METR3100

Strain Gauge Practical Exercise

Shannon Hayden

METR3100: SENSORS & ACTUATORS

THE UNIVERSITY OF QUEENSLAND MECHATRONIC ENGINEERING LECTURER: Dr. Han Huang

PRACTICAL REPORT:

STRAIN GAUGE PRACTICAL EXPERIMENT

9TH May 2008 Written By Shannon Hayden s4100937@student.uq.edu.au (41009378)

METR3100

Strain Gauge Practical Exercise

Shannon Hayden

ABSTRACT
The Strain Gauge Practical Experiment is an exercise that incorporates an introduction to practical strain gauges and the process of using them in obtaining plausible data. An introduction to the method of applying the gauges to a physical system forms the intial section of the exercise. An electrical configuration of strain gauges, being the Wheatstone bridge was also introduced throughout organising the apparatus. Experience using a software based interface was also attained as it formed an element of the apparatus. The method of obtaining data using the gauge attached by the experiment undertaker, and a pre-attached reference gauge followed the initialisation process. Various loading configurations, sequences and dynamic loadings were applied to the system being measured, being a single point loaded cantilever beam. The analysis of the recorded data then provided evidence of commonly entailed behaviour of strain gauges and their interfaces, being hysteresis, sampling rate, uncertainty. Several progressive discussions formed from the Strain Gauge Practical Experiment and it is felt that the exercise did instil a useful knowledge of the application of strain gauges.

METR3100

Strain Gauge Practical Exercise

Shannon Hayden

Contents
1. 2. 3. Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 4 Apparatus ............................................................................................................................ 4 Procedure ............................................................................................................................ 6 3.1 3.2 3.3 4. Strain Gauge Attachment ............................................................................................ 6 Incremental Loading ................................................................................................... 7 Data Acquisition Using Variable Sampling Rates ...................................................... 7

Results ................................................................................................................................ 8 4.1 4.2 4.3 Theoretical Results ...................................................................................................... 8 Experimental Incremental Loading ............................................................................. 8 Variable Sampling Rate Data ...................................................................................... 9

5.

Discussion ......................................................................................................................... 10 5.1 5.2 5.3 Error Analysis ............................................................................................................ 10 Strain Load Relationship ........................................................................................ 12 Resolution and Sampling Rate .................................................................................. 13

6.

Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 15

Bibliography ............................................................................................................................ 15 APPENDIX A - Graphical Instructions of Attaching Strain Gauges.................................... 16 APPENDIX B Derivation of Theoretical Stress and Strain Data ...................................... 18

METR3100

Strain Gauge Practical Exercise

Shannon Hayden

1. Introduction
The aim of the Strain Gauge Practical Experiment is to gain an understanding of various aspects relating to measurement using strain gauges. The comparison of theoretical and experimental analysis of a single point loaded cantilever beam provides the main subject of criticism in exploring the limitations of practical strain gauges in this exercise. Adhesively bonded to the beam are four single element strain gauges; two allocated as reference gauges, and the remaining will be attached during the exercise and referred to as the Student Gauge. The loaded cantilever beam will be subjected to various loads and oscillations in order to obtain data from the strain gauges. This data will then be used to discuss hysteresis, sampling rate, uncertainty, and causes of error.

2. Apparatus

The apparatus used in the strain gauge practical experiment incorporates three key elements: The subject of measurement, Data acquisition components, Data acquisition interface,

The subject of measurement is as previously stated; a single point loaded cantilever beam. This is shown in Figure 1.

320 mm

Figure 1: Single point loaded cantilever beam used throughout the experiment

METR3100

Strain Gauge Practical Exercise

Shannon Hayden

The beams properties not shown in Figure 1 are; width: 20mm; thickness: 10mm; material: aluminium; Youngs Modulus: 70GPa. Single element strain gauges are the sole sensors used in this exercise. Two sets of two strain gauges (one on the top face, the other on the bottom face of the beam) are adhered 50mm from the cantilever support. The gauges are placed in a T configuration. The Wheatstone bridge is adopted to interface the sensors to produce viable outputs. The output of the Wheatstone bridge is amplified using an op-amp. The configuration of the bridge circuitry and op-amp is housed within a box as illustrated in Figure 2.
Ex+ Vs+

SG 1

R1 AV = 1000

O/P

Set Bridge Supply

Rotary knobs on the box are used to calibrate the circuit; these can be seen in the illustration above. The single element strain gauge positions are labelled SG1, and SG2.This configuration is used for both reference and student gauges.

The output signal from the op-amp is fed into a computer interface. An 8-bit A/D converter is used to digitalise the signal. This signal is then read using a data acquisition software developed using National Instruments LabView. The software allows continuous and sampled data acquisition.

2 SG

R2 ExVs0V

Bridge Resistor Value 120

Set Zero

350

Figure 2: Connector box configuration

METR3100

Strain Gauge Practical Exercise

Shannon Hayden

3. Procedure

The experimental procedure involves three key sub procedures; bonding the strain gauges to the beam, data acquisition of incremented loading, and variable sampling rate data acquisition. This section will define the procedures for these tasks individually.

3.1 Strain Gauge Attachment

This experiment requires strain gauges to be attached to a beam before loading the beam in different manners. Graphical instructions can be found in Appendix A. Reference strain gauges are already attached to the beam so the second set should be applied to the opposite side. The following process should be followed for strain gauge application: 1. Put on safety glasses. 2. On the upper side of the beam where the strain gauges are to be located rub briefly with fine emery paper to remove dirt. 3. Spray with a small amount of degreaser and with one downward stroke wipe clean with a tissue. 4. Apply the gauges to the beam: a. Place them on a flat surface in the orientation and positions that they will take up on the beam. b. Place cello tape over the strain gauges and then peel it back at an angle of about 45 to lift the strain gauges from the surface. c. Fold the tape back on itself to keep the strain gauges out of the way. This procedure aligns the gauges for quick and accurate placement during the gluing steps d. Paint a small amount of the blue liquid enzyme onto the strain gauges. e. Place a small line of adhesive under where each gauge will be located. f. Lift the tucked end of the tape and bridge it over the adhesive at a 30 angle. g. With a piece of gauze, slowly make a single wiping stroke over the gauge/tape assembly, bringing the gauge back down over the alignment marks on the specimen. h. Use a firm pressure with your fingers when wiping over the gauge. A very thin layer of adhesive is desired for optimum bond performance. (wait 1min+)

METR3100

Strain Gauge Practical Exercise

Shannon Hayden

i. Once dried, fold the end of the tape over itself and slowly pull back at 180degrees to its application. j. Examine gauges to ensure properly fixed. 5. Wire the new gauges to the connector block in the same manner to those on the underside of the beam. 6. Clamp Bar with lengths as in the apparatus. 7. Connect wiring to respectively coloured port on circuit box. 8. Zero the meter using the Set zero knob.

3.2 Incremental Loading

The cantilever beam was incrementally loaded using 0.8kg masses. Mass increments from 0kg to 3.2kg were applied at the single point loading position 320mm from the cantilever support. The loading was applied in a particular sequence in order to determine whether the system embodied hysteresis, this sequence is as follows; 0kg, 0.8kg, 1.6kg, 2.4kg, 3.2kg, 2.4kg, 1.6kg, 0.8kg, 0kg. The maximum strain values for both the reference and student gauges were obtained and recorded for each loading.

3.3 Data Acquisition Using Variable Sampling Rates

The beam was loaded using a single point load of 3.2kg, 320mm from the cantilever support. The beam was then excited causing vibration. Data was acquired using sampling rates of 100, 20, 10 and 2Hz through the software interface. This data was then saved in a spreadsheet format for discussion and analysis.

METR3100

Strain Gauge Practical Exercise

Shannon Hayden

4. Results
4.1 Theoretical Results
The theoretically derived results for the stress and strain at the point of the strain gauge attachment are shown below in Table 1. Derivations of these results are available in Appendix B.

Load (kg) 0 0.8 1.6 2.4 3.6

Force (N) 0 7.84 15.68 23.52 31.36

Calculated Stress (MPa) 0 6.35 12.70 19.05 25.40

Calculated Strain (strain) 0 90.72 181.44 272.16 362.88

Table 1: Theoretical results for single point loaded cantilever beam

4.2 Experimental Incremental Loading

The data obtained through the process of incremental loading is illustrated in Table 2. The output voltage is linearly related to the apparent strain by a scaling factor of 175. It also must be noted that the loadings were in the chronological order from the top of the table to the bottom. Load (kg) 0 0.8 1.6 2.4 3.2 2.4 1.6 0.8 Student Gauge tension (Volts) 0 0.579 1.105 1.630 2.154 1.628 1.102 0.572 Output Reference Gauge compression (Volts) 0 0.446 0.980 1.540 2.008 1.490 0.912 0.368 8

METR3100 0

Strain Gauge Practical Exercise 0.044

Table 2: Experimental results of incremental loading

Shannon Hayden 0.006

4.3 Variable Sampling Rate Data

The result of obtaining data using various sampling rates is illustrated in Figure 3.

3.5

Sampling Rate Plots

3 Amplifier Output (V)

2.5

100Hz 50Hz

20Hz 2Hz

1.5

1 0 0.1 0.2 Time (s) 0.3 0.4 0.5

Figure 3: Time history of amplifier output after excitation using various sampling rates .

METR3100

Strain Gauge Practical Exercise

Shannon Hayden

5. Discussion

5.1

Error Analysis

The data obtained through incremental loading of the cantilever beam apparatus provided an ambiguous insight into the strain state of the configuration. In accordance, the output voltage of the amplifier was converted into strain units using the coefficient of 175 strain/V. The table below displays the theoretical, and both sets of experimental data in strain units (106 x % elongation). The uncertainty percentage relating the reference and student data and the theoretical and student data was also calculated using conventional statistical methods.

Load (kg)

Calculated Strain (strain)

Student Gauge Measured

Reference Gauge

Uncertainty Student vs. Reference (%) 0 29.82 12.76 5.84 7.27 9.26 20.83 55.43 733.33 20.17

Uncertainty Student vs. Theory (%)

Strain (strain) Measured Strain (strain) 0 0.8 1.6 2.4 3.6 2.4 1.6 0.8 0 0 90.72 181.44 272.16 362.88 272.16 181.44 90.72 0 0 101.325 193.375 285.25 376.95 284.90 192.85 100.1 7.7 0 78.050 171.500 269.500 351.40 260.75 159.6 64.4 1.05 Average*

0 11.69 6.58 4.81 3.88 4.68 6.29 10.34 6.90

* Data for 0kg loading was not considered in calculating the average uncertainty Table 3: Incremented loading data presented in strain and corresponding uncertainties.

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METR3100

Strain Gauge Practical Exercise

Shannon Hayden

In calculating the average uncertainty the values for zero loading were discarded as they were deemed unreasonable relative to the remaining data. The obvious reason for this lies in the sensitivity of the strain gauges whilst unloaded, by inspection it becomes obvious that the probability the strain gauges would be comparable whilst unloaded is very low. The average uncertainty between the student and reference gauges was 20.17%. This is comparably larger than the 6.90% uncertainty between the student and theoretical data. A reason for this is due to the fact that both the reference and student gauges are subject to independent error, thus a cumulative effect of error results. Another key observation is that the student gauge readings are consistently larger than the theoretical, thus being a systematic error. The cause of this error thus can by hypothesised as not random, and due to some cause. Various sources of error have been identified in this system. Whilst attaching the gauges to the beam it became apparent that the gauges were not accurately positioned. The gauge would then have been reading strain from another position on the beam, and possible in a direction other than the principal axis. The latter however is unlikely as the maximum strain is exhibited along the principal axis. The error fluctuates in magnitude under different loading positions, with less error relating to higher loadings compared to the reference gauge. However the error is maintained within 12% across the range of loadings applied when compared to the theoretical values. This implies the reference gauge is producing poor quality data. The primary reason for this may be due to the length of time the reference gauge has been attached to the beam as strain gauges have a finite cyclic endurance, and stability factor. The most effective preventatives to obtaining the above said errors is to apply the reference and student gauges at the same time, and take care in the process of attachment. Another possibility is to derive the theoretical results from the actual position of the attached strain gauge.

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METR3100

Strain Gauge Practical Exercise

Shannon Hayden

5.2

Strain Load Relationship

The relationship between the amplifier output (Volts) and load (kg) for both the student and reference gauges was plotted in order to grasp a graphical representation of the low level system workings. This is illustrated in Figure 4.

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METR3100

Strain Gauge Practical Exercise

Shannon Hayden

Amplifier Output vs. Load

2.5 2 Amplifier Output (V)

1.5 Student Reference

0.5

0 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 Load (kg)

Figure 4: Amplifier Output vs. Load Graph

By observation it is seen that the relationship is linear, which is as expected. This provides justification that the strain gauge configurations used in this exercise exhibit accuracy throughout the subjected load range. If the above illustrated graph displayed non-linear behaviour it would be apparent that effects dependant on either the loading mechanism or amplification were faulty and/or inaccurate.

5.3

Resolution and Sampling Rate

Figure 3 extracted from the results displays the time response curves through interpolation of sampling rates 100, 50, 20 and 2Hz.

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METR3100

Strain Gauge Practical Exercise

Shannon Hayden

3.5

Sampling Rate Plots

3 Amplifier Output (V)

2.5

100Hz 50Hz

20Hz 2Hz

1.5

1 0 0.1 0.2 Time (s) 0.3 0.4 0.5

3: Time history of amplifier output after excitation using various sampling rates

The response clearly becomes distorted due to aliasing at around 20Hz. Aliasing becomes apparent when the sampling rate is not frequent enough to obtain a set of data to construct an interpolated representation. 20Hz is the point of aliasing; however this is native to the frequency of vibrations subjected to the beam. According to the Nyquist-Shannon sampling theorem, to obtain an accurate representation of the periodic quantity being measured the sampling rate should be at least twice the maximum frequency being sampled. In this case the approximated frequency of oscillation is about 7Hz, thus at least 14Hz is theoretically required based on the theorem. In a broader sense it is arrogant to define a certain sampling frequency is applicable to all situations. However in the scope of this exercise it is seen a higher frequency than derived from the Nyquist-Shannon theorem is required to reconstruct an accurate representation of the physical system.

5.4

Hysteresis

During the exercise the cantilever beam was subjected to incremental loading followed by symmetrical unloading. The data obtained from this procedure gives insight as to whether the system exhibits hysteresis. Hysteresis is the behaviour of a system defined by having an 14

METR3100

Strain Gauge Practical Exercise

Shannon Hayden

output not solely dependent on input, rather the systems history as well. Whilst analysing the data from the loading/unloading it became apparent that the data obtained for identical loadings differed whilst loading and unloading. There are many sources of reason for this behaviour to be exhibited. The system may have been subject to differing vibrations at the times of measurements and/or the load may have been applied from a slightly different point on the beam. A more likely and commonly encountered cause is the stability of the strain gauge itself. The stability factor of the strain gauge encompasses various altering affects the gauge may be subject to; for example, heat from the current passed through the foil, the quality of the adhesive used to bond the gauge, and the resistance to permanent deformation of the foil. From this observation it is recommended that using the strain gauges tested in this exercise, frequent calibration should be performed.

6. Conclusion
Throughout the Strain Gauge Practical Experiment the student acquired a substantial understanding of strain measurement using strain gauges. The effectiveness, accuracy and interface methods were tested and analysed throughout the experiment. Several behaviours and techniques typical to strain gauges were also acquired; including hysteresis, sampling rate and uncertainty. Most importantly it was felt that the Strain Gauge Practical Experiment provided a solid base of knowledge to refer to as a future engineer.

Bibliography
Hitchcock, E. Hussain, J. Sandmann, N. Experimental Data Analysis (http://www.mech.uq.edu.au/courses/metr3100_2005/dataanalysis/L1a.pdf )

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METR3100

Strain Gauge Practical Exercise

Shannon Hayden

The University of Queensland, 2005

Huang, H. Strain Gauge Practical Exercise 2008 (http://www.mech.uq.edu.au/courses/metr3100/METR3100_Prac_Docu_2008.doc) The University of Queensland, 2008

Sampling Rate, (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sampling_rate) Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Accessed 8th May 2008

APPENDIX A - Graphical Instructions of Attaching Strain Gauges

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METR3100

Strain Gauge Practical Exercise

Shannon Hayden

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METR3100

Strain Gauge Practical Exercise

Shannon Hayden

APPENDIX B Derivation of Theoretical Stress and Strain Data E= 70*109 Pa Iz = bh3/12 = 1.667*109 Mz(50mm from support) = 0.27*(m*9.81) N-m

x= -Mz * y
Iz

(where y= 0.005)

x(0.8kg) = 6.35MPa x(1.6kg) = 12.70MPa x(2.4kg) = 19.05MPa x(3.2kg) = 25.40MPa x= x/ E x(0.8kg)= 90.72 strain x(1.6kg)= 181.44 strain x(2.4kg)= 272.16 strain x(3.2kg)= 362.88 strain

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