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Recent Progress on Passive Cooling Techniques. Advanced Technological Developments to Improve Indoor Environmental Quality in Low Income Households M. Santamouris, C. Pavlou, A. Syneffa and K. Niachou Group Building Environmental Studies, Physics Department, Univ. Athens, Athens, Greece, mail : msantam@phys.uoa.gr Abstract Low income households in developed and less developed countries suffer from serious indoor environmental problems like heat stress, lack of comfort and poor indoor air quality. This has a very serious impact on the quality of life and health of poor citizens. More than 2 million deaths per year are attributable to indoor air pollution from non adequate use of fuels, while thousands of low income citizen dies because of high indoor temperatures. Passive cooling of buildings and in particular solar and heat protection techniques, heat dissipation and heat amortisation techniques have reached a very high degree of maturity. New technological developments have been proven extremely efficient to decrease the needs for cooling and improve indoor environmental conditions. Developments on the field of solar and heat protection like the high reflective coatings for the building envelope and new knowledge and developments on the field of convective cooling and ventilation may help considerably low income citizens to improve their quality of life during the overheating period. New developments are characterised by low cost and are easy to apply. The paper investigates the potential of cool reflective coatings to improve indoor conditions of low income households in warm areas of the planet while it discusses the potential of new ventilation techniques and systems to improve indoor comfort and air quality. Results show a very high potential to improve indoor environmental conditions and contribute towards higher passive survivability levels. Introduction Buildings is the major economic sector in the world and the quality of buildings shapes the life of citizens. Although there is an important increase of the budget devoted to construction, United Nations estimates, (1), that more than one billion of urban citizens, live in non appropriate houses mostly in squatter and slum settlements, while in most of cities in less developed countries between one and two thirds of the population live in poor quality and overcrowded housing, (2), with insufficient water supply inadequate or no sanitation, non appropriate rubbish collection, no electricity and energy networks and under the risk of flooding and other environmental phenomena, (3). In the developed world, the percentage of people living in low income households is quite high. The average percentage of low income households in EU is close to 15 %, while in some countries it may go up to 21 %, like in Ireland, (4). Non appropriate housing is characterised by poor indoor environmental conditions, like extremely low or high temperatures, luck of ventilation, etc. In parallel, heat island conditions in dense urban areas increase ambient temperatures and the thermal stress to buildings mainly during the summer period, (5). It is characteristic that in Athens, heat island increases the cooling load of buildings by about 100 per cent, (6), while heat island is mainly present in zones of cities where low income people is living, (7).

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Non appropriate design of buildings, increase of the urban temperatures and improvement of living standards have contributed to a spectacular increase of the air conditioning penetration in the residential sector. According to the IEA, (8), energy demand for residential space cooling accounted for 6.4% of total electricity demand in the OECD in 2000 and there was a 13% growth from 1990 to 2000. As reported by Waide (9), almost 46% of OECD households have some air conditioning, but this varies widely from continent to continent and country to country. In the US up to 80% of new homes have central a/c systems, while the share of air conditioned houses increased from 23% in 1978 to 77% in 2001. In Europe the penetration is quite low, around .02 per household on average, but there was a 7-fold increase over the 1990s and now AC saturation could be around 5-7% of households. Increased use of air conditioning, creates a serious peak electricity load problem to utilities and increases the cost of electricity. According to OFFER and National Audit Office, (10), the mean European cost of a kWh out of peak is close to 3,9 cents, while the mean cost during peak is 10,2 cents. In parallel, the average cost of a saved kWh is 2.6 cents. In parallel, strength increases highly during heat weaves. As reported, during the July 2006 heat wave in California, the average homeowner used about 28 percent more electricity, (11). Increase of the necessary energy load to satisfy appropriate indoor environmental conditions in poor households, combined with increased energy prices, put a serious strength to low income people. When more than 10 % of the family income is spend for energy, the family is characterized as energy poor, while when expenditures exceeds 20 per cent of the income, the family is under severe energy poverty. It is characteristic that only in UK almost 5.2 million people are considered as energy poor, (12). In Ireland, estimations show that 17,6 % of the households are energy poor, (13), around 226000 houses. About 27 % of the fuel poor houses, around 4.7 % of the total housing stock, is suffering from chronic fuel poverty. Also, 12,7 % of the households suffer from intermittent levels of fuel poverty, i.e. occupants are occasionally unable to condition their homes. In USA, a report published recently by the National Fuel Funds Network (14), found that at the end of the 2000/2001 heating season, at least 4.3 million lowincome households were at risk of having their utility service cut off because of an inability to pay their home energy bills. The situation regarding the environmental condition of households in less developed countries is far to be acceptable. As reported by the United Nations, (15), in cities of the less developed world, one out of every four households lives in poverty; 40 per cent of African urban households and 25 per cent of Latin American urban households are living below locally defined poverty lines. Buildings in less developed countries are the major energy consumption sector. The share of at least the residential sector has increased from 22.2 % to 34.4 % during the decade 1987-1997, (2). The amount of energy spent as well as the type of fuels used in the less developed countries, is a strong function of their economic status. Low income people consume les costly and less convenient fuels while as income rise more expensive and highly convenient types of energy are used. As reported by Waddams Price, (16), households are able to switch over to modern fuels when their incomes reach $1000-1500, while a recent study, (17), carried out study in forty five cities of some less developed countries has shown that the lower income people consumes less energy while they make use of less convenient energy sources like wood and charcoal. The situation has a serious impact on the household expenditures and income, quality of life and health. It is estimated that the necessary investments to bring clean energy technologies in the urban areas of less developed countries are close to $40 billion annually (1992 values), (18).

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It is evident that alternative energy and environmental solutions have to be adopted to improve the environmental conditions of low income households. The idea is not to maintain temperatures within the ASHRAE-defined comfort zone of (2027C) using energy driven systems, but to create buildings that will not threaten the lives of their occupants under adverse ambient conditions and even when if power is lost or citizens can not afford to pay for it, (19).. Passive cooling relies to the use of solar and heat control techniques, heat amortisation and heat dissipation techniques. Intensive research carried out the last years on the topic, has permitted to develop advanced and low cost systems and techniques that when applied contribute highly to decrease the cooling needs of buildings and improve indoor environmental quality, (20). In particular the development of high reflectivity coatings for the building envelope can decrease considerable the solar input to the buildings, while new developments on ventilation technology permits to dissipate successfully the excess heat to the ambient air, improve indoor comfort and decrease indoor pollutants concentration. Both techniques are of low cost and simple in their use. The present paper discusses the applicability and investigates the potential contribution of both techniques for low income households facing problems of overheating and poor indoor environmental quality. Indoor Environmental Quality of Low Income Households Poor indoor environmental quality in low income households cause heat strokes, heart attacks, bronchitis, pneumonia and other heat related illnesses and respiratory diseases. Only in UK there are around 40,000 excess winter deaths a year because of inappropriate indoor temperatures, (12, 21). During the summer period, high ambient temperatures and heat waves cause dramatic problems to vulnerable population living in overheated households. In France the estimated death toll of the 2003 heat wave was about 15000 deaths. According to the Eurosurvellance (22), an estimated 22 080 excess deaths occur in England and Wales, France, Italy and Portugal during and immediately after the heat waves of the summer of 2003. Additionally 6595-8648 excess deaths have been registered in Spain, of which approximately 54% occurred in August, and 1400-2200 in the Netherlands, of which an estimated 500 occurred during the heat wave of 31 July-13 August. In parallel, it is reported that approximately 1 250 heat-related deaths occurred in Belgium during the summer of 2003, almost 975 excess deaths during June-August in Switzerland and 1 410 during the period August 1-24 in Baden-Wrttemberg, Germany. Studies in Europe and US, [22-25].show that the greatest excess in mortality was registered in those with low socioeconomic status leaving in buildings with improper heat protection and ventilation.. During summer, high indoor temperatures and lack of proper ventilation are the sources of important health problems. An important increase of mortality rates is observed in Southern European countries during the recent heat waves. The heat wave of August 2003 in Europe has been an extreme meteorological event with dramatic consequences. In France the estimated death toll of the event was about 15000 deaths. In Rome, excess mortality was observed throughout the summer, but predominantly during the three heat waves observed [23,24]. It has to be pointed out that the greatest excess in mortality was registered in those with low socioeconomic status in Rome (+17.8%), living in poor households. Klinenberg (25) has focused on a July 1995 heat wave in Chicago, USA, that killed between 485 and 740 citizens. A large proportion of the victims used to live in Single Room Occupancy (SRO) buildings. It is reported that only about half of the residents had fans, and many lived in
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rooms with sealed windows they could not open. It is also reported that even if some of the elderly victims had had air conditioners in their homes, many would not have used them because they were not able to pay for their utility bills. Non proper indoor environment and non adequate ventilation may be the source of important social cost for additional health treatment. In a recent study, (26), the healthcare cost of people living in 107 homes on a poor estate in East London were compared against those of people living in homes in a similar improved estate. It is found that the average annual health costs of a person living in the poor estate were 512, against 72 for a person in the improved estate. Indoor environmental problems in less developed countries is a very serious problem. As reported by the World Bank, (27), today about half the population of the world continues to rely for cooking and associated space heating on simple household stoves using unprocessed solid fuels that have high emission factors for a range of health-damaging air pollutants. The use of such fuels, produce 10-100 times more respirable particulate matter per meal, (27), while monitoring of indoor pollutants made in homes in India showed particulate levels 35 times the one hour standard and nearly 100 times the 24 hour standard recommended in industrialised countries, (28). As reported by Birol, (29), high indoor concentration of pollutants poses a tremendous health threat to the population. Worldwide, close to 2 million deaths per year are attributable to indoor air pollution from cooking fires. Studies of the WHO have shown that 30 to 40 per cent of 760 million cases of respiratory diseases world-wide are caused by particulate air pollution alone. Mostly, these health effects are caused by indoor air pollution due to open stove cooking and heating in developing countries (30). In particular in India, it is estimated that 500000 women and children die each year due to Indoor Air Pollution related causes as almost 75 % of the population relies to traditional biomass fuels, (31). This is close to 25 % of the deaths worldwide attributed to indoor air pollution problems. Other studies in Latin America, Asia, and Africa have shown that indoor air pollution is also responsible for pregnancy-related problems such as stillbirths and low birth weight. It has also been associated with blindness (attributed to 18 percent of cases in India) and immune system depression.(31). Cool Materials to Protect the Thermal Envelope. Solar absorption and transmission of heat through the building envelope increases the temperature of the fabric as well as indoor ambient temperature. Thus, the cooling needs are increasing, while the comfort levels are deteriorated. Use of coatings at the exterior faade of buildings presenting a high reflectivity to solar radiation and a high emissivity coefficient decreases the absorption of solar radiation and increases the radiation losses. Coatings presenting such a performance are known as cool materials, (32) Two main types of cool coatings for roofs and exterior facades of buildings have been developed. A) white coatings presenting a very high reflectivity to visible part of the solar radiation, (33), and colored coatings presenting a high reflectivity to the infrared part of the solar radiation, (34,35). Extensive outdoor testing of cool white coatings during the summer period has shown that present almost 12 C lower surface temperatures than reflective aluminum paints, and more than 16 C than silver gray reflective coatings, (33). In parallel, colored cool coatings tested outdoors against conventional coatings of the same color, presented a reduction of the surface temperature up to 10 C, (35). In order to evaluate the possible environmental benefits of the use of cool white coatings applied on the roof of low income households, simulations have been performed for 29 places in Middle East, Africa and South America, Table 1. Positive values of the latitude indicate that
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the station is in the North hemisphere and negative values to the South hemisphere. Positive longitude values means that the station is West of Greenwich and negative that it is East of Greenwich. Calculations have been performed for a whole meteorological year with an hourly time step using the precise thermal simulation software TRNSYS, (36). Meteorological data have been taken from the METEONORM base, (37). The simulated building is a single store building of 80 m2, having openings at its four facades. The surface of the considered building is for sure much higher than the typical low income house. Given that, the lower the surface of the building, the higher the expected cooling contribution because of the decreased heat transmission through the envelope, a much higher surface has been selected to avoid overstatement of the expected results. Buildings have been considered as single glazed, well shaded, and non insulated presenting a U value equal to 4.3 W/m2/K for the roof and 2.3 W/m2/K for the walls. The exterior faade of the roofs was considered as covered with a high reflective white coating presenting an total reflectivity to solar radiation equal to 0.9 and an emissivity coefficient close to 0.91. Ventilation and infiltration rates have been set close to 1.6 ach. As it concerns internal gains, heat input per person has been considered according to ISO 7730, while for the artificial lighting and any other equipment it has been assumed that the 50% of the input is contributed to the pace as convective heat and the rest 50% as radiative. Two types of calculations have been performed. Buildings are considered either at a constant indoor temperature, (26 C), or running under free floating conditions. For the first case the reduction of the considered cooling load has been calculated, while in the second case, the achieved reduction of the peak indoor temperature, as well as the reduction of the corresponding number of hours above a certain indoor temperature have been estimated. Table 2 gives the calculated cooling load per square meter for the conventional as well as for the building with the reflective roof, for each place. As shown the expected absolute reduction of the cooling load varies between 5 to 70 kWh/m2, as a function of the local climate characteristics. Lower absolute contributions correspond to small cooling loads but represent a high percentage of the load, up to 70 %, while high absolute contributions correspond to high cooling loads and a lower relative reduction of the load, (> 20 %). As a mean value, the use of reflective coatings in the roof of this type of buildings in the selected areas may decrease their cooling load up to 30-35 %. The cumulative frequency distributions of the cooling load as calculated for both cases and for all the places are given in Figure 1. As shown, while for the conventional buildings, the 50 % of the distribution corresponds to a value close to 140 kWh/m2/y, for the case of the building with the reflective roof this is reduced to 85 kWh/m2/y. Table 3 gives the calculated number of hours with an indoor temperature above 30 C, 27.5 C and 26 C. Data are given for the conventional and the reflective roof buildings. Results show that for all temperature bases, a very important improvement of indoor comfort may be achieved by using reflective roofs. The specific reduction of the hours above a threshold temperature depends highly on the distribution of the ambient temperature during the day, and the overall climatic conditions. Figure 2, gives the cumulative frequency distribution of the hours above the selected temperature base for both cases. As expected the higher the temperature base the higher the benefits. For the temperature base of 30 C, the 50 % of the distribution corresponds to 3400 h and 1700 for the conventional and the reflective roof building respectively. The corresponding values for the temperature base of 27.5 C are 6400 and 4400, while for the base of 26 C the corresponding values are 7400 and 5800 respectively.

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Table 4, shows the calculated maximum indoor temperatures for both cases. As shown the expected decrease of the maximum indoor temperature varies between 2.2 to 3.7 C. Figure 3, shows the cumulative frequency distribution of the maximum indoor temperatures for both cases. The 50 % of the distribution for the conventional case corresponds to a temperature close to 39 C while for the building with a reflective roof the corresponding value is close to 36.1 C. It is evident that all above figures are indicative and may vary as a function of the building characteristics. However, the whole analysis permits to conclude that low cost reflective paints when used in the roof of low income households in hot climates, can contribute highly to improve indoor environmental conditions and decrease the needs for cooling. Such a policy has been already applied by the City of Philadelphia's, USA, under the frame of the "Cool Homes Program" for elderly low-income residents. The program provides non-mechanical cooling measures that save energy and lower costs. The aims of the program involve the reduction of the indoor temperatures to a comfortable level, minimisation of health risks, stabilisation of the energy consumption and provision of social interaction. The program has provided to all houses, a window mounted whole house fan, interior air sealing, and an elastomeric roof coating to decrease the roof temperature. It has been found that the employed measures lower the solar gains by 80 % and reduces the bedroom indoor temperatures by 2.5 C. The estimated energy offer was equivalent to the energy delivered by a conventional air conditioner of 8 Kbtu/h, running for four hours per day, Effective Ventilation for Heat Dissipation and Indoor Air Quality Important research has been carried out recently on appropriate and advanced ventilation techniques, (38). The main achievement may be summarized in two main axes : - Better understanding of the air flow phenomena and of the expected comfort benefits, in particular in the dense urban environment, and development of efficient and practical procedures to design natural and hybrid ventilation systems and configurations, (39,40), - Technological developments mainly on the field of hybrid and mechanical ventilation that contribute highly to a more comfortable and healthy indoor environment, (41) Understanding the air flow phenomena in the dense urban environment is of vital importance. The very rapid urbanization at the end of the century has increased the total number of urban citizens up to 3 billions and it is expected to increase to about 5 billion by 2025, (42). However, according to the estimations of the World Bank, (43), almost 60 % of them will live below the poverty line and most of them without access to electricity. Most of these people is living in poorly designed buildings suffering from high indoor temperatures during summer. Thus, proper design of openings to achieve natural and night ventilation and decrease indoor pollution is of extreme importance for this part of the population. Extensive experimental and theoretical research to understand better the air flow phenomena in dense urban environments, (44), has permitted to develop simple and accurate models to calculate the wind field in the canopy layer, (42, 45), and based on this to develop simple and accurate sizing techniques for windows and other natural ventilation systems, (46) Proper design of windows permits to increase air speed in households and improve comfort by cooling down the human body through the mechanisms of convection, radiation and perspiration. In parallel to increase air flow rates to achieve lower indoor temperatures, improve indoor air quality and health conditions. In particular, Although the appropriate levels of air velocity to achieve comfort is a discussion topic for the scientific community, (47-49), recent studies performed in tropical climates, (50-52), confirm

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that increased air speed, especially at higher temperature enhances the thermal comfort conditions. According to Kukreja, (53), indoor air velocity, in warm climates, should be set at 1.001.50 m/s. Hardiman, (54), proposes an air speed between 0.21.5 m/s for light activity. Hien and Tanamas, (52), report that undesirable effects of high air movements of above 3 m/sec have been observed. Night ventilation is one of the more efficient passive cooling techniques for low income households. Golneshan and Yaghoubi, (55,56), report that the use of 12 ach per hour during night, with one ach during the day, may provide comfortable indoor conditions. Given that the urban environment decreases considerably the cooling potential of night ventilation, (57, 58), appropriate design of openings is very important. Use of solar chimneys to enhance air flow in buildings is a well known technique that can be easily integrated in low income households. Solar chimneys are natural draft components, using solar energy to build up stack pressure and thus a driving airflow through the chimney channel. Solar chimneys can improve the ventilation rate in naturally ventilated buildings in hot climates, (59,60). It is found that the impact of solar chimneys is substantial in inducing natural ventilation for low wind speeds. Recent research has permitted to optimize the design and operation of solar chimneys, (61-63), and thus to improve indoor environmental conditions in overheated houses. High outdoor air pollution and noise may be major drawbacks for natural ventilation systems. According to the United Nations Global Environmental monitoring system an annual average of 1.25 billion of urban inhabitants are exposed to very high concentrations of suspended particles and smoke, (64), while an other 625 million of urban citizens are exposed to non acceptable SO2 levels. It is characteristic than in Europe 70 to 80 percent of cities with more than 500000 inhabitants, the levels of air pollution, regarding one or more pollutants exceeds the WHO standards at least once in a typical year, (65) Noise is a second serious limitation for natural ventilation in the urban environment. OECD, (66), has calculated that 130 millions of people in OECD countries are exposed to noise levels that are unacceptable. New efficient design of box fans, oscillating or ceiling fans when used can increase the interior air speed and improve comfort at very low cost. Wu et al, (67), have demonstrated the potential of oscillating fans to extend the comfort zone. It is found that for an air speed of 1.52 m/sec, comfort is achieved at 31 C at 50 % relative humidity, or at 32 C at 39 %, or finally at 33 C at 30 % relative humidity. Rohles et al, (68) and Scheatzle et al, (69), have proven that ceiling fans can extend the comfort zone outside the typical ASHRAE comfort zone. In particular at an air velocity of 1.02 m/sec, comfort may be achieved at 27.7 C, for 73 % relative humidity, 29.6 C for 50 % humidity and 31 C for 39 % relative humidity. Recent research has permitted to develop more efficient ceiling fans. Schmidt and. Patterson, (70), have designed a new high efficiency ceiling fan that can decrease the power consumption and therefore electricity charges by a factor between two and three, while Parker et al, (71) have designed a new very efficient ceiling fan of improved aerodynamics blades that presents a much higher airflow performance. As previously mentioned, indoor air quality because of inadequate use of fuel as well as because of other indoor and outdoor sources is a major problem for low income households. In developed countries, the concentrations of indoor pollutants is very similar to those outdoors, with the ratio of indoor to outdoor concentration falling in the range 0.7-1.3. However, concentration of indoor pollutants may be two to five times higher that the outdoor one, (72). According to United Nations Center for Human Settlements, indoor air quality is inadequate in 30 % of the buildings around the world, (64).

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Searching for solutions, it seems that the use of appropriate and low cost hybrid ventilation systems may be a very advantageous and can seriously help to improve indoor air quality and thermal comfort. Hybrid ventilation systems use both natural ventilation and mechanical systems, but employing different features of these systems at different times of the day or season. (73). Various hybrid ventilation systems for residential buildings, have been developed and proposed, (73). Testing of the systems has shown that in urban areas may be more effective than single side natural ventilation techniques, (74), while studies on indoor air quality have shown that hybrid systems may be very effective to remove indoor pollution, (75). A comparative analysis of the concentration of indoor pollutants in residences located in five deep canyons in Athens, when natural and hybrid ventilation systems are considered, has shown that the levels of indoor TVOCs and CO2 concentrations are always lower when hybrid systems are used. The analysis has consider five different control strategies involving, simple CO2 and TVOC;s control, combined CO2 and TVOCs control, control of the indoor temperature, (passive cooling), and combined control of the indoor temperature and the CO2 levels or control of the indoor temperature and TVOCs levels, (Figures 4-5). Appropriate application of hybrid ventilation principles may be an efficient solution for households in developing countries experiencing a high indoor smoke concentration because of the use of inappropriate fuels. In this case the the main aim is simple : Remove the air pollution from homes. This can be achieved by a combination of appropriate openings and simple fan assisted systems to remove smoke Important applications aiming to improve indoor air quality in poor households have been designed and implemented by International Help Associations in Sudan, West Kenya and Nepal. (76,77) In most of the places, windows were small or not adequately positioned to remove smoke and many times were closed off for security reasons and exclusion of animals. Interventions involved among others, new hoods with flues as well larger and better positioned windows and improved stoves. Monitoring of the interventions has shown important reductions to smoke exposure. In Kenya the reduction of the particulates and carbon monoxide was close to 80 %, and the exposure of women was reduced by a quarter. The total time for which the women were exposed to levels of CO greater than 9 ppm was reduced by around 60 % from around 2.5 hours to around 1 hour. In parallel, it is found that the enlarged windows did have benefits, such as improving lighting in the houses but did not add significantly to reduce indoor smoke. Conclusions Recent development on passive cooling technologies permit to improve the indoor environmental quality of low income households. High reflective coatings for buildings, present low cost, are easily accessible and when used may reduce substantially indoor temperatures and enhance comfort in most of the warm zones of the planet. In parallel, recent knowledge and developments on ventilation technologies permit to better design and position openings in urban buildings, enhance indoor air speed, improve indoor comfort and decrease indoor pollutants concentration. It has to be clear that there is no unique solution for all people leaving in poor households. The successful implementation of the proposed new techniques and technologies depends upon the active participation of the concerned population. As mentioned by the UNDP SL building poor people's capacity to make technology choices is not just "bringing" new technologies to their doorstep, but addressing their organisational, management and marketing skills; opening new channels of information and knowledge and making credit and markets more accessible.
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It is important that any proposed technical interventions should involve a high capability of the involved population to continue to use new products, techniques and systems in continuously changing circumstances. Thus, in reality, technological capabilities rather than technological options must be the focus of attention References 1. United Nations Council for Human Settlements , UNCHS : The State of the World Cities, 2001 2. Hardy E, D. Mitlin and D. Satterthwaite : Environmental Problems in an Urbanizing World, Earthscan, London, 2001 3. Cairncross Sandy, (1990) : Water supply and the urban poor, in Jonge E. Hardoy and others, (editors), The Poor Die Young and Health in Third World Cities, Earthscan Publications, London; 4. National Board of Housing, Building and Planning, Sweden and Ministry for Regional Development of the Czech Republic : Housing Statistics in the European Union 2004 5. Santamouris M : Heat Island Research in Europe The State of the Art, Advances Building Energy Research, Vol. 1, 2006. 6. Santamouris, N. Papanikolaou, I. Livada, I. Koronakis, C. Georgakis, and D. N. Assimakopoulos : ' On the Impact of Urban Climate to the Energy Consumption of Buildings' Solar Energy, 70,3,201-216,2001 7. Hassid S. M. Santamouris, N. Papanikolaou, A. Linardi and N. Klitsikas : 'The Effect of the Heat Island on Air Conditioning Load', J. Energy and Buildings, 32,2,131-141,2000 8. IEA : Cool Appliances, Paris, 2003. 9. Waide P : World Cooling Energy Demand. Proc. Heat Island Workshop, Tokyo, Japan, 2006. 10. OFFER and National Audit Office, 1998 and 2003. 11. San Jose Mercury News : PG&E offers relief after heat wave drives up electricity bills, Wednesday, August 16, 2006 12. Press V : Fuel Poverty and Health, 2003. Produced by the National Heart Forum, the Eaga Partnership Charitable Trust, the Faculty of Public Health Medicine,Help the Aged and the Met Office. Published by the National Heart Forum. 13. Healy J.D. and J. Peter Clinch : Quantifying the severity of fuel poverty, its relationship with poor housing and reasons for non-investment in energy-saving measures in Ireland. Energy Policy 32 (2004) 207220 14. National Fuels Fund http://www.nationalfuelfunds.org Network, Information available through :

15. United Nations Environmental Program : Global Environmental Outlook, 2002.. 16. Waddams Price : Better energy services, better energy sectorsand links with the poor, The World Bank, 2001 17. Barnes and Jonathan Halpern : The role of energy subsidies. World Bank, 2002 18. World Bank. Energy Issues. : Consequences of Energy Policies for the Urban Poor, 1995 19. Wilson A : Passive Survivability. Environmental Building News December 2005

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20. Santamouris M : Passive Cooling of Buildings The State of the Art. Advances on Solar Energy, Y. Goswami (Editor), Earthscan Punlishers, London, 2005. 21. DETR (2001) The UK Draft Poverty Strategy. Consultation draft 22. Eurosurveillance, 2005, Vol. 10, No 7-9. 23. Michelozzi P, Perucci CA, Forastiere F, Fusco D, Ancona C, DellOrco V. Inequality in health: socio-economic differentials in mortality in Rome, 1990-95, J Epidemiol Community Health. 1999 Nov;53(11):6 87-93. 24 Michelozzi, F deDonato, L Bisanti, A Russo, E Cadum, M. DeMaria, M DOvidio, G Costa, CA Perucci : The impact of the summer 2003 heat waves on mortality in four Italian cities, Euro Surveill 2005;10(7):161-5 25. Klinenberg (2002) : Heat Wave: A Social Autopsy of Disaster in Chicago. University of Chicago Press 26. Bardsley M. Healthier homes: the role of health authorities. In: Rudge J, Nicol F (eds.) 2000.Cutting the Cost of Cold. London: E@FN Spon. 27. World Bank : Indoor Air Pollution Newsletter Energy and Health for the Poor ,Issue No. 2; December 2000 28. Bitan A. : 'The High Climatic Quality of City of the Future', Atmospheric Environment, 26B, p.p. 313-329, 1992. 29. Birol : Energy and Poverty, World Outlook 2002, Energy Forum, World Bank, June 4-5 2002, Washington. 30. World Bank : Indoor Air Pollution. Fighting a massive health threat in India, 2000 31. Smith R.K : National burden of disease in India from indoor air pollution, PNAS November 21, 2000 vol. 97 no. 24 32 Akbari, H., Davis, S., Dorsano, S., Huang, J., Winert, S., 1992. Cooling our CommunitiesA Guidebook on Tree Planting and White Coloured Surfacing. US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Policy Analysis, Climate Change Division. 33. Syneffa A. M. Santamouris and I. Livada : A study of the thermal performance of reflective coatings for the urban environment. Solar Energy, 80, 2006, 968-981. 34. Levinson R, Hashem Akbari, Joseph C. Reilly : Cooler tile-roofed buildings with nearinfrared-reflective non-white coatings. Building Environment, In Press, 2006 35. Syneffa A. M. Santamouris and K. Apostolakis : On the development, optical properties and thermal performance of cool colored coatings for the urban environment. In Press, Solar Energy, 2006 36. TRNSYS (Version 15), A Transient System Simulator Program, Solar Energy Laboratory, University of Wisconsin, Madison, USA 37. RM, Global Meteorological Database for Solar Energy and Applied Climatology, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, Switzerland 38. Santamouris M and P. Wouters (Editors) : Ventilation for Buildings The State of the Art. Earthscan Publishers, London, 2006. 39. Santamouris M, C. Georgakis and A. Niachou : On the Estimation of Wind Speed in Urban Canyons for Ventilation Purposes. Part Two : Using of Data Driven Techniques to Calculate the

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More Probable Wind Speed in Urban Canyons for low ambient wind speeds, . Buildings Environment, 2006, In Press 40. Allard F and C. Ghiaus : Natural Ventilation in the Urban Environment. In Ventilation for Buildings The State of the Art. Santamouris M and P. Wouters (Editors), Earthscan Publishers, London, 2006. 41. De Gids W. : Advanced Components for Ventilation. In Ventilation for Buildings The State of the Art. Santamouris M and P. Wouters (Editors), Earthscan Publishers, London, 2006. 42. UNFPA, United Nations Population Fund. 1998. The State of World Population 1998 43. Albouy, Yves, and Nadia Nadifi. 1999. Impact of Power Sector Reform on the Poor: A Review of Issues and the Literature. World Bank, Energy, Mining, and Telecommunications Department, Washington, D.C. 44. Ghiaus C, F. Allard, M. Santamouris, C. Georgakis, F. Nicol : Urban environment influence on natural ventilation potential, J. Buildings Environment, 41 (2006) 395406 45. Georgakis C, M. Santamouris : On the Estimation of Wind Speed in Urban Canyons for Ventilation Purposes. Part One: Coupling Between the Undisturbed Wind Speed and the Canyon Wind. J. Buildings Environment, 2006, In Press 46. Ghiaus C and F. Allard (Editors) : Natural Ventilation in the Urban Environment, James and James Science Publishers, London, 2005. 47. Tanabe S., and K. Kimura : Effects of temperature, humidity and air movement on thermal comfort under hot and humid conditions. ASHRAE Transactions, 100,2, 953-960, 1994. 48. Arens E.A., A.G. Blyholder and G.E. Schiller : Prediceting thermal comfort of people in naturally ventilated buildings, ASHRAE Transactions, 90, 1B, 272-279, 1984. 49. Arens E.A. and Watanabe N.S : A method for designing naturally ventilated buildings using bin climate data, ASHRAE Transactions, 90, 2B, 773-792, 1986. 50. De Dear R.J. , Diurnal and seasonal variation in the human thermal climate of Singapore, Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography 10, 1325, 1991. 51. Mallick F.H. , Thermal comfort and building design in the tropical climates, Energy and Buildings 23 (1996) 161167. 52. Hien W.N. and J. Tanamas, The effect of wind on thermal comfort in the tropical environment, in: Proceedings of the International Symposium on Building Research and the Sustainability of Built Environment in the Tropics, Jakarta, Indonesia, 2002. 53. Kukreja, Tropical Architecture, McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, 1978, 54. Hardiman, Utersuchung nat urlicher Luftungssysteme zur Verbesserung des Raumklimas von konteng unstigen Wohnhausern auf Java/Indonesien, Doctoral thesis, Universitat Stuttgart, 1992. 55. Golneshan A.A. and M.A. Yaghoubi : Natural Cooling of a residential room with ventilation in hot arid regions, Proc. Conf. CLIMA 2000, Copenhagen, 1985.

56 Golneshan A.A. and M.A. Yaghoubi : Simulation of Ventilation Strategies of a Residential Building in hot arid regions in Iran, Eenergy and Buildings, 14, 201-205, 1990.

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57. Geros V., M.Santamouris, S.Karatasou, A. Tsangrassoulis and N. Papanikolaou : On the Cooling Potential of Night Ventilation Techniques in the Urban Environment. Energy and Buildings, 37 (2005) 243257 58. Kolokotroni M. , I. Giannitsaris and R. Watkins : The effect of the London urban heat island on building summer cooling demand and night ventilation strategies, Solar Energy Volume 80, Issue 4 , April 2006, Pages 383-392 59. Bansal, N.K., Mathur, R., Bhandari, M.S. Solar chimney for enhanced stack ventilation. Build. Environ. 28 (3), 373 377, 1993 60. Bansal, N.K., Mathur, R., Bhandari, M.S. Study of solar chimney assisted wind tower system for natural ventilation in buildings. Build. Environ. 29 (4), 495500, 1994 61. Padki MM, Sherif SA. On a simple analytical model for solar chimneys. International Journal of Energy Research 1999;23(4): 62. Rodrigues AM, Canha da Piedade A, Lahellec A, Grandpeix JY. Modelling natural convection in a heated vertical channel for room ventilation. Building and Environment 2000;35:45569. 63. Letan R, V. Dubovsky, G. Ziskind : Passive ventilation and heating by natural convection in a multi-storey building. Building and Environment 38 (2003) 197 208 64. UNCHS : Development of National Technological Capacity for Environmental Sound Construction, HS/293/93/E, ISBN 92-1-131 214-0 1993 65. Stanners D. and Bourdeau P. (Editors) : Europes Environment - The Dobris Assessment. European Environmental Agency, Denmark, 1995 66. OECD : Fighting Noise in the 1990's. OECD, Paris, 1991. 67. Wu H. : The use of oscillating fans to extend the summer comfort envelope in hot arid climates. ASHRAE Far East Conference on Air Conditioning in Hot Climates, Malaysia, Oct. 1989. 68. Rohles F.H., S.A. Konz, and B.W Jones : Ceiling fans as extenders of the summer comfort envelope, ASHRAE Transactions, 89, 1A, 245-263, 1983. 69. Scheatzle D., H. Wu and J. Yellot : Extending the summer comfort with ceiling fans in hot arid climates. ASHRAE Transactions, 95, 1, 1989. 70. Schmidt K and Dean J. Patterson : Performance results for a high efficiency tropical ceiling fan and comparisons with conventional fans. Demand side management via small appliance efficiency. Renewable Energy 22 (2001) 169-176 71. Parker Danny S., Michael P. Callahan, Jeffrey K. Sonne : Development of a High Efficiency Ceiling Fan "The Gossamer Wind". FSEC-CR-1059-99, 1999 72. Sherman M. and N.E. Matson : Reducing Indoor Residential Exposures to Outdoor Pollutants, AIVC Technical Note, 2003 73. Heiselberg, P (ed.) (2002) Principles of Hybrid Ventilation. IEA ECBCS-Annex 35final report. Hybrid Ventilation Centre, Aalborg University, ISSN 1395-7953 R0207. 74. Niachou K., S. Hassid and M. Santamouris : Comparative monitoring of natural, hybrid and mechanical ventilation systems in urban canyons J. Energy and Buildings, 37 (2005) 503513

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75. Jreijiry D, Husaunndee A, Villenave JG, Inard C. Evaluation of hybrid ventilation control strategies in residential buildings. Proceedings of International Conference Passive And Low Energy Cooling For The Built Environment, Santorini, Greece 2005;2:997-1002 76. Bates L , 2005, Smoke, health and household energy Volume 1 Participatory methods for design, installation, monitoring and assessment of smoke alleviation technologies, UK Department for International Development. 77. livelihoodtechnology.org/print.asp?article=csSmoke, 2006.

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Tables
PN Station 1 Abu Dhabi 2 Aden 3 Alexandria (Nouzha) 4 Bagdad 5 Baku 6 Bamaco 7 Bangui 8 Basrah 9 Belem 10 Belo Horizonte 11 Brazzaville 12 Cairo 13 Casablanca 14 Dakar 15 Damascus (Kharabo) 16 Khartoom 17 Mogadiscio 18 Monrovia 19 Muscat 20 Ndjamena (Fort Lamy) 21 Paramaribo 22 Port Soudan 23 Pretoria 24 Rabat 25 Sanaa 26 Sao Paulo 27 Tabriz 28 Teheran 29 Walvis Bay Latitude Longitude 24.35 -54.58 11.36 -43.09 31.12 -29.57 33.14 -44.31 40.20 -49.41 12.45 7.48 4.24 -18.31 29.13 -47.59 -1.28 48.27 -19.56 43.56 -4.15 -15.14 30.05 -31.17 33.34 7.40 14.48 17.01 33.3 -36.28 15.36 -32.33 1.58 -45.26 6.32 10.36 23.25 -58.48 12.08 -15.02 5.58 55.27 19.35 -37.13 -25.45 -28.14 33.51 6.40 15.18 -44.29 -23.3 46.37 37.52 -46.08 35.41 -51.12 -23.08 -14.42

Table 1. The places where simulations have been performed.

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SN

Station

Cooling load (kWh/m2) conventional high refl. Roof 212.0 222.3 34.5 105.3 23.6 145.4 87.3 151.8 92.4 6.1 69.1 63.0 8.7 62.8 32.7 212.8 194.8 103.5 145.8 187.9 94.0 198.0 4.9 9.5 7.6 0.8 15.8 54.8 190.5 difference (B A) -53.4 -64.9 -34.9 -37.0 -20.9 -66.1 -54.6 -41.8 -53.6 -20.0 -47.9 -43.2 -21.6 -59.7 -32.6 -72.5 -61.8 -56.6 -52.6 -70.5 -54.3 -65.6 -19.1 -19.9 -19.2 -5.3 -18.8 -30.5 -66.1

Percentage (B A) / A -20.1% -22.6% -50.3% -26.0% -46.9% -31.3% -38.5% -21.6% -36.7% -76.7% -40.9% -40.7% -71.2% -48.7% -49.9% -25.4% -24.1% -35.3% -26.5% -27.3% -36.6% -24.9% -79.5% -67.7% -71.7% -86.2% -54.4% -35.7% -25.8%

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29

Abu Dhabi Aden Alexandria (Nouzha) Bagdad Baku Bamaco Bangui Basrah Belem Belo Horizonte Brazzaville Cairo Casablanca Dakar Damascus (Kharabo) Khartoom Mogadiscio Monrovia Muscat Ndjamena (Fort Lamy) Paramaribo Port Soudan Pretoria Rabat Sanaa Sao Paulo Tabriz Teheran Walvis Bay

265.4 287.1 69.4 142.3 44.4 211.5 141.9 193.5 146.0 26.1 117.0 106.2 30.4 122.6 65.3 285.3 256.5 160.0 198.4 258.4 148.3 263.6 24.0 29.4 26.8 6.1 34.7 85.3 256.6

Table 2. The calculated cooling load for both scenarios and the expected energy savings.

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Recent Progress on Passive Cooling Techniques Hours Above the following Indoor Temperature 27.5C Reduction Reduction of of discomfort Conventi Reflective discomfort Convention Reflective hours al hours onal Roof Roof 10,7% 13,3% 65,4% 18,6% 58,0% 33,2% 64,1% 11,4% 55,4% 100,0% 68,7% 47,1% 92,6% 76,2% 59,9% 14,7% 14,9% 47,0% 17,3% 19,9% 48,6% 17,4% 97,5% 95,2% 97,9% 100,0% 72,7% 32,2% 6968 8521 3295 4041 2061 8058 7594 4906 7287 1342 6450 4279 1501 6487 2735 8089 8732 7666 6749 8214 7228 7883 1162 1511 1474 280 1670 3071 6255 8006 1970 3544 1275 6952 5561 4407 5412 245 4414 3207 402 3603 1743 7308 8623 6271 5896 7454 5569 6956 176 431 343 24 881 2453 10,2% 6,0% 40,2% 12,3% 38,1% 13,7% 26,8% 10,2% 25,7% 81,7% 31,6% 25,1% 73,2% 44,5% 36,3% 9,7% 1,2% 18,2% 12,6% 9,3% 23,0% 11,8% 84,9% 71,5% 76,7% 91,4% 47,2% 20,1% 7516 8661 4003 4384 2540 8496 8373 5221 8230 2776 7602 4753 2362 7749 3218 8467 8750 8267 7460 8539 8232 8340 2060 2299 2469 733 2173 3388 6849 8456 2789 3913 1829 7935 7513 4832 7303 923 6497 3979 996 5744 2296 7885 8747 7655 6653 8049 7312 7704 620 1035 1012 140 1354 2843

30C SN Place Conventi Reflective onal Roof 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Abu Dhabi Aden Alexandria (Nouzha) Bagdad Baku Bamaco Bangui Basrah Belem 5987 7818 1996 3467 1222 6452 4393 4251 4536 196 3314 3190 462 3210 1847 7228 8201 5312 5583 7269 4724 6769 239 518 327 19 874 2417 5349 6778 691 2822 513 4310 1575 3765 2022 0 1037 1688 34 764 740 6167 6981 2816 4617 5822 2429 5592 6 25 7 0 239 1638

26C

Reduction of discomfort hours 8,9% 2,4% 30,3% 10,7% 28,0% 6,6% 10,3% 7,5% 11,3% 66,8% 14,5% 16,3% 57,8% 25,9% 28,7% 6,9% 0,0% 7,4% 10,8% 5,7% 11,2% 7,6% 69,9% 55,0% 59,0% 80,9% 37,7% 16,1%

10 Belo Horizonte 11 Brazzaville 12 Cairo 13 Casablanca 14 Dakar Damascus 15 (Kharabo) 16 Khartoom 17 Mogadiscio 18 Monrovia 19 Muscat Ndjamena (Fort 20 Lamy) 21 Paramaribo 22 Port Soudan 23 Pretoria 24 Rabat 25 Sanaa 26 Sao Paulo 27 Tabriz 28 Teheran

Table 3. Reduction of the hours with indoor temperature above 30, 27.5 and 26 C, for the conventional and the building with the reflective roof

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SN

Place

Temperatures (C) Conventional High refl. paint 44.1 43.4 35.1 42.4 34.2 37.7 33.5 43.7 36.8 29.9 33.3 36.1 31.9 35.0 34.1 41.1 38.8 36.2 40.6 40.0 36.6 42.7 31.2 31.3 30.7 28.6 32.7 38.6 43.8 difference (B A) -2.7 -2.9 -3.1 -3.2 -3.1 -2.7 -2.6 -3.3 -2.2 -2.7 -3.1 -3.3 -3.3 -2.6 -3.7 -3.1 -2.5 -2.9 -2.8 -3.0 -2.8 -2.5 -2.9 -2.9 -2.7 -2.4 -3.4 -3.3 -3.2

Percentage (B A) / A -5.7% -6.2% -8.0% -7.0% -8.4% -6.7% -7.3% -7.0% -5.7% -8.3% -8.5% -8.5% -9.3% -6.9% -9.7% -7.0% -6.0% -7.3% -6.5% -6.9% -7.2% -5.5% -8.6% -8.4% -8.1% -7.8% -9.5% -7.8% -6.8%

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29

Abu Dhabi Aden Alexandria (Nouzha) Bagdad Baku Bamaco Bangui Basrah Belem Belo Horizonte Brazzaville Cairo Casablanca Dakar Damascus (Kharabo) Khartoom Mogadiscio Monrovia Muscat Ndjamena (Fort Lamy) Paramaribo Port Soudan Pretoria Rabat Sanaa Sao Paulo Tabriz Teheran Walvis Bay

46.8 46.3 38.1 45.6 37.4 40.4 36.1 47.0 39.0 32.6 36.3 39.4 35.2 37.6 37.7 44.2 41.3 39.1 43.4 42.9 39.4 45.2 34.1 34.2 33.4 31.0 36.1 41.9 47.0

Table 4. Maximum calculated indoor temperatures for the conventional and the building with the reflective roof. .

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Figures
1

F(x)

0.9

0.8

Building With Reflective Roof

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

Conventional Building

0.3

0.2

0.1

50

100

150

200

250

300

Cooling Load (kWh/m2/y)

Figure 1. Cumulative Frequency Distribution of the cooling load for the conventional and for the building with the reflecting roof.

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Figure 2. Cumulative Frequency Distribution of the hours with indoor temperature above 30, 27.5 and 26 C, for the conventional and the building with the reflective roof.

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0.9

0.8

Building With Reflective Roof

0.7

0.6

F(x)
0.5 0.4

Conventional Building

0.3

0.2

0.1

0 28

30

32

34

36

38

40

42

44

46

48

Max Indoor Temperature (C)

Figure 3. Cumulative Frequency Distribution of the maximum calculated indoor temperatures for the conventional and the building for the building with the reflecting roof.

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20 1.1 mgh m
TVOC's (mgr/m )
3

20
-1 -2

2.2 mgh m

-1

-2

1.1 mgh m TVOC's (mgr/m )

3

-1

-2

2.2 mgh m

-1

-2

15 10 5 0

15

10

Figure 4: Estimated Indoor TVOCs Concentrations (mgr/m3) Considering Two Indoor TVOCs Emission Factors For 5 Canyon Configurations For a) Natural and b) Hybrid Ventilation Exhaust systems, For Athens Reference Year

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CO2

TVOC's

CO2& TVOC's

Passive Cooling

Passive Cooling &CO2

Passive Cooling &TVOC's

Percentage of hours (%)

100 80 60 40 20 0

Natural

Hybrid

Figure 5: Estimated % Of Hours, When Indoor Air Quality Is Perceived With Different Control Strategies With Natural And Hybrid Ventilation Exhaust Systems, For Athens Reference Year

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