taxonomic studies on bamboos are well summarized and the basic frame work laid down 130 years ago by pioneers remains still valid, continuously used by others with or without additional details. (McClure 1966; Tewari 1992). A number of new species and genera are added in the meanwhile (Soderstrom and Ellis 1987; Dransfield and Widjaja 1995). More research is needed by native taxonomists working in bamboo growing countries so that they will have an opportunity to study the growing plants regularly and use fresh materials rather than studying specimens in herbaria. Occasionally they may be able to collect flowering specimens, which would be an additional advantage. The continued studies in unexplored areas would help to add more new taxa to the group. Literature on bamboo taxonomy focuses on delimitation of genera and species and various workers have emphasized the need to study large number of species to regroup them and to streamline the phylogenetic relationships (Tewari 1992). The 'critical taxonomic work' on Southeast Asian bamboos is progressing (Dransfield and Widjaja 1995). Complete inventory of species in each bamboo growing country, the patterns of distribution and population diversity, the relative abundance with reference to ecological conditions should be properly recorded for better conservation and management of bamboo resources. For detailed ecogeographic survey and complete inventory selected locations should be identified in each country and sampling strategies with particular details relevant to each country should be outlined. The ecological characters including soil quality and water availability should be outlined. The associated plant species that grow with bamboos in a given habitat that help the ecosystem functioning need to be properly documented to prepare plans for conservation methods. Flowering and seed production McClure (1966) reviewed flowering behaviour of bamboos identifying species that are permanently sterile (E.g. Bambusa vulgaris); and those that regularly flower (E.g. Bambusa lineata, Ochlandra stridula, Schizostachyum spp). Other species fall in between the two boundaries showing monocarpic tendency irrespective of the fact that they flower sporadically or gregariously and of the interval between the two flowering periods. Many species of Phyllostachys and Arundinaria do not die after flowering. McClure also suggested that life cycles and flowering cycles of various bamboo species should be properly studied among various populations in different countries. Flowering is infrequent, that too at long intervals, in most bamboo species and some of them grow up to 100-120 years before they start flowering. Monocarpic flowering habit in bamboos is a relic tendency and appears to be a carried over phenomenon resembling other grasses. Certain species became perennials with pronounced woody habit but monocarpic flowering habit remained as a surviving evolutionary trace. Many interesting articles have been written on flowering in bamboos (Jansen 1976; Liese 1985; Dwivedi 1990; Tewari 1992) and three main types of flowering recognised: a) Gragarious flowering occurs in populations very synchronously lasting over a period of 2-3 years; b) Sporadic flowering observed in some plants within the populations; sometimes very regular and seeds collected annually as observed in some species; whether the same plant continues to grow further even after flowering or dies has to be confirmed in many species. The details available at present are not precise (McClure 1966; Tewari 1992); c) Species of Schizostachyum and other bamboos flower regularly with or without seeds and the same plant continues to grow year after year. Sporadic flowering is regular in bamboo species that grow in Kanchanaburi area of Thailand (about 120 miles from Bangkok). The temperature, rainfall and soil conditions appear to be most suitable since many species of about six genera both in the bambusetum and in the nearby forest flower regularly. Clump after clump in a population take turn to flower. Seeds are collected either once or twice every year. Although many hypotheses were put forward in the past, it is becoming increasingly clear in the last 5-10 years that sporadic flowering is very common in many species as observed in different countries. In a recent trip to Myanmar the author along with Dr Nyan Htun noticed several (1-2%) clumps of Bambusa blumeana in full flowering but with few seeds. Such observations need to be properly confirmed, collated and published (Figs 1-5). It is also necessary to study the populations more regularly in different localities every year and record

the data. Further, plants from such populations need to be collected and grown in a suitable place to establish and conserve the gene pool (Banik 1995). Such an exercise would help to determine whether the causal factors that induce flowering are ecological or genetic in nature besides providing a reliable collection of germplasm for seed collection. Phytotron conditions or even large growth chambers may be suitable for experimentation. Because of the huge size of bamboos plants and lack of secondary cambium, it may be difficult to grow them in growth chambers. This point would bring in other questions like how much would culm or rhizome contribute towards flowering? The bamboo clumps that flower under natural conditions remain almost leafless. What is the role of foliage in inducing flowering? Why should foliage wait to develop till axis development is complete? Role of auxiliary buds etc? All these details need to be well studied to understand the causal factors and relationship between vegetative growth and flowering in bamboos. It is generally observed that many species with gregarious flowering would produce no viable seeds. Very few studies are done on percentage fruit set, seed viability, germination etc. In the sporadic flowering types, the ratio between fertile and infertile seeds vary between the clumps or different clumps in a population. Seed sterility involves many factors including pollination, relative stage of embryo development, relationship between endosperm and embryo, thickness of seed coat and others. There are very few studies on development of bamboo seeds since the material is almost unobtainable or available. Bamboo growers usually soak the seeds before germinating them in the nursery. Only those that sink are used and the ones that float are rejected with the assumption that the latter are infertile with or without regular seed contents. Work on seed anatomy is required. The genetic implications in seed development are several which are yet to be properly analyzed. All such details play an important role while selecting superior populations for in situ or ex situ conservation. Polyploidy and hybridization in bamboos Polyploidy is more common among plants than in animals. More than 35% of flowering plants are polyploids (Stebbins 1971; Heywood 1995). Highest percentage of polyploids recorded are perennial herbs and bamboos and they are mostly self incompatible as recorded in certain bamboo species. It is suggested that the rhizomatous perennial habit drains the photosynthates to build up the vegetative biomass suppressing or postponing the event of flowering until the end of vegetative growth period as seen in many of the monocarpic plants including bananas, some palms and bamboos. The period recorded for completion of vegetative growth before flowering is the longest in bamboos among all the angiosperms. The period also varies among different species from a few decades to more than a century. In polyploids the sexual reproduction system is modified or upset involving apomictic and parthenocarpic tendencies and substitution of asexual reproduction for sexual; the common examples are grasses. Loss of fertility and seed production is another important character of polyploids, commonly noticed in certain bamboo species. Chromosome segregation during mitosis or meiosis is not studied among bamboos. The autopolyploids and allopolyploids are identified by studying and matching chromosomes at metaphase in mitosis and these details are wanting for bamboos. Most of the woody bamboos so far studied are polyploids and diploids are rarely found in any of them (Table 1). Genetic diversity within the species is the main building block for evolution and speciation. Both the genetic and species divergence have yet to be well studied among bamboos. Just in one generation the polyploids become separate and distinct from the diploid species. The concept of species is still being debated (Heywood 1995). Bamboos are such a diverse group and provide many good examples to analyze and discuss the morphological, ecological and genetic concepts of species. The number of species, their geographic range of distribution, species and ecosystem diversity are important to determine the in situ conservation programme and select the appropriate species from good populations for ex situ conservation. Many of the above details are yet to be well studied in case of tropical woody bamboos. Population studies would help to plan the conservation activities. The range of geographic distribution for certain bamboos species are recorded (Dransfield and Widjaja 1995; Rao et al. 1998). Table 1. Polyploidy in bamboos

Source: Tewari 1992, Darlington and Janaki Ammal 1945, Darlington and Wiley, 1955). Genus and number of species studied 1. Arundinaria 14 sps 2. Bambusa 18 sps 3. Dendrocalamus 8 sps Chromosome numbers in different species 4 species with 24 chromosomes, 8 species with 48, one with 54, one with 70 or 74 =14 1 species with 70 or 74, 1 with 70 or 72, 3 with 64-72, 3 with 64, 2 with 48, 4 with 72, 1 with 52 or 64, 2 species with 56 or 64 or 72, 1 with 96 = 18 7 with 72, 1 with 48, or 64 or 72 = 8

4. Phyllostachys 21 sps 18 with 48, 1 with 44 or 48, 1 with 48 or 54, 1 with 70 or 74 = 21 (Haploid chromosome numbers 2, 8, 6 or 12 but not certain, somatic numbers vary from 48-96). Depending on the evolutionary tendencies hybridization is possible among polyploids between closely or widely related species or even among different genera (Stebbins 1971). Such details are recorded in Bromus and the other grass species. The same proclivity is observed among bamboo genera and species. Interspecific hybrids were obtained from among species of Bambusa, intergeneric hybrids between Bambusa and Dendrocalamus sps. Phyllostachys and Dendrocalamus and others (Table 2). (Fu 1995; Zhang 1986, 1987, 1997). Superior bamboo hybrids with good vitality, reproductive potential and adaptability are cultivated in several provinces in China, covering more than 600 ha. The growth rate of culms, culm form, fibre length, resistance to cold (up to -5C) of these hybrids were analyzed. More research in this direction holds great promise for the possible genetic enhancement of the species or groups of species concerned. Some of the hybrid bamboos are already introduced to other countries outside China. Table 2. Cross-breeding between different genera and species of bamboo Female Dendrocalamus Sinocalamus Bambusa Bambusa Bambusa Bambusa Phyllostachys parent Male latiflorus minor textilis pervariabilis sinospinosa chungii edulis parent D. latiflorus S. minor B. textilis B. pervariabilis B. sinospinosa B. chungii P. edulis D. latiflorus + B. textilis D. latiflorus + P. edulis D. latiflorus + B. pervariabilis P. edulis + S. minor X X X X X * X X X X X X X X X X * * * X X

Note: * means excellent crossbreeding combination, good hybrids obtained (Fu 1995) Biodiversity and genetic diversity The word biodiversity came into usage in 1986 and the three levels of biodiversity namely, genetic diversity, species diversity and ecological diversity are yet to be properly investigated in bamboos (Tewari 1992). But no data are so far available on the biodiversity or genetic diversity or genetics of population of any species of bamboos. Biodiversity and sustainability are inseparable, said to be the two sides of the same coin (Wilson 1988; Reaka Kudla et al. 1997; Raven 1998). Genetic diversity attributes to the genes and genetic make up of individuals within the species. The meaning and implications of both bio and genetic diversity of bamboos were recently discussed (McNeely 1996; Stapleton and Ramanatha Rao 1996). Details published on species diversity are very few and intraspecific details recorded are few. A large number of taxa need to be studied to establish inter and intraspecific relationships. Cladistic relationships are built to determine phylogenetic affinities and DNA techniques have been used (Watanabe et al. 1994). Strategies for bamboo improvement were outlined (Banik and Rao 1996). Population studies are important to analyze the diversity within and between species. Proper guidelines should be developed for local and regional action. Ecological priority actions are needed (Vivekanandan et al. 1998; Wan Razali et al. 1994). Spontaneous mutants were detected showing morphological variations in colour, shape and structure in Bambusa vulgaris, B. bambos, Oxytenanthera abyssinica, Phyllostachys edulis and Guadua angustifolia (Venkatesh 1992). Both intra and inter clump variations were common among these species and most of them are propagated vegetatively. Greater can be the variations to select superior plants if seeds are used as planting materials but seeds are rarely formed in the above species. Genetic variations are recorded in certain species due to outcrossing, segregation and recombination (Zhang and Chen 1987). Intra and inter clump variations in Gigantochloa scortechinii were analyzed using electrophoretic methods (Ratnam et al. 1994). Lateral buds from 30-40 culms of three clumps were analysed using eleven enzymes. Variations were observed in three enzyme systems, when buds from different clumps or buds on the same culm were studied indicating the possible somatic mutation in the species (Ratnam et al. 1994). G. scortechinii is well naturalized in the logged over forests of Peninsular Malaysia. It is a very useful bamboo for handicrafts, basket making and other small-scale industries. Attempts are also made to establish plantations for which improved planting materials are needed (Othman and Nor 1994; Azmy 1994). Electrophoretic methods were used to determine both intra and interclump variations as well as somatic mutations. Only a small sample size was used and 3.3% frequency of somatic mutation was recorded. A large number of samples need to be tested to determine the genetic diversity and to select superior planting materials (Ratnam et al. 1994). Seeds of Bambusa bambos and Dendrocalamus strictus responded well when treated with colchicine showing increase in plant size and greater vigour (Ueda 1962; Tewari 1992). Both cytological and genetic research should progress further to identify the factors involved to improve the quality of bamboos Similarity of structures in closely related species is called Homology, a biological concept more frequently used while describing animals than plants. The unique characters that bamboos display show strong tendencies of homology, especially in relation to culm sheath, arrangement of axillary buds, leaf arrangement, branching and others. Some of these characters are very identical in the closely related bamboo species and one has to be very critical in distinguishing and differentiating the variations among the characters that help to prepare the taxonomic keys and identify the species. The genetic basis of homology is not well established in plants to explain inter and intra specific relationships (Tautz 1998). A very close study of developmental characteristics in bamboo species will be very interesting to understand the role of ecological and genetical factors that determine the genotypic and phenotypic characters. Conclusions The work on genetic diversity, patterns of distribution, and herbarium survey of bamboos done in the last 56 years has given us better insight to continue research on conservation of important bamboos including the priority species. Concepts of biodiversity and sustainable use are very closely intertwined, not easy to separate or study one aspect without referring to the other. Relative evolutionary history of bamboos,

endemism, geology and characterization of habitat are all inter-related and their implications need to be analyzed to plan and carry out research on methods of conservation. Evolutionary tendencies are not properly traced or determined in bamboos and information obtained on these lines would help to strengthen taxonomic relationships of bamboos and to identify the advanced, superior taxa. There are no fossil evidences of bamboos. Sexuality and its function in plants is an important strategy to generate genetic variation but many bamboos do not have a regular reproductive cycle. More critical studies are needed to analyze the implications of the present reproductive methods known in bamboos including absence of seed set, ineffective pollination, fertilization and other related aspects. It is said that economy is a subsidiary of the environment and restoration ecology, use of degraded and waste lands are important to grow bamboos that would help regenerate plant wealth and improve the economy of rural people in Asian countries who are the main bamboo users. Studies on the lines indicated above would provide good perspective for better management of superior bamboos including their conservation and