A Behavior Modification Perspective on Marketing Author(s): Walter R. Nord and J. Paul Peter Source: The Journal of Marketing, Vol.

44, No. 2 (Spring, 1980), pp. 36-47 Published by: American Marketing Association Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1249975 Accessed: 01/10/2008 21:58
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use. Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=ama. Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed page of such transmission. JSTOR is a not-for-profit organization founded in 1995 to build trusted digital archives for scholarship. We work with the scholarly community to preserve their work and the materials they rely upon, and to build a common research platform that promotes the discovery and use of these resources. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

American Marketing Association is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to The Journal of Marketing.

http://www.jstor.org

WALTER &J.PAUL R. PETER NORD

This article presents an overview of behavior modification and investigates its applicability to marketing. It is suggested that this perspective provides a useful complement to the more cognitively-oriented approaches which currently dominate the marketing literature. Some of the approach's potential contributions and unresolved issues are also discussed.

A BEHAVIOR MODIFICA ON MARKETIN PERSPECTIVE

TUDENTS of marketing have borrowed freely from many areas of psychology. For example, cognitive psychology, need satisfaction models, field theory, psychoanalytic theory, and stimulusresponse theory have all provided useful insights for understanding and predicting consumer behavior. However, marketing scholars have given little consideration to one of the most influential perspectives developed in psychology in the last 40 yearsthe behavior modification approach stimulated by the work of B. F. Skinner' (e.g., 1953, 1969). The purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of the Behavior Modification Perspective (BMP) which has evolved from the work of Skinner and others and investigate its applicabilityto marketing.

Fundamental Elements of Behavior Modification

There is an important basic difference between the BMP and the psychological perspectives which currently dominate the marketing literature: the BMP focuses on environmentalfactors which inWalter R. Nord is Professor of Organizational Psychology and J. Paul Peter is Associate Professor of Marketing at Washington University, St. Louis, MO. The authors would like to thank C. William Emory and two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments.

fluence behavior. It takes the prediction and control of behavior as problematic and deliberately shuns speculation about processes which are assumed to occur within the individual such as needs, motives, attitudes, information processing, etc. In fact, the so-called radical behaviorists reject the value of considering these internal processes at all. Our approach is far less radical and more consistent with the social learning theories of Bandura (1978) and Staats (1975). We believe that it is useful and desirable to theorize about and investigate internal, psychological processes which affect behavior. However, we maintain that many marketing objectives can be (and in fact have been) accomplished without such theories by simply studying environmental conditions and manipulating them to influence consumer behavior. The BMP provides the stimulus and technology for systematizing this external focus. Frequently, treatments of behavior modification are limited to two types of environmentalmanipulations-those which result in respondent (classical) conditioning and those which produce operant (in'Some psychologists consider Skinner and his followers to be S-R theorists. While there are important similarities, the differences are significant enough that leading psychologists consider Skinner's work separately from their treatment of S-R theory (see Hall and Lindzey 1970). Journal of Marketing Vol. 44 (Spring 1980), 36-7.

36 / Journal of Marketing, Spring 1980

strumental) conditioning.2This treatment of behavior modification will include these manipulations as well as those which alter behavior through vicarious learning and ecological design. A review of the literature revealed that these four ways of modifying behavior have been given little systematic attention in marketing. While respondent conditioning has been discussed at length in the marketing literature in an attempt to explain behavior, it has not been discussed as a method of modifying or controlling behavior. Operant conditioning has been discussed (e.g., Carey et al. 1976; Engel, Kollat, and Blackwell 1973; Kassarjian 1978; Ray 1973) but has not been integrated into the mainstream of marketing thinking. Treatment of vicarious learning and ecological design is almost totally absent.3 As a result many students of marketing are apt to be unfamiliar with these processes. Therefore, all four will be described in some detail. RespondentConditioning Respondents are a class of behaviors which are under the control of stimuli which precede them. Generally, these behaviors are assumed to be governed by the autonomic nervous system and, therefore, are not susceptible to conscious control by the individual. Pavlov's classical conditioning experiments provide the basic paradigm for this approach. In general, respondent conditioning can be defined as a process throughwhich a previously neutral stimulus, by being paired with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to elicit a response very similar to the response originally elicited by the unconditioned stimulus. It is well established that a variety of human behaviors including reflexes, glandular responses, and what are often called "emotions" can be modified through the process of respondent conditioning.4 For example, when a new product for which people have neutral feelings is repeatedly advertised during exciting sports events, it is possible for the productto eventually generate excitement on its own solely through the repeated pairing with the exciting events. Similarly, an unknown political candidate may come to elicit patriotic feelings in
2It has been argued that respondent and operant conditioning may not be as separable processes as previously thought. For a discussion of this point, see Miller (1969). However, for present purposes they will be treated as conceptually distinct. 3However, Kotler's (1976, p. 324) notion of atmospherics as well as several of Belk's (1974, 1975) situational influences, e.g., physical and social surroundings, are fully consistent with the principles of ecological design (and respondent conditioning). 4Miller (1969) has demonstrated that these behaviors can also be conditioned by stimuli which occur after them.

voters simply by having patriotic music constantly played in the background of his/her political commercials. Since it is a process which can account for many of the responses which environmental stimuli elicit from individuals, respondent conditioning has a number of important implications for marketing. Throughit, a particularstimulus can come to evoke positive, negative, or neutral feelings. Consequently, respondent conditioning influences whether a wide variety of objects or events are those which an individual will work to obtain, to avoid, or be indifferent to. At this point, it should be clear that what the BMP views as respondent conditioning can account for many of the reactions to stimuli which have also been accounted for by cognitive or affective models. We are not saying that the BMP view is incompatible with these traditionalconcerns or that it is a perfect substitute for such models. However, these traditionalconcerns have led marketingscholars to accept models and to design research in which internal psychological processes are focal and assumed to be "causal." As a result, the role of external events has received insufficient attention. Respondent conditioning and other elements of the BMP focus on the manipulation of external factors and it is clear that consumer behavior can be influenced through this external emphasis without a complete psychology of internal processes.5 Considera product or a product-relatedstimulus. External stimuli which elicit positive emotions can be paired with the product in ways which result in the product itself eliciting positive effect. Consequently, behavior may be triggered which brings the potential consumer into "closer contact" with the product.6 Similarly, stimuli may be presented
5There are three basic ways by which researchers attempt to determine what properties certain stimuli have for people. One way is through verbal reports. A second method may be termed projection whereby the investigator infers the properties from his/her observations of another person's behavior. A third means can be termed empirical. This involves presentation of a stimulus and description of its consequences. Of course, these three are often used in combination. The BMP encourages marketers not to discount the advantages of the empirical approach. 6"Closer contact" refers to a general relationship between a person's behavior and a given stimulus (e.g., a product). For example, if a product elicits positive effect, an individual exposed to the product is more apt to move towards it than if negative emotions are elicited. Attending behavior is also apt to be a function of respondently conditioned effect. Stimuli which elicit stronger emotional responses (either positive or negative) are, at least over a considerable range, apt to receive more attention from an individual than are stimuli which are affectively neutral. To the degree that attending behavior is necessary for product purchase or other product-related behavior, respondent conditioning influences product contact.

A Behavior Modification Perspective on Marketing / 37

which produce certain general emotional responses such as relaxation, excitement, nostalgia, or some other emotion which is likely to increase the probability of some desired response such as product purchase. Note, while it may be useful to obtain verbal reports or physiological measures in deciding what stimuli to employ to elicit such emotions, the BMP bypasses these procedures and focuses directly on ways to modify behavior. While a number of psychological theories could be used to account for these processes, behavior can be modified without such theories. In fact, it seems clear that the actions of practitioners often follow this atheoretical approach. Consider the following examples. Radio and television advertisements often use famous sportscasters whose voices have been paired for years with exciting sports events. These voices elicit excitement as a result of this frequent pairing. Repeated pairings of the voices with the advertised product can result, via higher-order respondent conditioning, in feelings of excitement associated with the product. Music, sexy voices and bodies, and other stimuli are used in similar ways. Often these stimuli may influence behavior without this "higher order conditioning" simply by drawing attention to the ad. Of course, the attention generating properties of the stimulus itself are apt to have developed through previous conditioning which occurs "naturally"in society. The use of telephones ringing or sirens in the background of radio and television ads, some legal version of the phrase "news bulletin," and the presence of famous celebrities, are common examples of how stimuli, which are irrelevant to the content of an ad or the function of the product, are used to increase attention to the ad itself. In this sense, one of the major resources that organizations use to market their products is made available through previous respondent conditioning of members of society. Stimuli at or near the point of purchase also serve the goals of marketers through their ability to elicit respondent behaviors. Christmas music in a toy department is a good example. Although no data are available to support the point, we suspect that Christmas carols are useful in eliciting the emotions labeled as the "Christmas spirit." Once these feelings have been elicited, we suspect (and retailers seem to share our expectations) that people are more apt to purchase a potential gift for a loved one. In other words, Christmas carols are useful in generating emotions which are incompatible with "sales resistance." These examples can serve as a basis for several generalizations about the role of respondent condi38 / Journal of Marketing, Spring 1980

tioning as a marketing tool. First, the concept of respondent conditioning directs attention to the presentation of stimuli which, due to previous conditioning, elicit certain feelings in the potential consumer. Sometimes (as with Christmas music) these stimuli trigger certain emotions which are apt to increase the probabilityof certain desired behaviors or reduce the probability of undesired responses. Second, in many cases the marketer may find it useful to actually condition responses to stimuli. For example, as with the voices of famous sportscasters, it may be desirable to pair the stimuli with the product repeatedly in order to condition the feelings elicited by a particular stimulus to the product. Then, the product itself may stimulate similar reactions. Finally, some of the benefits which can be gained from employing the principles of respondent conditioning have already been used by marketingpractitioners in an (apparently)ad hoc manner. While the systematic application of the respondent paradigm is unlikely to result in any new principles, by calling attention to the actual control process being employed, it is apt to yield a number of practical benefits both to advertising and to point of purchase promotion. In particular, stimuli are apt to be arranged in ways which are more effective in eliciting desired emotional responses. Thus, the primary benefit of respondent conditioning, as with other elements of the BMP, is that it encourages the systematic analysis of purchase and purchase-related behaviors and indicates specific techniques for modifying and controlling these behaviors. Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning differs from respondent conditioning in at least two important ways. First, whereas respondent conditioning is concerned with involuntary responses, operant conditioning deals with behaviors which are usually assumed to be under the conscious control of the individual. Second, respondent behaviors are elicited by stimuli which occur prior to the response; operants are conditioned by consequences which occur after the behavior. In any given situation, at any given time, there is a certain probability that an individual will emit a particularbehavior. If all of the possible behaviors are arranged in descending order of probability of occurrence, the result is a response hierarchy. Operantconditioning has occurred when the probability that an individual will emit one or more behaviors is altered by changing the events or consequences which follow the particularbehavior. Some events or consequences increase the fre-

quency that a given behavior is likely to be repeated. For example, a cash rebate given at the time of purchase increases the probability that a shopper will purchase in the same store in the future, other things being equal. In this case,since the cash rebate has the effect of increasing the probability of the preceding behavior, it is referred to as a positive reinforcer. In other cases, the frequency of a given behavior can be increased by removing an aversive stimulus. This is called negative reinforcement. Although there are few examples of negative reinforcement in marketing, one illustration is the situation where a consumer purchases a product primarily to avoid the high pressure tactics of an overzealous salesperson. Sometimes operant techniques are used to decrease the probability of a response. If the environment is arranged so that the particular response results in neutral consequences, over a period of time that response will diminish in frequency. This process is referred to as extinction. If the response is followed by a noxious or "undesired" result, the frequency of the response is likely to decrease. The term punishment is usually used to describe this process.7 In addition to these general procedures, there are a number of other principles of operant conditioning. (For a rathercomplete description of these possibilities, Honig 1966and Staats 1975are recommended.) However, there are three concepts which deserve specific mention: reinforcement schedules, shaping, and discriminative stimuli. ReinforcementSchedules. A number of different schedules of reinforcement can be employed. For example, it is possible to arrange conditions where a positive reinforcer is administeredafter: (1) every desired behavior, (2) every second desired behavior, etc. When every occurrence of the behavior is reinforced, a continuous schedule of reinforcement is being employed. When every second, third, tenth, etc. response is reinforced, a fixed ratio schedule is being used. Similarly, it is possible to have a reinforcer follow a desired consequence on average one-half, one-third, one-fourth, etc. of the time, but not every second time or third time, etc. Such a schedule is called a variable ratio schedule. The ratio schedules are of particular interest because they produce high rates of behavior which
7In this paper, we will focus primarily on the use of positive reinforcement. We are making this choice for two reasons. First, we personally do not believe that aversive consequences should be used to sell products. Second, it is unlikely that the use of aversive consequences to sell products is generally practical in the current socioeconomic system even if organizations were predisposed to use them.

are reasonably resistant to extinction. Gambling devices are good examples. Slot machines are very effective in producing high rates of response, even under conditions which often result in substantial financial losses. This property of the ratio schedule is particularly important for marketers because it suggests how a great deal of desired behavior can be developed and maintained for relatively small, infrequent rewards. For example, Deslauriers and Eberett (1977) found that by giving small rewards for riding a bus on a variable ratio schedule, the same amount of bus riding could be obtained as when rewards were given on a continuous schedule. Thus, for approximately one-third the cost of the continuous schedule, the same amounts of behavior were sustained.8 Numerous other examples of the use of the variable ratio schedule can be found in marketing practice. Lotteries, door prizes, and other tactics whereby individualsare asked to respond in a certain way to be eligible for a prize are common examples (when the prize is assigned by chance). Shaping. Another concept from the operant tradition which has importantimplications for marketing is "shaping." Shaping is important because given an individual's existing response hierarchy, the probability that he/she will make a particular desired response may be very small. In general, shaping involves a process of arrangingconditions which change the probabilities of certain behaviors not as ends in themselves, but to increase the probabilities of other behaviors. Usually, shaping involves the positive reinforcement of successive approximationsof the desired behavior or of behaviors which must be performed before the desired response can be emitted. Many firms already employ marketingactivities which are roughly analogous to shaping. For example, loss leaders and other special deals are used as rewards for individuals coming to a store. Once customers are in the store, the probability that they will make some other response such as purchasing other full-priced items is much greater than when they are not in the store. Also, shopping centers or auto dealers who put carnivals in their parking lots may be viewed as attemptingto shape behavior. Similarly, free trial periods may be employed to make it more likely that the user will have contact

8There are a number of other possible reinforcement schedules. However, we will limit our attention to continuous and ratio schedules. Also we will not deal with the consequences that the different schedules have on the pattern, rate, and maintenance of behavior. For a detailed treatment of these effects, Honig (1966) is recommended.

A Behavior Modification Perspective on Marketing / 39

with the product so that he/she can experience the product's reinforcing properties. Discriminative Stimuli. It is important to distinguish between the reinforcement and discriminative functions played by stimuli in the operant model. In our treatment of respondent conditioning, we noted that a stimulus can act as a reinforcer or can function to trigger certain emotions or other behaviors. So far in this section, the focus has been on the reinforcing function. However, the mere presence or absence of a stimulus can serve to change the probabilities of behavior; such stimuli are called discriminative stimuli. Many marketing stimuli are of a discriminative nature. Store signs (e.g., "50% off sale") and store logos (e.g., K-Mart's big red "K") or distinctive brandmarks(e.g., the Levi tag) are good examples. Previous experiences have perhaps taught the customer that purchase behavior will be rewardedwhen the distinctive symbol is present and not rewarded when the symbol is absent. Here then is yet another parallel between the principles of behavior modification and common marketing practice. Vicarious Learning Vicarious learning (or modeling) refers to a process which attempts to change behavior by having an individual observe the actions of others (i.e., models) and the consequences of those behaviors. According to Bandura (1969) there are three major types of vicarious learning or modeling influences. First, there are observational learning or modeling effects whereby an observer acquires one or more new response patterns that did not previously exist in his/her behavioral repertoire. Second, there are inhibitory and disinhibitory effects whereby an observer's inhibitory responses are either strengthened or weakened by observation of a model's behavior and its consequences. Third, there is response facilitation whereby the behavior
of others ". .. serves merely as discriminative ..." (Bandura

stimuli for the observer in facilitatingthe occurrence

of previously learned responses

1969, p. 120). Developing New Responses. There are at least three types of new behaviors that marketers often wish to induce in consumers or potential consumers. First, it is often desirable to "educate" consumers in productusage. Second, it may be helpful to induce consumers to shop in certain ways. Finally, by developing certain types of "attending behavior," the sensitivity of a potential customer to advertising information can be increased. Vicarious learning can be very useful in achieving these three goals. First, modeling can be used to develop behaviors 40 / Journal of Marketing, Spring 1980

which enable potential consumers to utilize particular products appropriately. The demonstration of ways of using a product may make purchase more probable, particularly if the model(s) appear to be experiencing positive consequences from using the product. Moreover, repurchaseor purchase by one's friends may become more probable if the consumer has learned, by watching someone else, to use the product appropriately. This use of modeling is common to both industrial and consumer products salespeople who are attempting to sell technically complex products. Also, many self-service retail stores now use video cassette machines with taped demonstrations of proper product usage. Second, models may be very helpful in developing the desired purchasing behaviors. For example, suppose a firm has a product which is currently technically superior to its competitors. It may be important to teach the potential consumer to ask questions about such technical advantages at the point of purchase. Advertisements showing individuals doing just this or behaving in other ways which appear to give a particular product a differential advantage may be useful. Third, particularlyat early stages in the purchase process, it is often necessary to find ways to increase the degree to which potential customers attend to information in advertisements and other messages about a product. Attaining this objective can be facilitated through the application of findings from recent research on factors which influence the attention observers pay to models. For example, attending behavior is influenced by such factors as: incentive conditions, the characteristics of the observers, the characteristics of the model, and the characteristics of the modeling cues themselves. Advertising practitioners seem to be very sensitive to these factors. Many ads reflect their creators' acute awareness of salient characteristics of the target audience, the characteristics of the users of the product in the ad, and the behaviors exhibited by the model. Moreover, many ads show the models receiving positive social or other reinforcementfrom the purchase or use of the product. Inhibiting Undesired Behaviors. Because of the obvious ethical and practical problems involved in attemptingto use punishmentin marketing,we have given little attention to ways of reducing the frequency of "undesired" responses. However, while these problems exist in the direct use of punishment, they are far less prevalent when aversive consequences are administeredto models. Thus, vicarious learning may be one of the few approaches which can be used in marketing to reduce the frequency of unwanted elements in the behavioral repertoire

of a potential or present consumer. It is well known from the modeling literature that, under appropriate conditions, observers who see a model experience aversive outcomes following a particularact, will reduce their tendency to exhibit that behavior. Similarly, vicarious learning can employ an extinction situation to reduce the frequency of behavior., While most marketing efforts are directed at increasing rather than decreasing behaviors, some ads are directed at reducing such behaviors as smoking, drinking, overeating, wasting energy, polluting and littering, as well as purchasing or using a competitor's product. The effectiveness of messages to achieve these goals may benefit from the use of vicarious negative conditioning. Response Facilitation. In addition to its role in developing new behaviors and inhibiting "undesired" behaviors, modeling can be used to facilitate the occurrence of desired behaviors which are currentlyin the individual'srepertoire.For example, modeling has been used extensively in advertising not only to illustrate the uses of a product but to show what "types" of people use it and in what settings. Since many of these uses involve behaviors already in the observer's response hierarchy, the function of the model is merely to facilitate these responses by depicting positive consequences for use of the productin a particularway. This technique appears frequently in advertising for high status products. Such ads do not demonstrate any new behaviors, but show the positive consequences of using a particular product. The recent series of Lowenbrau ads stressing the use of this beer for very special occasions is a clear example of this. It is also possible to influence emotional behavior through a vicarious learning paradigm. Bandura (1969) noted that many emotional behaviors can be acquired through observations of others, as well as through direct respondent conditioning:
? . . vicarious emotional

In sum, vicarious learning or modeling has a number of current and potential uses in marketing. If a potential consumer has observed appropriate models, then he/she is more likely to know the appropriate behaviors; if the model has been rewardedappropriately,the potential consumer may be more likely to engage in these behaviors. Likewise, if the potential consumer has observed inappropriate models receiving aversive consequences, he/she may be less likely to emit them. Models may be used to develop, inhibit, or facilitate behavior. In short, as with the other components of the BMP, it is clear that this technique for modifying behavior is commonly employed in current television and other advertising messages. In fact, Markin and Narayana (1976, p. 225) suggest that many of today's most successful products are promoted and advertised on the basis of modeling approaches which show the model receiving positive functional or social benefits from the use of the product. Products they suggest have used this approach include "Coca-Cola," "Pepsi Cola," "McDonald's," "Kentucky Fried Chicken," "Nyquil," "Absorbine Jr.," "Alka Seltzer," Philip's "Milk of Magnesia," "Pepto Bismol," "Folgers," "Crest," and "Head and Shoulders." However, since the link of current marketing practice to the BMP has not been explicit, research exploring the application of the principles of vicarious learning to marketing settings is lacking. Such research is apt to have both practical importance for marketing and theoretical implicationsfor students of modeling as previous findings are tested in more general, less artificial settings. Ecological Design Although knowledge about the role of physical space and other aspects of environmentaldesign is meager, there is considerable evidence that the design of physical situations and the presence or absence of various stimuli have powerful effects on behavior (Barker 1968; Hall 1959, 1966; Sommers 1969). We will use the term ecological design to refer to the deliberate design of environments to modify human behavior. Ecological design is widely used in marketing. For example, department stores place displays in high traffic areas (e.g., at the end of an escalator) to increase the likelihood that consumers will observe the product on display. Similarly, end aisle displays in supermarkets and the internal arrangements of stores involve efforts to place stimuli in positions which increase the likelihood of consumers making one or more desired responses. Direct mail is also a means of placing stimuli in the potential

observing others experience positive or negative emotional effects in conjunction with particular stimulus events. Both direct and vicarious conditioning processes are governed by the same basic principles of associative learning, but they differ in the force of the emotional arousal. In the direct prototype, the learner himself is the recipient of pain- or pleasure-producing stimulation, whereas in vicarious forms somebody else experiences the reinforcing stimulation and his affective expressions, in turn, serve as the arousal stimuli for the observer (p. 167).

conditioning

results from

To the degree that positive emotions toward a

product are desired, vicarious emotional condition-

ing may be a useful concept for the design of effective advertisements.

A Behavior Modification Perspective on Marketing / 41

consumer's environment to increase the likelihood that the individual will at least be aware of the particular product. Other techniques include the use of sound, odors, lights, and other stimuli to increase attentive behaviors. In fact, store location and external arrangements (e.g., design of malls, arrangement of parking space) are all efforts to alter behavior through environmental design. In a be-

havioral sense, these are all ways to increase the probability that the individual will make certain responses which increase the likelihood that purchase or some other desired response will follow. Like shaping, ecological manipulations are frequently employed to modify behavior early in the purchase process. Thus, their major impact is through their role in inducing the potential consumer

TABLE 1 Illustrative Applications of the BMP in Marketing I. Some Applications of Respondent Conditioning Principles A. Conditioning responses to new stimuli Unconditioned or Previously Conditioned Stimulus Conditioned Stimulus A product or theme song Exciting event Patrioticevents or music A product or person

Examples Gillette theme song followed by sports event Patriotic music as background in political commercial Examples Christmas music in retail store Famous sportscaster narratinga commercial Noxema television ads and many others Sirens sounding or telephones ringing in commercials

B. Use of familiar stimuli to elicit responses Conditioned Stimulus Conditioned Response(s) Familiarmusic Relaxati excitement, "good ion, will" Familiarvoices Excitem tent, attention Sexy voices, bodies Familiarsocial cues Excitem lent, attention, relaxation Excitem lent, attention, anxiety

II. Some Applications of Operant Conditioning Principles A. Rewards for desired behavior (continuous schedules) Desired Behavior Product purchase B. Rewards for desired behavior (partialschedules) Desired Behavior Product purchase C. Shaping Approximation of Desired Response Opening a charge account Tripto point-of-purchase location Entryinto store Product trial D. DiscriminativeStimuli Desired Behavior Entryinto store Brand purchase ce Consequent Following :imation Approx Prizes, etc., for o pening account Loss leaders, enttertainment,or event at the shor)ping center Door prize Free product and I/or some bonus for using Reward Signal Store signs Store logos Distinctive brandmarks Final Response Desired Expenditureof funds Purchase of products Purchase of products Purchase of product Reward Given Following Behavior Trading stamps, cash bonus or rebate, prizes, coupons Reward Given (sometimes) Prize for every second, or third, etc. purchase Prize to some fraction of people who purchase

Examples 50% off sale K-Mart'sbig red "K" Levi tag

42 / Journal of Marketing, Spring 1980

to come into contact with the product and / or perform product-related behavior. As such, ecological design is best viewed as one part of a comprehensive marketing approach; ecological modifications can be conveniently sequenced with other techniques (e.g. modeling, respondent conditioning, operant conditioning). As with other elements subsumed under the BMP, ecological designs to modify behavior have received far less attention in the academic literature than they deserve in view of how frequently they are used by marketing practitioners. A major advantage of the BMP is that it encourages the integration of these various techniques to lead to a coherent approach for modifying the entire sequence of behaviors desired of consumers and potential consumers.

Summaryof Some Applicationsof the BMP in Marketing

Table 1 provides a framework for considering some applications of the BMP to marketing. Each of the four sections of the table outlines the general

procedures which would be followed in applying one of the four basic elements of the BMP. The table lists a number of the specific behaviors which marketers may wish to develop and organizes the examples presented in the previous sections of the paper. In reviewing this table, two qualifications should be kept in mind. First, there are many tactics for modifying behavior which are combinations of a number of techniques which do not fit neatly into the simple categories presented in the table. For example, Anheuser-Busch has a series of commercials which begin with a sports trivia question and then give the listener "time to think" while the virtues of a particular brand of beer are discussed. Then, the answer to the question is given. Determination of exactly which principles this approach uses and whether or not the approach can be reduced to principles of behavior modification at all requires a complex analysis of the acquisition and use of language. However, the approach is clearly one of picking a desired behavior (i.e., listening to the commercial) and organizing stimuli to increase the probability of this behavior. Second, most, if not all of these tactics have

TABLE 1 (Continued) III.Some Applications of Modeling Principles Desired Response Modeling Employed Use of product in technically competent way Instructor,expert, salesperson using product (in ads or at point-of-purchase) Models in ads asking questions at point-ofAsk questions at point-of-purchase which highlight purchase product advantages Models in ads receiving positive reinforcement Increase product purchase and use for product purchase or use Models in ads receiving no reinforcement or Extinctionor decrease undesired behaviors receiving punishment for performing undesired behaviors Individualor group (similar to target) using Use of product in new ways product in novel, enjoyable way IV. Some Applications of Ecological Modification Principles Environmental Design Intermediate Behavior Final Desired Behavior Specific Example Store layout End of escalator, Product purchase Bring customer into end-aisle, other displays visual contact with product Purchase locations Purchase possible from Product or store contact Product purchase home, store location In-store mobility In-store product Product purchase Bring consumer into directories, information visual contact with booths product Noises, odors, lights Product purchase Flashing lights in store Bring consumer into window visual or other sensory contact with store or product

A Behavior Modification

Perspective

on Marketing / 43

already been used by practitioners. While the BMP may lead to some new tactics, its most important value to practitioners will be in systematizing and integrating marketing efforts by focusing attention be modified to change the probability of product purchase or of some other desired behavior.
on the sequence of specific behaviors which can

are more apt to be rewarded for attempting to provide theoretical explanations of consumer behavior. The BMP focuses academics on the investigation of behaviors and techniques which produce sales and profits. Moreover, its simplicity and pragmatic emphasis should help academics in their efforts to communicate with practitioners. Study of Consumer Behavior There are also two major contributions to the study of consumer behavior. First, the BMP forces explicit recognition that, to the degree that marketingefforts seek to increase sales, marketing is directly concerned with the influence, modification, and control of consumer behavior. Such recognition can have profound effects on consumer behavior research. While research on attitudes and decision processes will not be precluded, valuable empirical research may be conducted without attaching great significance to internal psychological processes. Instead, attention is apt to center on the manipulation of external factors which affect behavior in desired ways. Even in cases where internal psychological processes are the focus of research, the BMP forces explicit recognition that there are a variety of external influences which need to be accounted for in research designs. Several of Belk's (1974, 1975) situational influences as well as a variety of the stimuli discussed in this article could well be affecting both the internal validity (i.e., interpretability) and external validity (i.e., generalizability) of current consumer behavior research findings. The discussions by Snow (1974) and Petrinovich (1979) should be useful for developing research methods to incorporate these external influences. Second, there is considerable evidence that the behavior of consumers is far more consistent with the principles of the BMP than with traditional explanations. For example Markin (1974) and Markin and Narayana (1976)note that empiricalresearch on consumer decision processes documents that consumers: (1) do not seek extensive amounts of informationin relationto purchase and consumption problems; (2) do not process large amounts of informationin relationto purchase and consumption problems; and (3) do not appear to engage in extensive problem solving behavior even in relation to big ticket or capital intensive items such as automobiles, houses, and major appliances. Not only does the BMP account for the empirical data better than many other approaches, but it does so with fewer variables. In a word, it is more parsimonious. Further, it has long been recognized that purchase behavior often precedes attitudes about the product or brand purchased. Thus, the BMP

PotentialContributions the BMP to of Marketing

As the examples in the previous section illustrate, a number of tactics which are frequently used by marketing practitioners can be derived from the BMP. Of course, the fact that they can be derived does not mean that they were so derived or that they could not have been derived from other models. Nevertheless, the fact that such a varied array of tactics can be subsumed under a relatively simple model suggests that the perspective can be a valuable addition to the academic marketing literature. It is in this spirit that we speculate about the potential contributions of the BMP to marketingpractice and to the study of consumer behavior. Marketing Practice The BMP can make at least two major contributions to marketing practice. First, it can facilitate the development of a comprehensive set of strategies and tactics which encompass those environmental and situational factors which directly influence behavior. If the behaviors desired from the potential buyer are specified, it will often be possible to be explicit about a set of actions which should occur in any given situation to move the potential buyer to behave in ways which are more likely to lead to purchase behavior. Marketing tactics developed with this degree of specificity force more careful planning and analysis of exactly what outcomes are sought and are more easily evaluated and refined. It should be noted here that in other systems where behavior modification has been introduced, it has often been found that there was considerable ambiguity about exactly what results previous methods of organization were really attempting to achieve (Nord 1969; Schneier 1974). We suspect that other than purchase behavior, many students of marketing have never delineated the basic sequence of behaviors that consumers must perform in order to purchase a product. Second, the BMP can stimulate a closer interchange between academics and practitioners. In this connection it is important to emphasize that while marketing managers are rewarded for developing tactics which generate sales and profits, academics 44 / Journal of Marketing, Spring 1980

may well provide insights into predicting and controlling the purchase-consumption process. It is important to emphasize here that the BMP does not nor is it intended to provide theoretical explanations of behavior. However, it is clear that any scientific explanation of the causes of consumer behavior will have to include not only internal psychological processes, but also the external influences embodied in the BMP.

Some UnresolvedIssues
Based on our argument, we believe it is reasonable to conclude that a good deal of marketing, at least at the tactical or operational level, is as closely aligned with techniques of behavior modification as with those suggested by more complex, internally-oriented psychological models. To the degree this conclusion is valid, it raises a number of issues about the value of the BMP for marketing. First, to what extent is the BMP a suitable replacement for more traditional approaches? We believe that it is a useful complement, not a replacement. The BMP focuses on external factors; it stops short of providing adequate explanation of internal processes. Although Skinner (1969) has argued persuasively that the skin is an arbitrary barrier, we do not find the attempts of many radicalbehaviorists to ignore the internal correlates of external stimuli intellectually satisfying. At the same time, we agree with Bindra (1959) that the efforts of motivational and cognitive psychologists to deal with these internal correlates often are merely classifications of acts, rather than adequate accounts for causes of behavior. Thus, we are driven to a psychological eclecticism which, unlike the current psychological eclecticism in marketing, incorporates an external perspective. Second, there is the issue of the efficacy of behavior modification techniques. While existing research indicates that the technology exists to modify behavior very effectively, this technology can be used more effectively in controlled environments. While retail stores and shopping malls provide relatively closed environments, they do not permit the type of control which experimenters in hospitals, schools, prisons, and even work organizations may have. Moreover, the degree of control which is possible will vary at different stages in the purchasing process. Empirical research involving applications of behavior modification principles at different stages of the purchasing process would clearly be useful for investigating this issue. It is only at the latter stages that substantial control seems possible.

Third, there are major ethical/moral issues involved in the use of the BMP in marketing. In many areas, the ethical/moral challenges to the application of behavior modification are, at least in the minds of most behavior modifiers, relatively easy to refute. In most areas where behavior modification has been applied (e.g., psychotherapy, education, self-improvement), it is usually possible (although the possibility is often not translated into practice) for subjects of behavior modification to participate in defining the ends and also to what degree they will determine in the means. Thus human freedom and dignity are, to some degree, protected; in such situations, the BMP provides a useful technology for helping human beings achieve the ends they are seeking. However, even in these cases, behavior modification has been challenged on ethical grounds. We maintain that behavior modification is not, in itself, immoral or unethical, but that valid ethical/moral concerns stem from (1) the ends to which the technology is used and (2) the process by which these ends are determined (see Nord 1976). The application of these techniques in marketing seems ethically vulnerable on both these counts. Efforts to market products rarely include the subject whose behavior is modified as a full participant in determining either the use of the technology or the ends to which it is put. There are, of course, examples of the use of behavior modification techniques in marketing to achieve purposes which many people believe are socially desirable. For example, certain outcomes such as reduction in littering, reduction in pollution, smoking, and other behaviors can be and are marketed through such techniques. Moreover, much of consumer education involves modifying the purchasingbehavior of the uneducated poor to get better economic value for dollars spent. However, there appear to be many other applications which have few redeeming social benefits. The BMP reveals that these concerns are relevant to the present-not just the future. It is clear that behavior modification techniques, even though they may be called something else, are being currently employed in marketing. Moreover, since it is clear that the type of emotions often labeled "needs" or motives can be developed through conditioning and modeling processes, the defense that marketingsatisfies needs is not fully adequate. Thus, while explicit application of the BMP in marketing is apt to trigger ethical concerns, the BMP may be quite useful for viewing ethical problems involved in current marketing practice. Fourth, there are a number of practical issues.

A Behavior Modification Perspective on Marketing / 45

In addition to the problem of developing sufficiently controlled environments, there are problems of selecting reinforcers, of designing and implementing effective schedules, and of designing effective ecological structures. Solutions to these problems can benefit from an eclectic research approach. The trial and error approach of the radical behaviorists derived from their research with animals can be useful, but is only one approach. In addition, analysis of historical data on the effectiveness of various marketing tactics in generating desired behaviors and laboratory or field experiments using different types of reinforcers is needed. Moreover, cognitively-oriented approaches which rely on verbal reports may offer insights into these questions. Of course, the most important practical issue requires cost-benefit analysis. While the bottom line will be the ultimate test, the BMP does lead to the analysis of the sequence of behaviors which is expected to lead to purchase or to other desired behavior. These outcomes can be defined and measured more precisely with current technology than can attitudes, needs, etc. Thus it is likely that research to test the BMP will have a clear action orientation as well as permit measurement of success at a number of intermediate steps.

Conclusions
This paper has attempted to provide an overview of behavior modification and investigate its applicability to marketing. While it appears that many marketingtactics currently employed are quite consistent with the BMP, these tactics appear to have been derived in an ad hoc manner. A more systematic application of the BMP to marketing may well provide insights for the development of improved tactics and overall strategies and for describing how the purchase-consumptionprocess works. Although marketing academics and practitioners may be reluctant to view marketing as a technology for modifying and controlling consumer behavior, it is clear that marketing tactics which are fully consistent with this perspective will continue to be implemented. In terms of consumer behavior research, it will undoubtedly be some time before researchers actively catalog and sample elements of the external environmentgiven the predilection toward the study of internal processes. In any case, the BMP may provide a clear understandingthat one of the major de facto functions of marketing in our society is the modification of behavior.

REFERENCES
Bandura, A. (1969), Principles of Behavior Modification, New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. (1978), "The Self System in Reciprocal Determinism," American Psychologist, 33 (April), 344-358. Barker, R. G. (1968), Ecological Psychology, Stanford: Stanford University Press. Belk, Russell W. (1974), "An Exploratory Assessment of Situational Effects in Buyer Behavior," Journal of Marketing Research, 11 (May), 156-163. (1975), "Situational Variables and Consumer Behavior," Journal of Consumer Research, 2 (December), 157-164. Bindra, D. (1959), Motivation: A Systematic Reinterpretation, New York: Ronald Press. Carey., R. J., S. H. Clicque, B. A. Leighton, and F. Milton (1976), "A Test of Positive Reinforcement of Customers," Journal of Marketing, 40 (October), 98-100. Deslauriers, B. C. and P. B. Everett (1977), "The Effects of Intermittent and Continuous Token Reinforcement on Bus Ridership," Journal of Applied Psychology, 62 (August), 369-375. Engel, J. F., D. T. Kollat, and R. D. Blackwell (1973), Consumer Behavior, 2nd Ed., New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. Hall, C. S. and G. Lindzey (1970), Theories of Personality, 2nd Ed., New York: John Wiley and Sons. Hall, E. T. (1959), The Silent Language, New York: Doubleday. (1966), The Hidden Dimension, New York: Doubleday. Honig, W. K. (1966), Operant Behavior: Areas of Research and Application, New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. Kassarjian, H. H. (1978), "Presidential Address, 1977: Anthropomorphism and Parsimony," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 5, H. K. Hunt, ed., Chicago: Association for Consumer Research, xiii-xiv. Kotler, Philip (1976), Marketing Management, 3rd Ed., Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc. Markin, R. J. (1974), Consumer Behavior: A Cognitive Approach, New York: Macmillan, Chapter 17. , and C. L. Narayana (1976), "Behavior Control: Are Consumers Beyond Freedom and Dignity?" in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 3, B. B. Anderson, ed., Chicago: Association for Consumer Research, 222228. Miller, N. E. (1969), "Learning of Visceral and Glandular Responses," Science, 163 (January), 434-449. Nord, W. R. (1969), "Beyond the Teaching Machine: The

46 / Journal of Marketing, Spring 1980

Neglected Area of Operant Conditioning in the Theory and Practice of Management," Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 4 (November), 375-401. (1976), "Behavior Modification Perspective for Humanizing Organizations," in Humanizing Organizational Behavior, H. Meltzer and F. D. Wickert, eds., Springfield, IL: Charles E. Thomas, 250-272. Petrinovich, L. (1979), "Probabilistic Functionalism: A Conception of Research Method," American Psychologist, 34 (May), 373-390. Ray, M. L. (1973), "Psychological Theories and Interpretations of Learning," in Consumer Behavior: Theoretical Sources, S. Ward and T. S. Robertson, eds., Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 45-117.

Schneier, C. E. (1974), "Behavior Modification in Management: A Review and Critique," Academy of Management Journal, 17 (September), 528-548. Skinner, B. F. (1953), Science and Human Behavior, New York: Macmillan. (1969), Contingencies of Reinforcement: A Theoretical Analysis, New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. Snow, R. (1974), "Representative and Quasi-Representative Designs for Research on Teaching," Review of Educational Research, 44 (Summer), 265-291. Sommers, R. (1969), Personal Space: The Behavioral Basis for Design, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc. Staats, A. W. (1975), Social Behaviorism, Homewood, IL: The Dorsey Press.

October 26-28, 1980 San Francisco, CA Holiday Inn-Golden Gateway Two and one-half day conference for the practicing researcherengaged in all forms of agricultural,chemical research. Includes general sessions and concentrates on pesticide and fertilizer marketing. Conference features a tour of The Napa Valley wineries with a stop for dinner at a leading winery on Monday as part of the registration fee. Ag-Chem Marketing Conference EDUCATIONDEPARTMENT American MarketingAssociation Suite 606 222 South RiversidePlaza Chicago, Illinois 60606

TENTATIVE FEES Early Late AMA members $125 $140 Non-members $140 $175

A Behavior Modification

Perspective

on Marketing / 47