EE E6820: Speech & Audio Processing & Recognition

Lecture 2: Acoustics
Dan Ellis & Mike Mandel
Columbia University Dept. of Electrical Engineering http://www.ee.columbia.edu/dpwe/e6820

January 29, 2009

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The wave equation Acoustic tubes: reections & resonance Oscillations & musical acoustics Spherical waves & room acoustics
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Outline

The wave equation Acoustic tubes: reections & resonance Oscillations & musical acoustics Spherical waves & room acoustics

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Acoustics & sound

Acoustics is the study of physical waves (Acoustic) waves transmit energy without permanently displacing matter (e.g. ocean waves) Same math recurs in many domains Intuition: pulse going down a rope

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The wave equation

Consider a small section of the rope
y S x 2

1 S

Displacement y (x), tension S, mass dx Lateral force is Fy = S sin(2 ) S sin(1 ) S 2y dx x 2

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Wave equation (2)

Newtons law: F = ma S 2y 2y dx = dx 2 x 2 t

Call c 2 = S/ (tension to mass-per-length) hence, the Wave Equation: c2 2y 2y = 2 x 2 t

. . . partial DE relating curvature and acceleration

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Solution to the wave equation

If y (x, t) = f (x ct) (any f ()) then y = f (x ct) x 2y = f (x ct) x 2 also works for y (x, t) = f (x + ct) Hence, general solution: c2 2y 2y = 2 x 2 t y = cf (x ct) t 2y = c 2 f (x ct) t 2

y (x, t) = y + (x ct) + y (x + ct)

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Solution to the wave equation (2)

y + (x ct) and y (x + ct) are traveling waves
shape stays constant but changes position
y time 0: y+ yx = cT time T: x x y+ y-

c is traveling wave velocity (x/t) y + moves right, y moves left resultant y (x) is sum of the two waves

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Wave equation solutions (3)

What is the form of y + , y ?
any doubly-dierentiable function will satisfy wave equation

Actual waveshapes dictated by boundary conditions

e.g. y (x) at t = 0 plus constraints on y at particular xs e.g. input motion y (0, t) = m(t) rigid termination y (L, t) = 0
y

y(0,t) = m(t) y+(x,t)

y(L,t) = 0

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Terminations and reections

System constraints:
initial y (x, 0) = 0 (at rope) input y (0, t) = m(t) (at agents hand) ( y + ) termination y (L, t) = 0 (xed end) wave equation y (x, t) = y + (x ct) + y (x + ct)

At termination:
y (L, t) = 0 y + (L ct) = y (L + ct) i.e. y + and y are mirrored in time and amplitude around x = L inverted reection at termination
y+

y(x,t) = y+ + y y x=L

[simulation travel1.m]

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Outline

The wave equation Acoustic tubes: reections & resonance Oscillations & musical acoustics Spherical waves & room acoustics

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Acoustic tubes
Sound waves travel down acoustic tubes:

pressure

1-dimensional; very similar to strings

Common situation:
wind instrument bores ear canal vocal tract

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Pressure and velocity

Consider air particle displacement (x, t)

(x)
x

Particle velocity v (x, t) =

hence volume velocity u(x, t) = Av (x, t)

1 (Relative) air pressure p(x, t) = x

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Wave equation for a tube

Consider elemental volume
Area dA Force pdA Force (p+p/xdx)dA

Volume dAdx Mass dAdx

Newtons law: F = ma p v dx dA = dA dx x t p v = x t 2 2 1 c2 2 = 2 c= x t
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Acoustic tube traveling waves

Traveling waves in particle displacement: (x, t) = + (x ct) + (x + ct)
Call u + () = cA + (), Z0 = c A

Then volume velocity: u(x, t) = A And pressure: p(x, t) = 1 = Z0 u + (x ct) + u (x + ct) x = u + (x ct) u (x + ct) t

(Scaled) sum and dierence of traveling waves

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Acoustic traveling waves (2)

Dierent resultants for pressure and volume velocity:
Acoustic tube x c u+ c uu(x,t) = u+ - up(x,t) = Z0[u+ + u-]

Volume velocity Pressure

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Terminations in tubes
Equivalent of xed point for tubes?
Solid wall forces hence u+ = uu(x,t) = 0

u0(t) (Volume velocity input)

Open end forces p(x,t) = 0 hence u+ = -u-

Open end is like xed point for rope: reects wave back inverted Unlike xed point, solid wall reects traveling wave without inversion

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Standing waves
Consider (complex) sinusoidal input u0 (t) = U0 e jt Pressure/volume must have form Ke j(t+) Hence traveling waves: u + (x ct) = |A|e j(kx+t+A ) u (x + ct) = |B|e j(kx+t+B ) where k = /c (spatial frequency, rad/m) (wavelength = c/f = 2c/) Pressure and volume velocity resultants show stationary pattern: standing waves
even when |A| = |B| [simulation sintwavemov.m]
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Standing waves (2)

U0 ejt
kx = x=/2 pressure = 0 (node) vol.veloc. = max (antinode)

For lossless termination (|u + | = |u |), have true nodes and antinodes Pressure and volume velocity are phase shifted
in space and in time

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Transfer function
Consider tube excited by u0 (t) = U0 e jt sinusoidal traveling waves must satisfy termination boundary conditions satised by complex constants A and B in u(x, t) = u + (x ct) + u (x + ct) = Ae j(kx+t) + Be j(kx+t) = e jt (Ae jkx + Be jkx ) standing wave pattern will scale with input magnitude point of excitation makes a big dierence . . .

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Transfer function (2)

For open-ended tube of length L excited at x = 0 by U0 e jt u(x, t) = U0 e jt cos k(L x) cos kL k= c

(matches at x = 0, maximum at x = L) i.e. standing wave pattern e.g. varying L for a given (and hence k):

U0 ejt U0 ejt

U0

UL

U0

UL

magnitude of UL depends on L (and )

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Transfer function (3)

Varying for a given L, i.e. at x = L u(L, t) 1 1 UL = = = U0 u(0, t) cos kL cos(L/c)
u(L) u(0) L

u(L) u(0)

at L/c = (2r+1)/2, r = 0,1,2...

Output volume velocity always larger than input

c Unbounded for L = (2r + 1) 2 = (2r + 1) 4 i.e. resonance (amplitude grows without bound)

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Resonant modes
For lossless tube with L = m , m odd, wavelength 4
u(L) u(0)

is unbounded, meaning: transfer function has pole on frequency axis energy at that frequency sustains indenitely
L = 3 1/4 1 = 30

L = 0/4

compare to time domain . . . e.g. 17.5 cm vocal tract, c = 350 m/s 0 = 2 500 Hz (then 1500, 2500, . . . )

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Scattering junctions
At abrupt change in area: pressure must be continuous pk(x, t) = pk+1(x, t) vol. veloc. must be continuous uk(x, t) = uk+1(x, t) traveling waves u+k, u-k, u+k+1, u-k+1 will be different

u+k uk

u+k+1 u-k+1 Area Ak+1

Area Ak

+ Solve e.g. for uk and uk+1 : (generalized term)

2r 1+r
+

u+k 1-r 1+r u-k

+

u+k+1 r-1 r+1 r= u-k+1

Ak+1 Ak

Area ratio

2 r+1
Acoustics

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Concatenated tube model

Vocal tract acts as a waveguide
Lips x=L

Lips uL(t)

Glottis u0(t) Glottis

x=0

Discrete approximation as varying-diameter tube

Ak, Lk

Ak+1, Lk+1
x

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Concatenated tube resonances

Concatenated tubes scattering junctions lattice lter
u+k
+

e-j1 e-j1

e-j2 e-j2

u-k

Can solve for transfer function all-pole

1 5 0

-1

-0.5

0.5

Approximate vowel synthesis from resonances [sound example: ah ee oo]

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e-j21

e-j22

Outline

The wave equation Acoustic tubes: reections & resonance Oscillations & musical acoustics Spherical waves & room acoustics

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Oscillations & musical acoustics

Pitch (periodicity) is essence of music

why? why music? Dierent kinds of oscillators simple harmonic motion (tuning fork) relaxation oscillator (voice) string traveling wave (plucked/struck/bowed) air column (nonlinear energy element)

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Simple harmonic motion

Basic mechanical oscillation x = 2 x Spring + mass (+ damper) x = A cos(t + )

F = kx m x
e.g. tuning fork Not great for music
fundamental (cos t) only relatively low energy
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2 =

k m

Relaxation oscillator
Multi-state process
one state builds up potential (e.g. pressure) switch to second (release) state revert to rst state, etc.

e.g. vocal folds:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ajbcJiYhFKY

Oscillation period depends on force (tension)

easy to change hard to keep stable less used in music
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Ringing string
e.g. our original rope example
tension S mass/length 2 S 2 = 2 L

Many musical instruments

guitar (plucked) piano (struck) violin (bowed)

Control period (pitch):

change length (fretting) change tension (tuning piano) change mass (piano strings)

Inuence of excitation . . . [pluck1a.m]

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Wind tube
Resonant tube + energy input
nonlinear element energy acoustic waveguide scattering junction (tonehole)

c 2L

(quarter wavelength)

e.g. clarinet
lip pressure keeps reed closed reected pressure wave opens reed reinforced pressure wave passes through

nger holds determine rst reection

eective waveguide length

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Outline

The wave equation Acoustic tubes: reections & resonance Oscillations & musical acoustics Spherical waves & room acoustics

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Room acoustics
Sound in free air expands spherically:

radius r

Spherical wave equation: 2 p 2 p 1 2p + = 2 2 r 2 r r c t solved by p(r , t) = Energy p 2 falls

P0 j(tkr ) r e as r12

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Eect of rooms (1): Images

Ideal reections are like multiple sources:
virtual (image) sources reflected path

source

listener

Early echoes in room impulse response:

direct path early echos hroom(t)

actual reections may be hr (t), not (t)

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Eect of rooms (2): Modes

Regularly-spaced echoes behave like acoustic tubes

Real rooms have lots of modes! dense, sustained echoes in impulse response complex pattern of peaks in frequency response

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Reverberation
Exponential decay of reections:
hroom(t) ~e-t/T

Frequency-dependent
greater absorption at high frequencies faster decay

Size-dependent
larger rooms longer delays slower decay

Sabines equation: 0.049V S Time constant varies with size, absorption RT60 =
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Summary

Traveling waves Acoustic tubes & resonances Musical acoustics & periodicity Room acoustics & reverberation

Parting thought
Musical bottles

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References

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