IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY
A 35-kV System Voltage Sag Improvement
M. Stephen Daniel, Senior Member, IEEE
Abstract—Electric utilities began to operate distribution sys-
tems at 35 kV about 20 years ago. Experience soon revealed that
some unique conditions existed as the distribution voltage was in-
creased to this level. Customers served by a substation feeder com-
plained of blinking lights and equipment problems when a fault
occurred on the adjacent feeder of the same substation. A compar-
ison can be made between the voltage sag that occurs on a 12-kV
and 35-kV system using system impedance and symmetrical com-
ponent calculations. Most of the 35-kV voltage drop, during a fault,
occurs in the substation power transformer. The low voltage ap-
pears at the substation low side bus. This paper includes field test
data that verify the symmetrical component calculations for ex-
isting system conditions. It explains how lower impedance power
transformers and special considerations for 35-kV system design
will make improvements in voltage sag of up to 20%.
Index Terms—Fault currents, fault location, impedance, power
distribution, power transformer, substation, voltage control.
I. INTRODUCTION
T HE NOMINAL transmission system voltages used by
Alabama Power, A Southern Company, are 500, 230, 161,
115, and 44 kV while distribution voltages are 35, 22, 13, 12,
and 4 kV. As load growth continues at rates of 2 to 8% per year,
converting 4 to 12-kV distribution is an ongoing economic
decision. About 20 years ago, economic studies indicated the
need to convert the 12-kV system to a 25- or 35-kV system. The
decision was made to begin converting to 35 kV in high growth
areas south of Birmingham, Alabama. The growth continued
and the 35-kV system today serves over 50,000 customers from
13 substations rated at 60 MVA.
The design of the 35-kV distribution system is very sim-
ilar to the design of lower voltage distribution systems. It was
assumed that operating characteristics would also be similar.
After operating the system for almost ten years, several op-
erating problems began to occur with no apparent solutions.
Switching underground cable utilizing elbows on dead front
equipment resulted in unexpected faults. This problem was ad-
dressed with special “switchable transformers.” Another “sur-
prising” problem was the severe voltage sag occurring on the
transmission system and at the substation bus during a distri-
bution feeder fault. This paper will address the system charac-
teristics and solutions that have been implemented by Alabama
Power.
The low impedance of 35-kV distribution feeders is the most
substantial factor that causes voltage sag problems. These prob-
Manuscript received August 26, 2002.
The author is with Alabama Power, A Southern Company, Birmingham, AL
35203-2200 USA.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPWRD.2003.820170
0885-8977/04$20.00 © 2004 IEEE
1
lems are experienced to a lesser degree on the higher impedance
12-kV and 13-kV distribution systems. This paper utilizes the
Computer & Business Equipment Manufacturer’s Association
acceptable voltage curve to evaluate the resultant voltage sags
on the 12-kV and 35-kV systems. The CBEMA curve has been
used by many to consider acceptable voltage for most equip-
ment. This paper will utilize the CBEMA curve to illustrate that
most equipment will operate properly at a 40% voltage drop for
less than three cycles. The system conditions during a fault and
the duration of typical faults will also be analyzed to determine
possible solutions.
II. SYSTEM SUMMARY
A. Distribution System
Alabama Power utilizes 397-kCM ACSR or 795-kCM AAC
feeder conductors for both the 12- and 35-kV systems. This
practice allows loading of 600 or 900 A on both systems. But the
impedance of these almost identical feeders on the two systems
is very different. One kilometer of a 12-kV feeder has a per unit
impedance 7.65 times greater than a 1-km 35-kV feeder of the
same conductor. This characteristic causes more voltage drop to
occur within the feeder conductor on the 12-kV system during
a fault. This results in less voltage drop in the substation and
transmission system.
B. Total System Impedance
A voltage divider calculation indicates the voltage drop oc-
curring in the transmission system, the substation power trans-
former, and 1 km of 35-kV distribution feeder. All system cal-
culations below are on a 100-MVA base. These results (Fig. 1)
indicate the voltage drop across the generation and transmission
system is 11.13% of the total. The voltage drop across the sub-
station power transformer is 71.10% of the total and the feeder
voltage drop is 17.76% of the total. The voltage drop to the
low side substation bus excludes the feeder voltage drop. Other
feeders attached to this bus will experience the same voltage
sag even though the fault occurs under separate protective de-
vices. The bus voltages of phases that do not experience the fault
are affected minimally. The magnitude of the 35-kV voltage
sag problem is reduced some as the distance to the fault from
the substation bus increases, but the problem is significant for
faults occurring up to 7 km from the substation bus. Figs. 2
and 3 illustrate the significant difference in performance of the
12- and 35-kV systems during a fault on the distribution feeder
(100-MVA base calculations).
2 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY

Phase-to-ground fault voltage sag

(6)
(7)
Power Transf (8)
(9)

(10)

Fig. 1. Voltage divider of 35-kV system components showing the percentage

=
drop within system during a fault 1 km from bus. (Z p:u: impedance). (11)

The system impedance calculations on a 100-MVA base take

into consideration items 1, 2, and 3 as follows.
1) Generation and transmission system impedance are
made up of A, B, and C
A) The generating plant.
B) The 230-kV transmission lines to a 230/115-kV
transmission substation.
C) The 115-kV transmission lines from a transmission
substation to each 115/35-kV substation.
2) Substation power transformer impedance (60 MVA
Fig. 2. Voltage divider-12 kV and 35 kV. Compare voltage sag (percentage 115/35 kV).
drop) within system components for 12 and 35 kV with a fault occurring 1 km
from the substation bus. Note the significant difference in power transformer 3) Distribution system feeder conductor
and feeder portions of the two systems. impedance (397-kCM ACSR or 795-kCM AAC).

Even though all three systems components’ impedance are

used in the calculations, the voltage drop of interest is at the
power transformer low side bus. These calculations use the pos-
itive, negative, and zero sequence system impedance, per unit
base ohms, and per unit base current to determine the three-
phase and phase-to-ground fault currents at the substation bus
and at 1-km intervals along the distribution feeder. The voltage
sag calculation utilizes the fault current for a particular fault lo-
cation and the system impedance from the generation plant to
the substation power transformer low side bus. A fault at the
bus is a short circuit at that point which yields a voltage sag of
Fig. 3. Compare the voltage sag (percentage drop) at a 12- and 35-kV 100% drop while a fault about 7 km from the substation bus re-
substation bus for faults at 1-km intervals along the feeder.
sults in voltage sag of 40% drop for a (8.3% on a 30-MVA base)
60-MVA power transformer with a 397-kCM ACSR feeder.
III. SYSTEM IMPEDANCE Fig. 3 indicates voltage sag for phase-to-ground faults
A. Symmetrical Component Evaluation occurring at the substation bus and at 1-km intervals along
a 12-kV and a 35-kV distribution feeder. Three-phase and
Three-phase fault voltage sag phase-to-phase faults are not addressed for clarity. The sub-
station selected here is Inverness Substation, a 115/35-kV
A (1) 60-MVA substation located near Birmingham, AL. The main
distribution feeders are 397-kCM ACSR 35 kV. Voltage curves
(2)
for the faults at 1-km intervals are shown, indicating decreasing
(3) voltage sag as faults occur farther from the substation low side
bus.
Alabama Power studied the possible use of feeder reactors
(4)
during 1993. The benefits of reactors were being investigated
(5) by several utilities operating 35-kV systems in the US. Reactors
DANIEL: 35-kV SYSTEM VOLTAGE SAG IMPROVEMENT
do not totally solve the problem and require major capital in-
vestments. Another disadvantage of reactors is the physical size
with limited space in existing substations. Alabama Power does
not recommend the installation of feeder reactors.
B. Transmission System
While the low impedance of the 35-kV distribution feeder is
a contribution to fault voltage sag, the high impedance of the
substation power transformer, generation, and the transmission
system also is a contributor. Any increase in the distribution
feeder impedance or decrease in the generation, transmission
system, and power transformer impedance will offer some
fault voltage sag improvement. Reduced transmission system
impedance can be demonstrated by the new South Jefferson
Transmission Substation installed during 1997 near Birm-
ingham, AL. The new 230/115-kV transmission substation
offers a new strong 115-kV source for the 35-kV system.
Compare the generation and transmission system impedance
on a 100-MVA base before the installation of South Jefferson
to the improved impedance after installation
. short periods of time. The curve is helpful in determining the ef-
For example, a fault 3 km from the substation bus prior to
the installation of the South Jefferson 230/115-kV Transmission
Substation would cause a voltage sag of 62% drop. The same
fault after the installation of South Jefferson would improve to
60% drop. Viewing the change another way, the 62% voltage sag
fault location on the feeder moves from 3 km to an improved
location of 2.8 km from the substation. The movement of the
35-kV fault locations curve (Fig. 3) toward the 12-kV curve
is considered an improvement. Although an improbable result,
moving the 35-kV curve to the 12-kV curve would be a 100%
improvement.
C. Power Transformer
The portion of the system offering the most significant con-
tribution to voltage sag is the 115/35-kV substation power trans-
former. As shown earlier, the (8.3% on 30-MVA base) 60-MVA
power transformer offers 71.10% of the total system voltage
drop during a fault occurring 1 km from the substation bus on
a 397-kCM feeder. It seems the easiest solution would be to
lower the impedance of the power transformer, thus dropping
less voltage from the source to the bus. The proposal to lower
the impedance was investigated to determine the advantages and
the disadvantages. The goal was to come as close as possible to
12-kV system results. A very low impedance power transformer
could be manufactured, but cost adders may be required and
fault currents would increase above the 8000-A rating of some
line devices. So it was necessary to determine the appropriate
lower impedance value for the best overall results.
IV. IMPROVEMENT GOALS
A. CBEMA and Voltage Sag of 40% Drop
Figs. 2 and 3 confirm that even the 12-kV system experi-
ences voltage sag. Utilities know from recent experience that
customer complaints also result from voltage sag occurring on
the 12-kV system, but not as often as on the 35-kV system. The
reason for customer equipment problems becomes clear with
3
Fig. 4. CBEMA curve. Voltage sag inside the envelope is acceptable for most
electronic equipment. Note the 60% resultant voltage (40% drop) is acceptable
for a duration of 1/2 to two cycles.
the information provided by the Computer Business and Equip-
ment Manufacturers Association (CBEMA) curve referred to by
IEEE 446–1995 [1]. This study provides information about var-
ious electronic equipment tolerances of voltage variations for
fects of various power system disturbances on electronic equip-
ment. Large power transformers and longer distribution feeders
are common with higher voltage systems [2]. Therefore, more
customers are exposed to a single fault current event. Customers
continue to report increased costs associated with voltage sags
caused by faults on distribution systems. Even though utilities
economically justify utilizing higher voltage systems, studies
have shown there may be no economic advantage in these sys-
tems [3]. These systems may result in economic disadvantages
for both the customer and the utility. While economic studies
may indicate 35 kV reduces substation and transmission ex-
penses, the distribution system incurs extra cost for equipment
and the severe voltage sag causes customer complaints that will
not occur as frequently with a 12-kV or even a 25-kV system.
B. Power Transformer Impedance Improvement
If the 35-kV system is to operate with voltage sag similar to
the 12-kV system, the 40% voltage sag fault location must be
brought closer to the substation. The 7.0 km mentioned above
can be reduced to 5.0 km with a 6.0% (on 30-MVA base) power
transformer and to 4.1 km with parallel 8.3% (on 30-MVA base)
units. Either of these options would bring the 35-kV voltage sag
closer to the 12-kV performance. However, the parallel trans-
former arrangement may allow fault currents that exceed equip-
ment ratings.
To improve the voltage sag condition, this study has resulted
in a recommendation that the power transformer impedance is
reduced from the value that has been specified for the past 20
years. Also, at two locations, 25-MVA power transformers with
twice the impedance of the 60-MVA units had been installed
and another was planned for 1997. It was recommended that no
additional 25-MVA units are specified and that a 60-MVA unit
replace the planned 25-MVA unit.
Beginning in 1997, the 60-MVA power transformer load
rating was upgraded before the addition of fans and forced oil
cooling such that the base rating of 30 MVA was increased to
36 MVA. With this new rating in consideration, the 20–year old
4 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY

Fig. 6. Compare voltage sag (percentage drop) at the bus of a 12-kV and 35-kV
substation with the old 8.3% power transformer impedance and the new 6.64%
Fig. 5. Compare the resultant voltage sag (percentage drop) within system.
impedance. The 40% fault location is reduced from 7 to 5.6 km, 24% closer to
Note the 35-kV 6.64% power transformer results in less drop within the power
the 12-kV 40% fault location.
transformer.

35-kV impedance specification at Alabama Power was revised

to consider voltage sag improvement while limiting maximum
actual fault currents to near 8000 A. To reduce voltage sag,
an impedance of 8.0% will be specified for all future power
transformers. This specification requires no additional manu-
facturing cost. The new 8.0% impedance on a 36-MVA base is
equivalent to 6.64% on a 30-MVA base. Comparing the 6.64%
unit to the 8.3% unit results in a 20% impedance reduction.
The resultant maximum fault current on the 35-kV system will
be 7274 A; a value that should not frequently damage existing
35-kV equipment rated at 8000 A. The impedance reduction
will move the 40% voltage sag fault location approximately
20% closer to the 12-kV 40% fault location. The improvements
are shown in Figs. 5 and 6.

C. Reduce Fault Duration

The results of voltage sag tests under actual fault conditions
on the Alabama Power 35-kV system are shown in Fig. 7. The
fault was set up by closing a 10-A fuse and a 100-A fuse at
the 2800-A fault location 4.8 km from the Elliotsville Substa-
tion. The results indicate that a voltage sag of 50% occurs for Fig. 7. Field test fault 4.8 km from bus. Fault current of 2800 A resulted in a
1/2 cycle and 2(1/2) cycles for the 10-A and 100-A fuses, re- voltage sag of 50% drop for a duration of 1/2 to 2(1/2) cycles for 10- and 100-A
spectively. The 50% voltage sag field test at 4.8 km verifies the fuses, respectively.
35-kV curves of Figs. 3 and 6. Note that the smaller fuse inter-
rupts the fault in less than one cycle, thus reducing the voltage
sag duration. Tests utilizing 30- and 50-A fuses also resulted
in fault interruption times of approximately one cycle. The field
tests verified calculated values and show improvements are pos-
sible by reducing fuse sizes. Current limiting fuses tested at the
field site reduced the 2800-A fault current to 300 A, eliminating
voltage sag. However, the cost and limited size availability of
current limiting fuses does not justify their use when compared
with a 30-A fuse that clears a fault within one cycle [4].
As shown in Fig. 6, the location on each feeder that a fault will
cause a voltage sag of 40% or less is 5.6 to 7.0 km from the sub-
station bus. The 35-kV feeder voltage sag for faults beyond this
distance should not cause customer complaints. The results are Fig. 8. One-second duration of a voltage sag of 45% drop.
the same as voltage sag for faults that occur beyond 1.8 km on a
12-kV feeder. Therefore, the need to improve phase-to-ground fault voltage sag conditions occurs less than 7 km from the bus.
DANIEL: 35-kV SYSTEM VOLTAGE SAG IMPROVEMENT
The single-phase protection on distribution feeder radial taps is
typically a 100-A fuse, the maximum fuse size that coordinates
with most substation breaker relays. Fuse clearing times may
be three to six cycles, allowing voltage sag to remain for this
time duration. Loading on single phase lines will allow 90%
of these fuses to be reduced to 30 A or 50 A, allowing clearing
times of one half to one cycle. The single-phase line loading was
evaluated and 100-A cutout-type switches were refused only
within 7.0 km of the substations. The connected kilovolt am-
peres (kVA) was determined, doubled for cold load pick up and
30- or 50-A fuses were installed where load allowed. Less than
10% required 75- or 100-A fuses. Current limiting fuses were
deemed too costly for system-wide use.
D. Lightning Fault Reduction
Three-phase faults and the resultant voltage sag are not shown
in Figs. 1–8, but are more severe than phase-to-ground fault
voltage sags. The distance from the bus for a three-phase fault
that results in a voltage sag of 40% drop is 12 km. The most
likely cause of three-phase faults is lightning; therefore, addi-
tional lightning arrestors will be installed on all 35-kV feeders
within 12 km of the bus and enhanced grounding methods will
be utilized to reduce three-phase fault probability.
E. Reduce Three-Phase Fault Duration
An actual 2500-A phase-to-ground fault shown in Fig. 8
shows a voltage sag of 45% drop for 1 s before the substation
breaker relay called for a trip. Customers served by other
feeders of this substation also experienced the sag of 45% for
1 s. The customer complaints that result call for consideration
of substation relay settings. During the early 1990s, substation
breaker relay settings were revised to include a 12-cycle delay
before tripping prior to the instantaneous reclose. A 12-cycle
delay plus a five-cycle breaker operation time resulted in a
17-cycle voltage sag. The instantaneous trip is usually set as
low as 1200 A which allows the breaker to trip for faults a great
distance from the substation. Raising the instantaneous trip
setting to (e.g., 3000 A) and installing a three-phase electronic
line oil circuit recloser at the 3000-A fault location will reduce
the frequency of trips at the substation. After consideration of
the substation relay timing consequences, the 12-cycle delay
was eliminated; the instantaneous relay settings raised and
electronic reclosers were utilized as needed to accomplish the
three-phase fault duration reduction.
5
V. CONCLUSION
The unique characteristics of 35-kV distribution cannot be
eliminated, but a thorough understanding of the system will
allow voltage sag to be reduced as much as 20% at Alabama
Power. The impedance changes, fault duration reduction, and
three-phase fault prevention measures can be accomplished at
minimal cost. These improvements can be incorporated into
standard system design and completed over a period of five
years as resources allow.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author gratefully acknowledges the contributions of
P. Coleman, H. Gabriel, R. Murchison, K. Reed, G. Smith, and
T. Wall. The technical expertise of these engineers made the
results of this project possible.
REFERENCES
[1] IEEE Recommended Practice for Emergency and Standby Power,
ANSI/IEEE Std. 446-1997, 1987.
[2] L. Conrad, C. Grigg, and K. Little, “Predicting and preventing problems
associated with remote fault-clearing voltage dips,” in Proc. Ind. Com-
mercial Power Syst. Tech. Conf., 1989, pp. 74–78.
[3] R. E. Clayton, J. M. Undrill, and E. L. Shlatz, “Case study of radial
overhead feeder performance at 12.5 kV and 34.5 kV,” in Proc. Rural
Elect. Power Conf., Scotia, NY, 1989, pp. 98–98.
[4] L. Kojovic and S. Hassler, “Application of current limiting fuses in dis-
tribution systems for improved power quality and protection,” IEEE
Trans. Power Delivery, vol. 12, pp. 791–800, Apr. 1997.
M. Stephen Daniel (SM’01) was born in Birm-
ingham, AL, on May 12, 1952. He received the
B.S. and M.S.E.E. degrees in engineering from the
University of Alabama at Birmingham in 1974 and
1997, respectively.
Currently, he is Principal Engineer at Power
Delivery–Distribution Engineering Services, Birm-
ingham. His work experience includes 29 years
of distribution engineering for Alabama Power, A
Southern Company. He served as Team Leader of
the 35-kV Voltage Sag Study Committee in 1997,
National Management Association Birmingham Division President in 1986,
and Greater Birmingham United Way Loaned Executive in 1980.
Mr. Daniel is a registered professional engineer and is the 2004 Chair of the
IEEE Alabama Section.