Robotic Trolley For Material Handling-Full Project

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ROBOTIC TROLLEY FOR MATERIAL HANDLING

A PRO1ECT REPORT

Submitted by
ABHILASH.1.K
ANOOP.M.N
ANOOP VARGHESE
BIBIN K ARAKKAL
In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree
Of
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

UDAYA SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

ANNA UNIVERSITY: TIRUNELVELI 627 007
APRILL 2011
ROBOTIC TROLLEY FOR MATERIAL HANDLING
A PRO1ECT REPORT

Submitted by
ABHILASH.1.K (97808114001)
ANOOP.M.N (97808114007)
ANOOP VARGHESE (97808114008)
BIBIN K ARAKKAL (97808114013)
In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree
Of
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

UDAYA SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

APRILL 2011
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

CertiIied that this project ROBOTIC TROLLEY FOR MATERIAL
HANDLING Is the bonaIide work oI ABHILASH.1.K, ANOOP.M.N,
ANOOP VARGHESE, BIBIN K ARAKKAL who carried out the project work
Under my supervision.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE
Mr. K. HARI RAM, M.E, (Ph.D) Mr. P.REGHU, M.E
HEAD OF DEPARTMENT SUPERVISOR

Lecturer
Department of Department of
Mechanical Engineering Mechanical Engineering
Udaya school of Engineering Udaya school of Engineering
Vellamodi-629204 Vellamodi-629204

Submitted Ior the Anna University Examination, Held on udaya school oI
Engineering, Vellamodi on.........................

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

II words are considered as symbol oI approval oI token oI acknowledges
then let the words play the heralding role oI expressing our gratitude. First oI all we
would like to thank almighty Ior his blessing and happiness he has showered on us.

First and Ioremost we are indented to Prof. R.SUBHASH
CHANDRABOSE. M.E, Ph.D., principal oI Udaya school oI Engineering Ior
providing us with suIIicient at college.

We express our proIound and sincere thanks to the chairman
Mr.C.THAYPARAN,M.E., who is the enriching keen interest in academic
pursuits.
We express our deep gratitude to Mr.K.HARI RAM, M.E, (Ph.D)., Head oI
the department Ior his valuable advices.
We proIoundly thank our internal supervisor Mr.P.REGHU, M.E., Ior his
valuable suggestion and encouragement rendered to us.
like to oIIer our thanks to all oI our MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT STAFF Ior their kind co-operation in bringing out oI this project
very successIully.

ABSTRACT

The main objective oI this project is to Iabricate a robotic trolley Ior material
handling in industries. In this project a robotic vehicle is Iabricated which runs like
a car by carrying tools Irom place to another. This is done by using a small sensor.
The trolley will stop when the trolley is unloaded.

i
TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE NO.
ABSTRACT i
LIST OF FIGURES ii
1 INTRODUCTION 1
2 WORKING PRINCIPLE 3
3 BLOCK DIAGRAM 5
4 FABRICATION OF PARTS 7
.1 PMDC MOTOR 8
.1.1 TORQUE CAPABILITIES
OF MOTOR 13
.2 RECHARGABLE BATTERY 15
.2.1 USAGE AND APPLICATIONS 16
.2.2 CHARGING AND DISCHARGING 17
.2.3 REVERSE CHARGING 19
.2. BATTERY TYPES 21
.3 PCB DESIGN 25
. IR SENSOR 29
5 VIEW THROUGH CAMERA 31
6 ADVANTAGES 33

ii
7 APPLICATIONS 35
8 CONCLUSION 37
9 BIBLIOGRAPHY 39

LIST OF FIGURES
No. TITLE PAGE NO.
1 BLOCK DIAGRAM 5
2 DC MOTOR 10
3 IR SENSORS 29


CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

Mobile robots have capability to move around in their environment and not
Iixed to one physical location. In contrast, industrial robots usually consist oI a
joint arm (multilinked manipulator) and gripper assembly (or end eIIecter) that is
attached to a Iixed surIace.
Mobile robots are the Iocus oI a great deal oI current research and almost
every major university has one or more laboratory that Iocuses on mobile robot
research. Mobile robots are also Iound in industries; military and security
environments. They also appear as consumer products, Ior entertainment or to
perIorm certain tasks like vacuum.

2

CHAPTER 2
WORKING PRINCIPLE

3

WORKING PRINCIPLE

The sensor is connected at the bed oI the vehicle. This is used to check
the load in bed. The motor is connected with the wheel arrangement with the help
oI the spur gear.

When the Iirst user keep the tools in this vehicle the trolley moves
automatically to the second user.

II the second user took the tools Irom the trolley the trolley stops with the
second user. AIter that when the second user keeps a tool it moves to the next user.
It can be used in industries, hospitals etc.

CHAPTER 3
BLOCK DIAGRAM

S


CHAPTER 4
FABRICATION OF PARTS

7
FABRICATION OF PARTS

4.1 PMDC MOTOR

An electric generator is a device that converts mechanical energy to
Electrical energy. The reverse conversion oI electrical energy into mechanical
energy is done by a motor; motors and generators have many similarities. A
generator Iorces electrons in the windings to Ilow through the external electrical
circuit. It is somewhat analogous to a water pump, which creates a Ilow oI water
but does not create the water inside. The source oI mechanical energy may be a
reciprocating or turbine steam engine, water Ialling through a turbine or
waterwheel, an internal combustion engine, a wind turbine, a hand crank,
compressed air or any other source oI mechanical energy.

8
A dynamo machine consists oI a stationary structure, which provides a
constant magnetic Iield and a set oI rotating windings which turn within that Iield.
On small machines the constant magnetic Iield may be provided by one or more
permanent magnets; larger machines have the constant magnetic Iield provided by
one or more electromagnets, which are usually called Iield coils.

Large power generation dynamos are now rarely seen due to the now
nearly universal use oI alternating current Ior power distribution and solid
state electronic AC to DC power conversion. But beIore the principles oI AC
were discovered, very large direct-current dynamos were the only means oI
power generation and distribution. Now power generation dynamos are
mostly a curiosity.

The DC Motor or Direct Current Motor to give it its Iull title, is the most
commonly used actuator Ior producing continuous movement and whose speed oI
rotation can easily be controlled, making them ideal Ior use in applications were
speed control, servo type control, and/or positioning is required. A DC motor
consists oI two parts, a "Stator" which is the stationary part and a "Rotor" which is
the rotating part. The result is that there are basically three types oI DC Motor
available.

Brushed Motor - This type oI motor produces a magnetic Iield in a wound
rotor (the part that rotates) by passing an electrical current through a commutator
and carbon brush assembly, hence the term "Brushed". The stators (the stationary
part) magnetic Iield is produced by using either a wound stator Iield winding or by
permanent magnets. Generally brushed DC motors are cheap, small and easily
controlled.

Brushless Motor - This type oI motor produce a magnetic Iield in the rotor
by using permanent magnets attached to it and commutation is achieved
electronically. They are generally smaller but more expensive than conventional
brushed type DC motors because they use "Hall eIIect switches in the stator to
produce the required stator Iield rotational sequence. But they have better
torque/speed characteristics, are more eIIicient and have
a longer operating liIe than equivalent brushed types.
Servo Motor - This type oI motor is basically a brushed DC motor
with some Iorm oI positional Ieedback control connected to the rotor shaIt.
They are connected to and controlled by a PWM type controller and are
mainly used in positional control systems and radio controlled models.
Normal DC motors have almost linear characteristics with their speed
oI rotation being determined by the applied DC voltage and their output
torque being determined by the current Ilowing through the motor windings.
The speed oI rotation oI any DC motor can be varied Irom a Iew revolutions
per minute (rpm) to many thousands oI revolutions per minute making them
suitable Ior electronic, automotive or robotic applications. By connecting
them to gearboxes or gear-trains their output speed can be decreased while at
the same time increasing the torque output oI the motor at a high speed.
A conventional brushed DC Motor consist basically oI two parts, the
stationary body oI the motor called the Stator and the inner part which
rotates producing the movement, called the Rotor or "Armature" Ior DC machines.
The motors wound stator is an electromagnet which consists oI electrical
coils connected together in a circular conIiguration to produce a North-pole then a
South-pole then a North-pole etc, type stationary magnetic Iield system (as
opposed to AC machines whose stator Iield continually rotates with the applied
Irequency) with the current Ilowing within these Iield coils being known as the
motor Iield current.

The stators electromagnetic coils can be connected in series, parallel or both
together (compound) with the armature. A series wound DC motor has the stator
Iield windings connected in series with the armature while a shunt wound DC
motor has the stator Iield windings connected in parallel with the armature.

The rotor or armature oI a DC machine consists oI current carrying
conductors connected together at one end to electrically isolated copper segments
called the commutator. The commutator allows an electrical connection to be
made via carbon brushes (hence the name "Brushed" motor) to an external power
supply as the armature rotates. The magnetic Iield setup by the rotor tries to align
itselI with the stationary stator Iield causing the rotor to rotate on its axis, but
cannot align itselI due to commutation delays.

The rotational speed oI the motor is dependent on the strength oI the rotors
magnetic Iield and the more voltage that is applied to the motor the Iaster the rotor
will rotate. By varying this applied DC voltage the rotational speed oI the motor
can also be varied.

Conventional (Brushed) DC Motor


Permanent magnet

2pole
Permanent -Pole Wound
Field Motor Magnet Motor

Permanent magnet (PMDC) brushed motors are generally much smaller and
cheaper than their equivalent wound stator type DC motor cousins as they have no
Iield winding. In permanent magnet DC (PMDC) motors these Iield coils are
replaced with strong rare earth (i.e. Samarium Cobolt, or Neodymium Iron Boron)
type magnets which have very high magnetic energy Iields. This gives them a
much better linear speed/torque characteristic than the equivalent wound motors
because oI the permanent and sometimes very strong magnetic Iield, making them
more suitable Ior use in models, robotics and servos.
Although DC brushed motors are very eIIicient and cheap, problems
associated with the brushed DC motor is that sparking occurs under heavy
load conditions between the two surIaces oI the commutator and carbon
brushes resulting in selI generating heat, short liIe span and electrical noise
due to sparking, which can damage any semiconductor switching device
such as a 110SFET or transistor. To overcome these disadvantages,
Brushless DC Motors were developed.

The brushless DC motor (BDCM) is very similar to a permanent
magnet DC motor, but does not have any brushes to replace or wear out due
to commutator sparking. ThereIore, little heat is generated in the rotor
increasing the motors liIe. The design oI the brushless motor eliminates the need
Ior brushes by using a more complex drive circuit was the rotor
magnetic Iield is a permanent magnet which is always in synchronization
with the stator Iield allows Ior a more precise speed and torque control. Then
the construction oI a brushless DC motor is very similar to the AC motor
making it a true synchronous motor but one disadvantage is that it is more
expensive than an equivalent "brushed" motor design.

The control oI the brushless DC motors is very diIIerent Irom the
normal brushed DC motor, in that it this type oI motor incorporates some
means to detect the rotors angular position (or magnetic poles) required to
produce the Ieedback signals required to control the semiconductor
switching devices. The most common position/pole sensor is the Hall
element, but some motors use optical sensors. Using the Hall sensors
signals, the polarity oI the electromagnets is switched by the motor control
drive circuitry. Then the motor can be easily synchronized to a digital clock
signal, providing precise speed control. Brushless DC motors can be
constructed to have, an external permanent magnet rotor and an internal
electromagnet stator or an internal permanent magnet rotor and an external
electromagnet stator.

12
4.1.1 TORQUE CAPABILITIES OF MOTORS
When optimally designed Ior a given active current (i.e., torque current),
voltage, pole-pair number, excitation Irequency (i.e., synchronous speed), and core
Ilux density, all categories oI electric motors or generators will exhibit virtually the
same maximum continuous shaIt torque (i.e., operating torque) within a given
physical size oI electromagnetic core. Some applications require bursts oI torque
beyond the maximum operating torque, such as short bursts oI torque to accelerate
an electric vehicle Irom standstill. Always limited by magnetic core saturation or
saIe operating temperature rise and voltage, the capacity Ior torque bursts beyond
the maximum operating torque diIIers signiIicantly between categories oI electric
motors or generators.
Electric machines without a transIormer circuit topology, such as Field-
Wound (i.e., electromagnet) or Permanent Magnet (PM) Synchronous electric
machines cannot realize bursts oI torque higher than the maximum designed torque
without saturating the magnetic core and rendering any increase in current as
useless. Furthermore, the permanent magnet assembly oI PM synchronous electric
machines can be irreparably damaged, iI bursts oI torque exceeding the maximum
operating torque rating are attempted.
Electric machines with a transIormer circuit topology, such as Induction (i.e.,
asynchronous) electric machines, Induction Doubly-Fed electric machines, and
Induction or Synchronous Wound-Rotor Doubly-Fed (WRDF) electric machines,
exhibit very high bursts oI torque because the active current (i.e., Magneto-Motive-
Force or the product oI current and winding-turns) induced on either side oI the
transIormer oppose each other and as a result, the active current contributes nothing
to the transIormer coupled magnetic core Ilux density, which would otherwise lead
to core saturation.
Electric machines that rely on Induction or Asynchronous principles short-
circuit one port oI the transIormer circuit and as a result, the reactive impedance oI
the transIormer circuit becomes dominant as slip increases, which limits the
magnitude oI active (i.e., real) current. Still, bursts oI torque that are two to three
times higher than the maximum design torque are realizable.
The Synchronous WRDF electric machine is the only electric machine with a
truly dual ported transIormer circuit topology (i.e., both ports independently
excited with no short-circuited port). The dual ported transIormer circuit topology
is known to be unstable and requires a multiphase slip-ring-brush assembly to
propagate limited power to the rotor winding set. II a precision means were
available to instantaneously control torque angle and slip Ior synchronous operation
during motoring or generating while simultaneously providing brushless power to
the rotor winding set the active current oI the Synchronous WRDF electric machine
would be independent oI the reactive impedance oI the transIormer circuit and
bursts oI torque signiIicantly higher than the maximum operating torque and Iar
beyond the practical capability oI any other type oI electric machine would be
realizable. Torque bursts greater than eight times operating torque have been
calculated.

14

4.2 RECHARGEABLE BATTERY

A rechargeable battery (also known as a storage battery) is a group oI one or
more secondary cells. Rechargeable batteries use electrochemical reactions that are
electrically reversible. Rechargeable batteries come in many diIIerent sizes and use
diIIerent combinations oI chemicals. Commonly used secondary cell
("rechargeable battery") chemistries are lead acid, nickel cadmium (NiCd), nickel
metal hydride (NiMH), lithium ion (Li-ion), and lithium ion polymer (Li-ion
polymer).
Rechargeable batteries can oIIer economic and environmental beneIits
compared to disposable batteries. Some rechargeable battery types are available in
the same sizes as disposable types. While the rechargeable cells have a higher
initial cost, rechargeable batteries can be recharged many times. Proper selection oI
a rechargeable battery system can reduce toxic materials sent to landIills compared
to an equivalent series oI disposable batteries. For example, battery manuIacturers
oI NiMH rechargeable batteries claim a service liIe oI 100-1000 charge cycles Ior
their batteries.

13
4.2.1 USAGE AND APPLICATIONS

Rechargeable batteries currently are used Ior applications such as automobile
starters, portable consumer devices, light vehicles (such as motorized wheelchairs,
golI carts, electric bicycles, and electric IorkliIts), tools, and uninterruptible power
supplies. Emerging applications in hybrid electric vehicles and electric vehicles are
driving the technology to reduce cost, reduce weight, and increase liIetime.
Unlike non-rechargeable batteries (primary cells), rechargeable batteries
have to be charged beIore use. The need to charge rechargeable batteries beIore use
deterred potential buyers who needed to use the batteries immediately. However,
new low selI discharge batteries allow users to purchase rechargeable battery that
already hold about 70 oI the rated capacity, allowing consumers to use the
batteries immediately and recharge later.
Grid energy storage applications use industrial rechargeable batteries Ior
load leveling, where they store electric energy Ior use during peak load periods,
and Ior renewable energy uses, such as storing power generated Irom photovoltaic
arrays during the day to be used at night. By charging batteries during periods oI
low demand and returning energy to the grid during periods oI high electrical
demand, load-leveling helps eliminate the need Ior expensive peaking power plants
and helps amortize the cost oI generators over more hours oI operation.
The National Electrical ManuIacturers Association has estimated that U.S.
demand Ior rechargeable is growing twice as Iast as demand Ior non rechargeable.
16
4.2.2 CHARGING AND DISCHARGING
During charging, the positive active material is oxidized, producing
electrons, and the negative material is reduced, consuming electrons. These
electrons constitute the current Ilow in the external circuit. The electrolyte may
serve as a simple buIIer Ior ion Ilow between the electrodes, as in lithium-ion and
nickel-cadmium cells, or it may be an active participant in the electrochemical
reaction, as in lead-acid cells.

Diagram oI the charging oI a secondary cell battery.
The energy used to charge rechargeable batteries mostly comes Irom AC
current (mains electricity) using an adapter unit. Most battery chargers can take
several hours to charge a battery. Most batteries can be charged in Iar less time than
the most common simple battery chargers are capable oI. Duracell and Rayovac
now sell chargers that can charge AA- and AAA-size NiMH batteries in just 15
minutes; Energizer sells chargers that can additionally charge C/D-size and 9 V
NiMH batteries. However, high rates oI charging (eg. 15 minute charger, 1 hour
chargers) will cause long term damage to NiMH and most other rechargeable
batteries.
Battery is susceptible to damage due to reverse charging iI they are Iully
discharged. Fully integrated battery chargers that optimize the charging current are
available.
Also, attempting to recharge non-rechargeable batteries has a small chance
oI causing a battery explosion.
Flow batteries, which are not commonly used by consumers, are recharged
by replacing the electrolyte liquid.
Battery manuIacturers' technical notes oIten reIer to VPC. This is volts per
cell, and reIers to the individual secondary cells that make up the battery. For
example, to charge a 12 V battery (containing 6 cells oI 2 V each) at 2.3 VPC
requires a voltage oI 13.8 V across the battery's terminals.
Most NiMH AA or AAA batteries rate their cells at 1.2 V. However, this is
not a problem in most devices because alkaline batteries drop in voltage as the
energy is depleted. Most devices are designed to continue to operate at a reduced
voltage oI between 0.9 and 1.1 V

18
.. REVERSE CHARCINC
Reverse charging, which damages batteries, is when a rechargeable battery is
recharged with its polarity reversed. Reverse charging can occur under a number oI
circumstances, the three most common being:
O When a battery is incorrectly inserted into a charger.
O When an automotive type battery charger is connected in reverse to the
battery terminals. This usually occurs when a completely discharged battery
is being charged, otherwise sparking will occur.
O When a series string is deeply discharged.
When one cell completely discharges ahead oI the rest, the stronger cells will
apply a reverse current to the discharged cell. This is commonly reIerred to as "cell
reversal". Cell reversal signiIicantly shortens the liIe oI the aIIected cell and
thereIore shortens the overall liIe oI the battery. In some extreme cases, the
reversed cell can begin to emit smoke or catch Iire. Some Ni-Cad type cells exhibit
a "memory" eIIect. Some Ni-Cad type cells that are not Iully charged and
discharged periodically can lose their ability to retain a Iull charge, i.e. exhibit
reduced capacity. Cycling a multi cell battery into deep discharge to overcome this
memory eIIect can cause cell reversal and do more harm than good. In critical
applications using Ni-Cad batteries, such as in aircraIt, each cell is individually
discharged by connecting a load clip across the terminals oI each cell, thereby
avoiding cell reversal, then charging the cells in series.

19
DEPTH UF DISCHARCE
Depth oI discharge (DOD) is normally stated as a percentage oI the nominal
ampere-hour capacity; 0 DOD means no discharge. Since the usable capacity oI a
battery system depends on the rate oI discharge and the allowable voltage at the
end oI discharge, the depth oI discharge must be qualiIied to show the way it is to
be measured. Due to variations during manuIacture and aging, the DOD Ior
complete discharge can change over time / discharge cycles. Generally a
rechargeable battery system will tolerate more charge/discharge cycles iI the DOD
is lower on each cycle.
ACTIVE COMPONENTS
Active components in a secondary cell are the chemicals that make up the
positive and negative active materials, and the electrolyte. The positive and
negative are made up oI diIIerent materials, with the positive exhibiting a reduction
potential and the negative having an oxidation potential. The sum oI these
potentials is the standard cell potential or voltage.
In primary cells the positive and negative electrodes are known as the
cathode and anode, respectively. Although this convention is sometimes carried
through to rechargeable systems especially with lithium-ion cells, because oI
their origins in primary lithium cells this practice can lead to conIusion. In
rechargeable cells the positive electrode is the cathode on discharge and the anode
on charge, and vice versa Ior the negative electrode.
20
4.2.4 COMMON RECHARGEABLE BATTERY TYPES

Nickel-cadmium battery (NiCd)
Created by Waldemar Jungner oI Sweden in 1899 which was based on
Thomas Edison's Iirst alkaline battery. Using nickel oxide hydroxide and metallic
cadmium as electrodes. Cadmium is a toxic element, and was banned Ior most uses
by the European Union in 200. Nickel-cadmium batteries have been almost
completely superseded by nickel-metal hydride batteries.
Nickel-metal hydride battery (NiMH)
First developed around 1980's. The battery has a hydrogen-absorbing alloy
Ior the negative electrode instead oI cadmium.
Lithium-ion battery
The technology behind lithium-ion battery has not yet Iully reached maturity.
However, the batteries are the type oI choice in many consumer electronics and
have one oI the best energy-to-mass ratios and a very slow loss oI charge when not
in use. The popularity oI lithium-ion batteries has spread as their technology
continues to improve.
Lithium sulfur battery
A new battery chemistry developed by Sion Power since 199. Claims
superior energy to weight than current lithium technologies on the market. Also
lower material cost may help this product reach the mass market. Not to be
conIused with lithium sulIur dioxide (Li-SO
2
) batteries which explode when
recharged.

Thin film battery (TFB)
An emerging reIinement oI the lithium ion technology by Excellatron. The
developers claim a very large increase in recharge cycles, around 0,000 cycles.
Higher charge and discharge rates. At least 5C charge rate. Sustained 60C
discharge, and 1000C peak discharge rate. And also a signiIicant increase in
speciIic energy, and energy density.
Also InIinite Power Solutions makes thin Iilm batteries (TFB) Ior micro-
electronics applications that are Ilexible, rechargeable, solid-state lithium batteries.

Smart battery
A smart battery has the voltage monitoring circuit built inside. Smart Battery
System Carbon Ioam-based lead acid battery. FireIly Energy has developed a
carbon Ioam-based lead acid battery with a reported energy density oI 30-0
more than their original 38 Wh/kg, with long liIe and very high power density.

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS

In 2007, assistant proIessor Yi Cui and colleagues at StanIord University's
Department oI Materials Science and Engineering discovered that using silicon
nanowires as the anode increases the volumetric charge density oI the anode by up
to a Iactor oI 10. See also Nanowire` battery.
Another development is the invention oI Ilexible batteries, which can be
made paper-thin. Ceramatec, a research and development subcompany oI
CoorsTek, is testing a battery which contains a chunk oI solid sodium metal mated
to a sulIur compound by an extraordinary, paper-thin ceramic membrane. The
membrane conducts ions back and Iorth to generate a current. The company claims
that it can cram about 0 kilowatt hours oI energy into a package about the size oI a
reIrigerator, and operate below 90 degrees Celsius. The company also claims that
their battery will allow Ior 3,650 discharge/recharge cycles (or roughly 1 per day
Ior one decade.)

23
ALTERNATIVES
Several alternatives to rechargeable batteries exist or are under development. For
uses like portable radios and Ilashlights, rechargeable batteries may be replaced by
clockwork mechanisms or dynamos which are cranked by the user to provide
power. For transportation, uninterruptible power supply systems and laboratories,
Ilywheel energy storage systems store energy in a spinning rotor Ior reconversion
to electric power when needed; such systems may be used to provide large pulses
oI power that would otherwise be objectionable on a common electrical grid.
A Iuture development could be ultracapacitors Ior transportation, using a large
capacitor to store energy instead oI the rechargeable battery banks used in hybrid
vehicles. One drawback to capacitors compared with batteries is that the terminal
voltage drops rapidly; a capacitor that has 25 oI its initial energy leIt in it will
have one-halI oI its initial voltage. Battery systems tend to have a terminal voltage
that does not decline rapidly until nearly exhausted. This characteristic complicates
the design oI power electronics Ior use with ultracapacitors. However, there are
potential beneIits in cycle eIIiciency, liIetime, and weight compared with
rechargeable systems.

24
4.3 PCB DESIGN

The PCB des i gn st ar t s r i ght Ir om t he sel ect i on oI t he
l ami nat es . The t wo mai n t ypes oI base l ami nat e are epoxy gl ass
and phenol i c paper l ami nat es are general l y used Ior s i mpl e
ci rcui t s. Though i t i s ver y cheap and can eas i l y be dr i l l ed,
phenol i c paper has poor el ect r i cal charact er i s t i cs and i t abs or bs
mor e moi st ure t han epoxy gl ass. Epoxy gl ass has hi gher
mechani cal st rengt h.
The i mpor t ant proper t i es t hat have t o be cons i dered Ior
sel ect i ng t he PCB s ubst rat e are t he di el ect r i c st rengt h, i ns ul at i on
res i s t ance, wat er absor pt i on propert y, coeI I. oI t her mal
expans i on, s hear st rengt h, har dnes s, di mens i onal s t abi l i t y et c.

4. 3. 1 PCB Fabri cati on
The Iabr i cat i on oI a PCB i ncl udes Iour st eps.
a) Prepar i ng t he PCB pat t er n.
b) Trans Ierr i ng t he pat t er n ont o t he PCB.
c) Devel opi ng t he PCB.
d) Fi ni s hi ng ( i . e. ) dr i l l i ng, cut t i ng, s moot hi ng, t ur ni ng et c.
2 3
Pat t er n des i gni ng i s t he pr i mar y st ep i n Iabr i cat i ng a PCB.
I n t hi s st ep, al l i nt erconnect i on bet ween t he component s i n t he
gi ven ci rcui t are conver t ed i nt o PCB t racks. Several Iact ors s uc h
as pos i t i oni ng t he di a met er oI hol es, t he ar ea t hat each component
woul d occupy, t he t ype oI end t er mi nal s houl d be cons i dered.

Transf erri ng t he PCB Pat tern
The copper s i de oI t he PCB s houl d be t horoughl y cl eaned
wi t h t he hel p oI al cohol i c spi r i t or pet r ol . It must be compl et el y
Iree Irom dus t and ot her cont a mi nant s.
The mi r r or i mage oI t he pat t er n must be car bon copi ed and t o
t he l a mi nat e t he compl et e pat t er n may now be made each res i s t ant
wi t h t he hel p oI pai nt and t hi n br ush.
Devel opi ng
I n t hi s devel opi ng al l excess i ve copper i s r emoved Irom t he

board and onl y t he pr i nt ed pat t er n i s l eIt behi nd. About 100ml oI
t ap wat er s houl d be heat ed t o 75 C and 30. 5 grams oI FeCl
3
added t o i t , t he mi xt ure s houl d be t horoughl y s t i r red and a Iew
drops oI HCl may be added t o speed up t he process.
2 6
The board wi t h i t s copper s i de Iaci ng upward s houl d be pl aced
i n a Il at bot t omed pl ast i c t ray and t he aqueous sol ut i on oI FeCl
2

poured i n t he et chi ng pr ocess woul d t ake 0 t o 60 mi n t o
compl et e.
AIt er et chi ng t he board i t s houl d be was hed under r unni ng
wat er and t hen hel d agai nst l i ght . t he pr i nt ed pat t er n s houl d be
cl ear l y vi s i bl e. The pai nt s houl d be re moved wi t h t he hel p oI
t hi nner.

Fi ni s hi ng Touches
AIt er t he et chi ng i s compl et ed, hol e oI s ui t abl e dia met e r
shoul d be dr i l l ed, t hen t he PCB may be t i n pl at ed us i ng a n
ordi nar y 35 Wat t s sol der i ng r od al ong wi t h t he sol der core , t he
copper s i de may be gi ven a coat oI var ni s h t o prevent oxi dat i on.

Dri l l i ng
Dr i l l s Ior PCB use us ual l y come wi t h ei t her a set oI col l ect s
oI var i ous s i zes or a 3-Jaw chuck. For accuracy however 3- j aw
chunks aren` t br i l l i ant and s mal l dr i l l bel ow 1 mm Ir om gr ooves
i n t he j aws prevent i ng good gr i ps.

2 7
Sol deri ng
Begi n t he cons t r uct i on by sol der i ng t he res i s t ors Iol l owed by
t he capaci t ors and t he LEDs di odes and IC s ocket s. Don` t t r y
sol der i ng an IC di r ect l y unl ess you t r us t your ski l l i n sol der i ng.
Al l component s s houl d be sol der ed as s hown i n t he Ii gur e. Now
connect t he swi t ch and t hen sol der / scr ew i I on t he PCB us i ng
mul t i pl e was hers or s paces. Sol der i ng i t di r ect l y wi l l onl y r educe
i t s hei ght above ot her component s and ha mper i n i t s eas y Ii xat i on
i n t he cabi net . Now connect t he bat t er y l ead.

Assembl i ng
The ci rcui t can be encl osed i n any ki nd oI cabi net . BeIor e
Ii t t i ng t he PCB s ui t abl e hol es must be dr i l l ed i n t he cabi net Ior
t he swi t ch, LED and buzzer. Not e t hat a rot ar y s wi t ch can be used
i nst ead oI a s l i de t ype.
Swi t ch on t he ci rcui t t o be desi red range. It wi l l
aut omat i cal l y st ar t i t s t i mi ng cycl es. To be s ure t hat i t i s wor ki ng
proper l y wat ch t he LED Il as h. The component s are sel ect ed t o
t r i gger t he al ar m a Iew mi nut es beIore t he set l i mi t .

28
4.4 IR SENSORS

InIrared (IR) light is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength longer than
that oI visible light, measured Irom the nominal edge oI visible red light at
0.7 micrometers, and extending conventionally to 300 micrometers. These
wavelengths correspond to a Irequency range oI approximately 30 to 1THz,
|1|
and
include most oI the thermal radiation emitted by objects near room temperature.
Microscopically, IR light is typically emitted or absorbed by molecules when they
change their rotational-vibration movements.


29
One is an inIrared FM transmitter in which audio inIormation is used to

modulate the chopping Irequency (30 to 250 KHz) oI an inIrared beam emitted by a
set oI LEDs.
The transmitter is capable oI driving up to 50 to 60 LEDs depending on
conIiguration (Total oI 250-300 mA maximum, typically 8 sets oI seven series
connected IR LEDs) See our article on InIrared Illuminators Ior more inIormation.
This FM method is Iar superior to ordinary AM methods where the IR beam is
amplitude modulated; being less susceptible to stray "noise" Irom 60 Hz AC
operated lamps. The transmitter and receiver can be operated Irom 12 volt supplies
so that eight AA cells can be used as a simple power source, since only 50 ma is
needed. The transmitter kit contains two IR LEDs, which is suIIicient Ior many
applications

The receiver unit consists oI a IR sensitive photodiode detector and a special
FM receiver with a nominal Irequency range oI 30 to 250 kHz, having a sensitivity
oI around one microvolt. A phase locked loop (PLL) detector recovers the audio
and Ieeds it to an audio power ampliIier with up to 500 milliwatts oI audio output.
Audio quality is excellent. Range is up to 100 Ieet without optics, a Iew hundred
Ieet with simple lenses and with suitable optics such as parabolic mirrors and
telescopes, ranges up to a Iew miles are possible.

It contains PC boards and all parts that are needed to complete one
transmitter and one receiver. Two may be used iI two channels are needed Ior
stereo. Applications include wireless audio links, private listening devices Ior TV
and radio, IR communications links, Iiber optic and inIrared experiments, and other
experiments with inIrared and optics. Since no radio signals are involved, no FCC
licensing is necessary.

CHAPTER 5
VIEW THROUGH CAMERA


31

Photo


32

CHAPTER 6
ADVANTAGES


33

ADVANTAGES

O Less manpower is needed
O Implementation is easy
O Fabrication coast is less
O User Iriendly

3


CHAPTER 7
APPLICATION

35

APPLICATION

O It can be used in industries
O It can be used in libraries

36

CHAPTER 8
CONCLUSION

37

CONCLUSION

We have designed and Iabricated a robotic trolley Ior material handling in
industries. With the help this trolley one can move tools Irom one place to another
or Irom one user to another. This is done with the help oI a sensor and a motor.
We have carried much conIidence in doing this project successIully. We
have learn about analysis oI a problem, how to solve it, design oI the trolley,
design oI parts ,Iabrication oI parts, material purchase, assembling oI parts and
successIul testing robotic trolley.

38

CHAPTER 9
BIBLIOGRAPHY

39

BIBLIOGRAPHY

O Robot Tactile Sensing:
R. Andrew Russell (1990)

O Fundamentals oI Mechanics oI Robotic Manipulators:
Marco Ceccarelli

O Robotics: Control, Sensing, Vision, and Intelligence:
K. S. Fu & R.C. Gonzalez & C.S.G. Lee

O The Robot Chronicles:
Asimov, Isaac (1996) |1995|

40

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ROBOTIC TROLLEY FOR MATERIAL HANDLING

4.2.1 USAGE AND APPLICATIONS

I n t hi s devel opi ng al l excess i ve copper i s r emoved Irom t he

One is an inIrared FM transmitter in which audio inIormation is used to

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