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Abstract
A new method for detoxification of hydrophilic chloroorganic pollutants in effluent water was developed, using a combination of
ultrasound waves, electrochemistry and Fenton’s reagent. The advantages of the method are exemplified using two target com-
pounds: the common herbicide 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and its derivative 2,4-dichlorophenol (2,4-DCP). The high
degradation power of this process is due to the large production of oxidizing hydroxyl radicals and high mass transfer due to
sonication. Application of this sono-electrochemical Fenton process (SEF) treatment (at 20 kHz) with quite a small current density,
accomplished almost 50% oxidation of 2,4-D solution (300 ppm, 1.2 mM) in just 60 s. Similar treatments ran for 600 s resulted in
practically full degradation of the herbicide; sizable oxidation of 2,4-DCP also occurs. The main intermediate compounds produced
in the SEF process were identified. Their kinetic profile was measured and a chemical reaction scheme was suggested. The efficiency
of the SEF process is tentatively much higher than the reference degradation methods and the time required for full degradation is
considerably shorter. The SEF process maintains high performance up to concentrations which are higher than reference methods.
The optimum concentration of Fe2þ ions required for this process was found to be of about 2 mM, which is lower than that in
reference techniques. These findings indicate that SEF process may be an effective method for detoxification of environmental
water.
Ó 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
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doi:10.1016/j.ultsonch.2003.10.004
366 Y. Yasman et al. / Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 11 (2004) 365–372
not exceed 10 ppb. Therefore, alternative methods must degradation of various organic contaminants present
be considered for this compound in groundwater. both in natural and industrial water resources.
Many oxidation schemes were applied in attempts to Ultrasound was applied to decomposition of such
mineralize 2,4-D in aqueous solutions [3–11]. Some of chlororganic compounds as: chloroform [21], carbon tet-
the processes were based on the chemical [3,4] and rachloride [22], chlorofluorocarbons [23], chlorophenols
photochemical [4–11] degradation, mediated by hydro- [24–27], chlorinated aromatic compounds, biphenyls
xyl radicals. Significant accumulation of chloride ions and pesticides [28]. A complete sonolytic degradation
was reported on the time scale of 4 h; [10]. 2,4- of 2,4-D 0.2 mM, performed at high frequency ultra-
Dichlorophenol (2,4-DCP), chlorohydroquinone and sound radiation of 640 kHz and at a pH of 2.2, has oc-
hydroquinone were detected as the intermediates of the curred within 21 min [29]. Under alkaline conditions
processes involved. (pH ¼ 11.8), a longer degradation time was required (38
Complete degradation of a 0.1 mM herbicide solution min) [29].
at pH approximately 3 was reported using a chemical The chemical aspects of continuous and pulsed
degradation approach [4]. Similar results were achieved ultrasound treatment of various aqueous solutions are
by using the Fenton reagent, where considerable deg- believed to be associated with acoustic cavitations.
radation of 2,4-D was detected after 10 min of the oxi- There are three regions of importance in respect of the
dative process. Note, however, that these results were aqueous sono-chemical processes. The first region is the
achieved in pure solutions of relatively low initial her- interior of the collapsing cavitation bubbles in which
bicide concentrations. At high concentrations and in the extreme thermodynamic conditions, due to high local
presence of various salts, the classical Fenton reaction is temperature and pressure, rapidly set in [30–33]. In this
not so effective anymore. As the pollutant concentration region, a fast pyrolysis of volatile solutes takes place;
approaches the solubility limit, the inorganic salt effect water molecules also undergo thermal decomposition to
results in formation of suspension, which is actually the produce H atoms and OH radicals [34]. The second
case for many effluents. Therefore, an alternative deg- region is the interfacial boundary between the gaseous
radation method is required for effluent water at rather and the liquid phases where the temperature is lower
high pollutant concentrations. than inside the bubbles, yet still high enough to cause
Effective electrochemical methods were also developed thermal decomposition of organic solutes. It is believed
for the treatment of wastewater polluted by toxic and that the reactive radicals formed from water decompo-
stable organic compounds [12–17]. Direct electrochem- sition in gas bubbles are localized in this region. The
ical techniques [12] for water purification involve anodic third region is the bulk of solution (usually at ambient
or cathodic decomposition; however, these are com- temperature) where various reactions of organic solutes
monly associated with anodic oxidation of water (release with either OH radicals or H atoms, which escape from
of O2 ). Therefore, only low current yields can be the bubbles’ interface, may occur [35].
achieved this way. Additional problems, which are re- Sono-electrochemistry was also successful in waste-
lated to the low miscibility of most organics in water and water detoxification [15]. However, as far as we know,
to the hindered mass transfer to the anode, are respon- the combination of ultrasonic waves, electrical field and
sible for rather low space-time yields. Fenton’s process, has never been examined for water
Considerably better results may be achieved using treatment. This approach seems promising, due to the
indirect electrochemical oxidation, where the pollutants power of combining its individual components which
are oxidized in the bulk by a mediator in a high oxida- may enhance the overall performance.
tion state. For example, the application of the electro- In this study we addressed the sono-electrochemical
Fenton process to degradation of 2.4-D resulted in 67% Fenton (SEF) process and evaluated its effect upon
TOC removal, while only 16% were achieved by direct degradation of chlorinated aromatic compounds in
anodic oxidation (100 mA for 4 h) [17]. environmental water. We studied the intermediate
In addition to the above chemical, photochemical and compounds formed in this process, as well as the various
electrochemical approaches, sono-chemical techniques factors affecting its efficiency. Kinetic investigation
have also been developed. Since these are closely related provided insight to the chemical reactions that take
to our target technique, they are more elaborated in the place and to the fate of the various intermediates.
following.
Sono-chemical reactions involving chloroorganic sol-
utes in aqueous solutions have received intensive atten- 2. Experimental procedures
tion since 1950 due to the work of Weissler et al., Parke
and Taylor [18,19]. Studies of sono-chemical modifica- 2.1. Materials and reagents
tions of carbon tetrachloride and chloroform in aqueous
environment [20] then followed. Since 1990, there has Both target compounds: 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic
been increasing interest in the ultrasound-mediated acid (Aldrich, 98%) and 2,4-dichlorophenol (Fluka,
Y. Yasman et al. / Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 11 (2004) 365–372 367
95%) were tested by HPLC and used as supplied with All experiments were carried out under initial con-
no further purification. Spectroscopy purity dichlo- centration of 0.25–1.5 mM 2,4-D and 0.35–1.5 mM 2,4-
rometane (Carlo Erba, 99.8%) was used after testing DCP and pH 3. In order to address the effect of variable
by GLC. Analytical grade reagents of sodium sulfate concentration of Fenton’s reagent upon the decomposi-
(Agan, Israel), ferrous sulfate (Mallinckrodt, USA) and tion of 2,4-D and 2,4-DCP, the experiments were carried
hydrogen peroxide (Carlo Erba, 30% ) were used. out by using Fe2þ in the range from 0.5 to 50 mM, while
keeping H2 O2 unchanged at a level of 30 mM.
Stock solutions (250 ml each) at various reagent
2.2. Sono-electrochemical facility
concentrations were prepared, and samples were in-
serted into the reaction cell and left for given durations.
The schematic diagram of our sono-electro-oxidation
They were taken out of the process at the specified time
facility is shown in Fig. 1. The reactor was a glass cyl-
and analyzed. In order to ensure that the solutions left
inder vessel (internal diameter 25 mm, effective sample
in the reactor are not affected by the analytical sampling,
volume of 10 ml). The solution temperature was main-
a fresh sample was used for each time-duration point
tained at 25 ± 1 °C by circulating water in a double-
in our diagrams.
jacket cooling array.
Classical Fenton experiments were also carried out for
Sonication was achieved at low frequencies (20 kHz)
comparison, under the following conditions: 2,4-D
using an ultrasonic generator Sonic @ Materials Model
concentration of 1,2 mM, Fe2þ ––3.0 mM and H2 O2 ––
2020, fitted with a horn that emits ultrasound via a
3.0 mM. All experiments were performed under inten-
titanium alloy tip (13 mm in diameter) dipped in the
sive stirring.
studied solutions from the top of the reactor. The aver-
age output electric power of the generator was 75 W.
2.3. Analytical cross-referencing
Both cathode and anode were made of nickel foil
(0.125 mm thin) in the form of cylindrical segments of 11
Variations of 2,4-D and 2,4-DCP concentration
mm radius and 20 mm height. They were placed around a
occurring under either sono-Fenton’s or sonoelectro-
horn (11 mm radius). The support electrolyte was
Fenton’s processes were readily monitored using HP
Na2 SO4 (0.5 g/l). Sono-electro-oxidation was carried out
8453 UV–Visible photodiode array Hewlett Packard
in the galvanostatic mode at current intensities not
spectrophotometer.
exceeding 100 mA. Similar to recent reports [17], the SEF
In order to identify stable intermediates formed
scheme used here appeared to be insensitive to the cur-
during degradation of 2,4-D and 2,4-DCP, the organic
rent density, within the experimentally tested range of
components present in small samples (5 ml) of the tested
10–100 mA/cm2 . The dissolution of the electrodes in the
solution were further extracted using 5 ml of dichlo-
acidic media, under the combined application of elec-
rometane. The solvent was allowed to evaporate and the
trolysis and sonication, was checked. The maximum
resulting analyte was then tested by GC and GC-MS.
concentration on Ni ions was less than 1 mg/l, which was
Hewlett-Packard gas chromatograph (model 5890 with
negligible compared to the electrolyte concentration.
FID detector) and Finnigan TSQ-70B mass-spectrome-
ter were used. The chloride ion concentration in the
sampled solutions was determined by potentiometric
titration using AgNO3 .
2.0
Table 1
GC/MS identification of intermediates obtained in SEF process of 2,4-D
(M + 1)þ Structure (M + 1)þ Structure
þ
221 162 (M )
OCH2 COOH OH
CI CI
CI CI
2.4-D 2.4-DCP
þ
191 178 (M )
OCHO OH
CI CI OH
CI
CI
Formate Quinone
219 351
O O CH2 C H2 O
O
CI CI
CI O
CI CI
CI
Lactone Trace: diphenoxyethane
both SF and SEF degradation of 2,4-D were studied. SEF decomposition of 2,4-D, which may be responsible
The corresponding molecules are summarized in Table for these intermediate compounds, is shown in Fig. 4.
1. A suggested chemical scheme for the first stages of Worth noting is a close similarity of the intermediate
compounds obtained with SEF treatments to those re-
ported for the UV-photolysis tests [26]. The latter,
however, are by far slower processes (days) than the
former ones (minutes). Moreover, a dimerization stage,
O
OCH2CH2O O which is quite common in UV-photolysis [34], seems
Cl Cl Cl O
absent in both SF and SEF processes. This could be
attributed to instability of dimers within a double-
2,4-D
charge layer situated either nearby the electrodes (as for
OCH2COOH SEF processes) or at the cavitation-bubble interfaces
Cl Cl Cl Cl (as for both SF and SEF).
0.8 80 SEF
Concentration / mM
2,4-D
Degradation / %
0.6 60 SEF
2,4-DCP
0.4 40
[2,4-DCP]
0.2 20
[Formate]
[2,4-D] SF SF
0.0 0 2,4-DCP 2,4-D
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
Time / s.
Initial concentration / mM
1.0 2.0
Fig. 6. The initial concentration dependent efficiency of material
decomposition: degradation of 2,4-D (including the 2,4-DCP
2,4-D Concentration / mM
0.8 (b) 1.6 byproduct) and 2,4-DCP in SEF and in SF processes. For both
[Chloride-ions]
Cl- Concentration / mM
treatments the data correspond to 60 s long application. [Fe2þ ] ¼ 3.0
0.6 1.2 mM, [H2 O2 ] ¼ 3.0 mM.
0.4 0.8
centration. Results are presented for decomposition of
0.2 0.4 2,4-D and for decomposition of 2,4-DCP (Fig. 6). Note
[2,4-D] that the decomposition of 2,4-D forms some 2,4-DCP
0.0 0.0 as intermediate, therefore, the figures presented here
regarding this material refer to the decomposition of
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Time / s.
the parent compound and its intermediate.
Observe that in respect of decomposition of 2,4-D
Fig. 5. (a) Kinetic monitoring of the main pollutant (2,4-D) and the and 2,4-DCP the SEF process begins to sizably depend
major intermediate compounds produced in SEF process (2,4-DCP
on the initial concentration from about 0.8 mM for the
and 2,4-dichlorophenolformate). (b) Build-up of the chloride-ions and
the pollutant decomposition during application of SEF process to 2,4- former and around 0.4 mM for the latter compound.
D. [Fe2þ ] ¼ 3.0 mM, [H2 O2 ] ¼ 3.0 mM. This finding is consistent with the previously noted ki-
netic data suggesting that despite of 2,4-DCP being an
intermediate stage for the 2,4-D decomposition process,
overall byproducts, or to differences in the reaction this does not affect the decay rates obtained for the latter
schemes in the decomposition of these compounds, herbicide.
induced by the presence of the other intermediates. In the SE process, the decrease in decomposition
This point requires further investigation. efficiency starts much sooner for both materials studied.
Typical decomposition kinetics obtained for 0.9 mM This difference may be associated with the enhanced
aqueous solution of 2,4-D as well as a fast formation of activity of the oxidative OH radicals inside the double-
the intermediate products are exemplified in Fig. 5a for charged layers nearby the electrodes (as in SEF) in
SEF. Quite naturally, degradation of 2,4-D is associated addition to the already present sono-chemical processes
with formation of chloride ions, which soon becomes the at the bubbles’ interfaces (as in both SF and SEF pro-
main byproduct. This is exemplified in Fig. 5b, where cesses). Overall, the SEF scheme appears to be more
after 10 min of oxidation, close to 99% of chloride ions, efficient either in decomposing the parent compounds
which corresponds to a practical absence of 2,4-D, was or their respective intermediates.
detected. Only trace amounts of smaller chlorinated
components were still present. In other words, a prac- 3.4. Influence of Fe2þ concentration
tically full degradation of 2,4-D down to CO2 and
chloride-ions seems feasible by the SEF scheme. For many practical purposes the amount of Fe2þ
used in either SF or SEF processes might be limited by
3.3. Efficiency of SE and SEF processes various environmental regulations [39]. Sensitivity of
decomposition efficiency for both target compounds to
The efficiency of either SE or SEF processes was the amount of Fe2þ used is presented in Fig. 7 for the
found to decrease as a function of increasing concen- SEF process. The efficiency of degradation is peaked
tration of the parent compound. The degradation per- around 2 mM for both parent compounds. These results
centages obtained within the first 60 s of these suggest that within the SEF scheme the Fenton pro-
treatments are shown as a function of the initial con- cesses appear to be quite a powerful source of oxidative
Y. Yasman et al. / Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 11 (2004) 365–372 371
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