DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY FACULTY OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCES UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN, IBADAN, NIGERIA.

Staff/Postgraduate Seminar

LOCATION BASED SERVICES

being Area Paper

by

ENARUVBE, GLORY OMOFAWHORAN (76073)

SUPERVISOR: PROF. BOLA AYENI

September 9, 2011.

1.0

Introduction

Recent developments in Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) have brought about an array of applications. These have also changed inter-personal relationships and interaction between people, places and how business services are conducted. This is more so as the production and marketing of goods and services are now more information dependent. The need to transmit information has accelerated due to a deregulated worldwide market which has increased uncertainty and the competition among places for investment and jobs. Also, economic activities are now conducted over ever larger distances resulting in the need for deployment and use of telecommunications systems that has become indispensable in the contemporary economic landscapes (Warf, 2006). Townsend, (2007) describe the pervasive deployment of telecommunications networks as one of the defining characteristics of the late 20th-century cities in the developed world. These technologies provided versatile channels for public and private social, political, and economic communications, and helped reshape the geography of many human activities. Urban sprawl is one way urban form has responded to the new spatial freedoms allowed by pervasive use of telecommunications. The 21st century saw the deployment of digital telecommunications and computing technologies resulting in much greater flexibility and sophistication when compared with the earlier analogue systems. These technologies are capable of providing greater variety of services tailored to users needs. Advances in mobile wireless communications, therefore, have greatly expand the ability to communicate from a wider variety of urban locations. The mobile phones have significantly revolutionized telecommunication and drastically affected life style and interaction in modern societies. The voice capabilities of the mobile phones are currently augmented with data capabilities of increasing speed. The small size mobile terminals mobile phones and PDAs are being integrated and are evolving into smart phones and communicators, which allows users to access Mobile Internet services and run applications at any time and in any location (Virrantaus, et al, 2001). In a recent report, (ITU, 2010) the International Telecommunications Union estimate that the global number of mobile phone subscribers will be over five billion in 2010 while the prices of information communication technology (ICT) services continues to fall. This increasing number of mobile phone subscribers, coupled with their inherent high portability and personal nature make the mobile phone a veritable tool for the provision of customized business and social services. They are used for storing and accessing information at any time wherever the users go. The continuous availability of the device and the emerging capability of the terminals and/or the mobile network infrastructure to position the terminals on the earth allow new types of spatio-temporal real-time services that are called Location-Based Services (LBS). Scholars have defined LBS in diverse manners. Many of the definitions depend on the perspective and the application to which the services are applied. However, most of the definitions of LBS can be summarised as information technology (IT) services that are provided with the current location of the user as a critical consideration and accessible through a mobile network using a mobile device or the internet through a wireless network. Many of the functionalities of location based services have been observed to be extension of those of geographic information system functions. Indeed, as Magon and Shukla (2001) put it, LBSs involve the integration of GIS, Internet, wireless communication, location finding techniques and mobile devices. This technology has not only impacted spatial interactive in space and time, but also access to information. It equally has tremendous influence on how businesses are conducted. Miller, (2005) asserts that spatio-temporal interactions are the main drivers of social and economic systems. Hence, the movement of people, goods and services is an important
2|Page

aspect in the development process of any economy (Somuyiwa, 2010; Akomolafe, et al, 2009; Southworth & Peterson, 2000). The form, capacity as well as the efficiency of the transport system affects the quality of life of individuals and groups in a society. It also affects business and services that take place within and between regions in a country. The pervasive deployment of Information and communication technology infrastructure has forced most businesses to manage global supply chains (Nagarajan, et al, 2005) as a result of a more open and competitive modern economy markets. In spite of this, they continue to respond to customers request within tight time schedules. The availability of real-time information such as vehicle position and traffic conditions becomes crucial. This information is now available as a result of the rapid growth in ICTs which provide real-time information at very low cost (Ichoua, Gendreau, & Potvin, 2007). Transportation planning and management entails the capture, integration and analysis of large data sets that relate to spatial features. Geographic information systems (GIS) are tools for the capture, storage, integration, management, display and dissemination of spatial data and information. GIS are therefore, able to address complex social, economic and environmental issues and are also able to address issues related to transportation. Most issues in transportation planning, analysis and management are however, not only complex but are also ill-structured and lack clear cut solutions that can meet the needs of all stakeholders. Decision support systems could therefore assist decision-makers in interactively synthesising and analysing relevant data to create useful information and provide a set of feasible alternative solution to semi-structured or ill-structured problems. These systems, typically involve a large set of feasible alternatives and multiple, conflicting and incommensurate evaluation criteria (Densham, 1991; Malczewski, 2006). Integration of LBS and SDSS can therefore, be useful in addressing transport related issues. This paper therefore, attempts a review of the literature on the integration of SDSS and ICT application in modelling freight management. Apart from this introduction, the remainder of the paper is divided into four: section 2 examines the concepts of location based services in transport modelling; SDSS and ICTs and its application in transport and logistic management is examined in section 3; section 4 is dedicated to concepts and theories of transportation research; section 5 identifies knowledge gaps in the application of GIS-Based SDSS and LBS technologies in addressing transportation problems while section 6 concludes the paper. 2.0 2.1 Definition and issues of LBS. Defining LBS

There seems to be no generally accepted definition of location based services in the literature as scholars have defined it in various ways. Virrantaus, et al, (2001) define LBSs as services accessible with mobile devices through the mobile network and utilizing the ability to make use of the location of the terminals. LBS involve the ability to find the geographical location of mobile device and then provide services based on this location information (Liutkauskas, et al, 2004; Roongrasamee, et al, 2003; Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC), 2005). Spiekermann, (2004) define LBS as services that integrate mobile devices location or position with other attribute information so as to enhance the value of service provision to a user. LBSs, as Koeppel, (2000) puts it, are services or applications that extend spatial information processing or Geographic information capabilities, to end users via the internet and/or wireless network. OGC, (2005) also describe LBS as wireless-IP services that use geographic information to serve a mobile user. Kupper, (2005) on the other hand refer to Location-based Services as IT services for providing information that has been created,
3|Page

compiled, selected, or filtered taking into consideration the current locations of the users or those of other persons or mobile objects. While Shiode, et al, (2004) see LBS as geographically-oriented data and information services to users across mobile telecommunications networks. These services can also be provided in conjunction with other conventional telecommunication services like telephony and related value added features, for example, to realize location-based routing of calls or location-based billing. Reichenbacher, (2005) however, uses a broader term, geoservices, which he refers to as services meeting any space-related needs. They integrate data and functionality or processing and are directed towards a defined need. He asserts that the basic geoservices are derived from fundamental GIS functions: positioning services rendering locations, geographic search service for any geographic features, geocoding services obtaining coordinates for relevant POIs or addresses, reverse geocoding service delivering geographic features for specific coordinates, proximity services that find the nearest POI or POIs for a position or address, routing services that calculate route and direction instructions, directory and catalogue services and presentation services. Reichenbacher, (2005) also asserts that geoservices are targeted at mobile users and are accessible with mobile devices through a mobile network. These services utilize the ability to make use of the location of the terminals to provide mobile users with information dependent on their current location. As he puts it, part of that information may be communicated through maps. The definitions of Location based services in the literature can be categorised into three. First, Location base services as the provision of services that are based on the ability to know the location or position of the mobile terminal (OGC, 2005; Liutkauskas, et al, 2004; Spiekermann, 2004; Roongrasamee, et al, 2003;Virrantaus, et al, 2001), secondly, location based services has been defined on the basis of service provisioning by the extension of geographic information processing and through the internet or some form of wireless protocol (Kupper, 2005; OGC, 2005; Shiode, et al, 2004; Koeppel, 2000). Thirdly, as services customised to meet space-related needs of the user based on the present location of the user (Reichenbacher, 2005). These definitions seem to be in accordance with Steiniger, et al, (2006) who illustrated LBS as services achievable through the integration of Web GIS, mobile GIS and mobile internet technologies and spatial databases (Fig.1). As Steiniger, et al, (2006) have observed, LBSs are created from New Information and Communication Technologies (NICTS) such as the mobile telecommunication system and hand held devices, from Internet and from Geographic Information Systems (GIS) with spatial databases (Shiode, et al, 2004).

Figure 1: LBS as integration of technologies (from Steiniger, et al, 2006)

4|Page

It follows that a common feature of all the definitions of LBS include the application and/or integration of information communication technology, particularly mobile networks as well as web-enabled GIS and geographically referenced location information in the provision of services to mobile consumers. These technologies are also creating complex array of new spatial patterns through which we view, interact and connect to the world. 2.2 LBS Applications

Typical applications of LBS identified by scholars include navigation services (Rinner, 2008; Raper, et al, 2007); emergency response services (Erharuyi & Fairbairn, 2003; Aloudat, 2007) as well as transport and tourism services (Rinner, 2008; Berger, Lahmann & Lehner, 2003). Raper, et al, (2007) also state that other areas of LBS application including location-based gaming, assistive technology and location-based health services, are more recent development. Additionally, Leung, Burcea & Jacobsen, (2003) have also identified tracking the location of mobile callers, tracking and dispatching mobile resources, traffic coordination and way-finding and location-aware advertising. Raper, et al, (2007) in a review of selected literature on the applications of location-based services noted that LBS have become influential in some areas of application in the recent past. They identified such areas as mobile guides and intelligent transport systems (ITS) as areas that are more established while others such as location-based gaming, assistive technology and location-based health services are emerging areas. Kim, (2002), Sarkar, (2007) and Worrall, (1991) note that a large percentage of public and private decisions are related to some sort of spatial consideration, leaving only a few areas that are not affected by geographical considerations. Kim, (2002) notes that recent development in information and communication technologies (ICTs) generate and puts an unprecedented amount of geographic information of all kinds at a users fingertips. He further states that research needs of LBS are vast and these include applications in the following areas; 1. Utilization of real-time data in spatio-temporal context in GIS 2. Development of spatio-temporal topology in GIS 3. Development of efficient means to handle large data set for LBS 4. Interoperability among contents providers and interface standardisation for efficient request-response services 5. Efficient and cost-effective means to collect real-time traffic data 6. Development of alternative theories for utilising population data vis a vis sample data in GIS 7. Development of heuristic solution algorithms for LBS Kim, (2002) focused his argument on issues of LBS related to request for transport routing and navigation. Using statistical notations, he was able to show various ways of estimating route costs, link travel time and spatio-temporal link travel time. Kim, (2002) showed route estimating costs in terms of purchasing and stopping costs, time cost, distance related costs and went on to calculate total costs for shopping and routing. He achieved this using a node-node adjacency matrix representation of the network. Estimating link travel time, according to Kim, (2002) depends on whether or not real time traffic data including volume and speed are available to service brokers or users. In estimating for link travel time in the absence of real time traffic data, he suggested that three link travel time tables be made. These include peak-hour link travel time table for weekdays, non peak-hour link travel time table for weekdays and link travel time table for weekends. You & Kim, (2000) also demonstrate estimating link travel time with real time traffic data.
5|Page

2.3

Classification of Location based services

Giaglis, et al, (2003) observe that one of the main enablers of LBS proliferation in recent years was the 1999 mandate of the US Federal Communications Commission (FCC) that, by October 2001, emergency services should be able to automatically position any citizen dialling 911 to within 125 meters in two thirds of cases. The reasoning behind this mandate is that people who are injured or in some other need do not necessarily know exactly where they are and hence the emergency services should be able to locate them in an automatic way so that help can be sent out to them. This has placed a legal obligation on mobile networks to support location identification provision in their service portfolio. Given this legal obligation, many network providers have seized the opportunity to design and implement further mobile location services that will commercially exploit the ability to know the exact geographical location of a mobile user.
Table 1: Major Classifications of Location Based Services

Types Categories
Mobile resources Management Location-Aware Content Delivery

Tracking

Navigation

Information Services

Entertainment Services

Communication Services

Transaction Services

Though a commonly accepted classification framework for location based services is lacking in the literature to date (Bauer et al, 2005), Wolfson (2002), however, states that location based services can be divided into two categories. These are mobile resource management (MRM) applications and location-aware context delivery services. Mobile resource management applications, as Wolfson (2002) puts it, use location data combined with route schedule to track and manage service personnel or transportation systems. A number of these are commercial applications e.g. systems for mobile workforce management, automatic vehicle location, fleet management, logistics, transportation management and support systems. While location-aware context delivery services are services that use location data to deliver customised information to a mobile user in order to increase relevancy. Examples of location-aware context delivery services include; delivering accurate driving directions and instant coupons to customers nearing a store. Ververidis & Polyzos (2006); Giaglis, et al, (2003) and Bauer, et al, (2005) have categorised Location based services into six major types (Table 1); tracking (people tracking and object tracking), navigation (regular routing services and specialised routing services), information services (interactive information services and regular information services), communication services (private communication services and business communication services), entertainment services and transaction services (location based advertising services and location based billing services). The GSM Association (2003) and Third Generation Partnership Project (2004) also noted tracking services, which include person tracking, fleet management and asset management. These services require permanent tracking of the object of interest in order to detect events that may occur around these objects at any given time. Location Based Services can be broadly classified as reactive (pull) and proactive (push) LBSs (Kupper, 2005; Kupper & Treu, 2005; Ververidis & Polyzos, 2006; Virrantaus, et al, 2001). Reactive LBS is always explicitly activated by the user. The interaction between LBS and user is roughly as follows: the user first invokes the service and establishes a service session, either via a mobile device or a desktop PC. He then requests for certain functions or information, whereupon the service gathers location data (either of himself or of
6|Page

another target person), processes it, and returns the location-dependent result to the user, for example, a list of nearby restaurants. This request/response cycle may be repeated several times before the session is finally terminated. Thus, reactive LBS are characterized by a synchronous interaction pattern between user and service. Proactive LBSs, on the other hand, are automatically initialized as soon as a predefined location event occurs, for example, if the user enters, approaches, or leaves a certain point of interest or if he approaches, meets, or leaves another target. As an example, consider an electronic tourist guide that notifies tourists via SMS as soon as they approach a landmark. Thus, proactive services are not explicitly requested by the user, but the interaction between them happens asynchronously. In contrast to reactive LBSs, where the user is only located once, proactive LBSs require to permanently track him in order to detect location events. 2.4 Important Components of Location based services

One of the most obvious and important ingredients behind LBS is positioning recognized system. According to Kupper, (2005), positioning is the process to obtain the spatial position of a target. Becker & Durr (2005) identified two basic types of coordinates. These are geometric and symbolic coordinate formats. Geometric coordinates is as used by GPS and refers to a point or geometric figure in a multi-dimensional space. The topological properties of such a space allow the calculation of distances between locations and their inclusion in other locations. Symbolic coordinates, on the other hand, do not provide any reasoning about their spatial properties without any additional information. Such coordinates are available via cell-IDs in cellular networks, such as GSM or wireless LAN, as well as via other positioning technologies, e.g. radio frequency tags (RFIDs) or infrared (IR) beacons. Giaglis, et al (2003) assert Location based applications and services are based on underlying technological capabilities that enable the identification of the location of a mobile device, thereby making the provision of location base services possible. LBSs utilize an array of different technologies to provide individualized information to the end user. Four major elements are required to transmit the highly specified information to the user: the location of the mobile device, a communication system, GIS data, and a control centre. According to Magon & Shukla, (2001), the obvious technology needed in providing LBS is getting to know the location or the position, the geographic data of that location and an application to process the position information along with the geographic data to provide Location Based Service. So we could consider the ingredients needed for LBS as Location or positioning, Geographic data, Control Centre and Communication System (figure 2). These four required elements have been broadly categorised as enabling and facilitating technologies (Johnson, 1998). Enabling technologies are the basic technologies that allow for obtaining location information from a mobile user, while facilitating technologies refer to complementary technologies that provide the contextual and/or infrastructural environment within which LBS can be implemented in a value-added fashion. Johnson, (1998) refers to enabling technologies as the basic technologies that allow for obtaining location information from a mobile user, while the facilitating technologies are complementary technologies that provide the contextual and/or infrastructural environment within which LBSs can be implemented in a value added fashion. The enabling technologies have further been broadly divided into mobile network dependent technologies or cellular positioning and mobile network independent technologies or satellite position (Giaglis, et al, 2003; Steiniger, et al, 2006; Kupper, 2005). Mobile network dependent/cellular positioning technologies, also referred to as integrated infrastructure approach (Kupper, 2005), depend on the ability of a mobile device to receive
7|Page

signal from a mobile network covering its area of presence. Such technologies perform better in densely populated environments where network base stations are closer to each other. Mobile network dependent location methods include cell identification (Cell-ID) method, time of arrival (TOA) method, angle of arrival (AOA) method and observed time difference and enhanced observed time difference (OTD and E-OTD) methods. On the contrary, mobile network independent /satellite positioning technologies, the stand-alone approach (Kupper, 2005), can provide location information even in the absence of mobile network coverage. Location methods using this approach are broadly divided into long-ranged and short-ranged methods. GPS and A-GPS are examples of long-ranged positioning devices. While bluetooth, RFID and WLAN are short-ranged positioning devices. A number of different enabling technologies exist, each with its inherent strengths and weaknesses. The basic technology assessment criteria refer to coverage range, accuracy support and application environment (Giaglis, et al, 2003; Jiang & Yao, 2006). This also depends on a variety of factors that include visibility, line of sight to a base station, handset location (i.e. indoor or outdoor), terrain, measurement environment (i.e. urban or rural areas), among others (Gum & Proietti, 2002). A successful LBS technology must meet the position accuracy requirements determined by the respective service, at the lowest possible cost and with minimal impact on network and the equipment.

Geographic Data

Cell ID TOA AOA E-OTD A-GPS

Control Centre

Transportation and Navigation Location Based Information Emergency Services Other Services

Communication System

Figure 2 Components of Location Based Services (Source: Magon & Shukla, 2001)

2. 5

Privacy concerns in Location based services Users of IT services are always exposed to the risk that their personal information and data collected and processed during service usage may be misused by unauthorized parties or by the service provider itself. The motivation behind this misuse is often to observe and analyze the users behaviour, attitudes, and social situation in order to tailor special offers or advertisements for him, but sometimes it may also be with criminal intentions (Kupper, 2005). Privacy invasion is considered a very important concern in Location based services. Privacy protection in location-aware services, as Kaasinen (2003) asserts, is related to the right to locate a person, use the location, store the location and forward the location. Both privacy and security concerns could create resistance to LBS adoption (Warrior, et al, 2003; Kupper, 2005; Zhou, 2011). Kupper (2005) states that LBS privacy concerns are particularly sensitive as the targets location information passes many different actors along the LBS supply chain. Also, the target is passive in that it is automatically tracked by an LBS provider and related actors during its everyday activities and is often not aware of this fact permanently. Thirdly, the location information is often regarded as belonging to a category of high-level information that is desired to be saved more than other personal information e.g. address, gender and age. LBS privacy concerns may be particularly sensitive as services allow colleagues, family members or others to have real-time information on the location of
8|Page

individuals. Positioning capability is, however, often used to increase security e.g. tracking of vehicles carrying valuable cargo and tracking of children. In these applications, location information provides a compelling value proposition. In both of these examples privacy and security is only maintained if access to the location information is restricted to authorized users. How location information will be managed when the positioning capability becomes ubiquitous is, however, still uncertain (Tilson, et al, 2004). In spite of these concerns, it has been shown that people are positive towards the location based services as long as they perceive them to be useful (Barkhuus & Dey, 2003; Kaasinen, 2003). 3.0 SDSS and ICT applications in transport and logistic management 3.1 Spatial Decision Support Systems and Location Based Services

Spatial decision support systems (SDSS) are primarily designed to provide user with a decision-making platform that enables the analysis of spatial information to be carried out in a flexible manner (Densham, 1991). These systems can be viewed as spatial analogues of decision support systems (DSS) developed for business applications. Gorry & Morton, (1971) integrated Antonys, (1965) categories of management activity and Simons (1960) description of decision types in arriving at a definition for DSS. Antony, (1965) described management activities as consisting of strategic planning, management control and operational control. Simon, (1960) described decision problems as existing on a continuum from programmed to non-programmed. Gorry and Morton, (1971) combined Antony, (1965) and Simon, (1960) description of decisions, and described decision problems as structured, unstructured and semi-structured, rather than programmed and non-programmed. Similarly, Simon (1960) described the decision-making process as consisting of three phrases: intelligence, design and choice. Intelligence is used in the military sense to mean searching the environment for problems, this implies the need to make a decision. Design involves the development of alternative ways of solving the problem and choice consists of analysing the alternatives and choosing one for implementation. Gorry and Morton (1971) define a DSS as a computer system that dealt with a problem at least some stages of which was semi-structured or unstructured. A computer system is developed to deal with the structure portion of a DSS problem, but the judgement of the decision maker is brought to bear on the unstructured or semi-structure part, hence, constituting a human-machine system. Gorry and Morton (1971) argued that the characteristics of both information needs and models differ in a DSS environment, as compared to most organisational information systems that were in use at that time. Management information systems, such as billing, other accounting systems, inventory control and the like, require current, accurate data that is derived primarily from sources internal to the organisation. DSS applications, because many are strategic in their orientation, tend to require data from outside the organisation, and this data may be in the form of trends or estimates. The ill-defined nature of information needs in DSS situations leads to the requirement for different kinds of databases than those for operational environments. Relational databases and flexible query languages are needed. Similarly, the ill-structured nature of the decision environment implied the need for flexible, interactive modelling system, such as those of spreadsheet packages. A DSS as Sprague, (1980) puts it, is a class of information system that draws on transaction processing systems and interacts with the other parts of the overall information system to support the decision making activities of managers and other knowledge workers in the organization. SDSS are computer tools developed to assist decision-makers resolve complex, illstructured spatial problems and provide acceptable solution that addresses conflicting, multiple spatial objectives. It provides a framework for integrating database management
9|Page

systems with analytical models, graphical interface and tabular report generation capabilities, and expert knowledge of decision makers. SDSS, therefore address fundamental functional and modelling issues. Rutledge et al, (2007) assert that a good SDSS will support different decision making styles and adapt over time to the needs of the particular user through interactive and iterative processes. An SDSS has the advantage over a non-spatial DSS by being able to store and manipulate complex spatial data structures, conduct analyses within the domain of spatial analysis, and provide spatially-explicit output (i.e. maps) and other reporting tools. This provides a robust framework for exploring resource management issues by highlighting potential limits to resource use (e.g., only so much land, water, energy, etc.) and the consequences of different allocation schemes. As Densham (1991) asserts, many of the complex spatial problems often faced by decision makers, have multiple, conflicting objectives solution. To be acceptable, a solution needs to be able to reconcile these conflicting objectives. SDSS has been applied in various aspects of research in addressing real-world management problems in the literature. The application areas range from agriculture, healthcare provision, education, forestry (Chruch, et al, 2000; ), vehicle and fleet management, mining industry, telecommunication, among many others. SDSS and LBS in location analysis While SDSS are usually applied mainly at the planning stage of tasks, LBS is targeted towards assisting mobile users in making decisions in time and space during the performance of tasks. Hence, LBS aid spatial interaction by facilitating interaction without the need for a physical location in space. Janelle & Gillespie (2004) describe this using four interrelated concepts; time-space convergence, time-space compression, human extensibility and trackability. This is also related to Hagerstrand, (1975a) fundamental conditions necessary for any precise theoretical research as stated in the concept of time-geography. Current LBS, however, are limited to non-compensatory filtering and selection operations (Rinner, 2003; Raubal & Rinner, 2004). Integration of SDSS and LBS will therefore, be useful in providing managers and users of spatially related services with guided decision analysis method and processes that can assist in addressing user preferences and alternatives within a time constraint and also provide the opportunity for possible subtasks while boosting spatial interaction. According to Keenan, (1996) the relationship between GIS and SDSS has been described as one in which GIS are used as generators for specific SDSS. Apart from generic functionalities, such as spatial database management and map display available in GIS, SDSS also use specialized decision support tools such as multi-criteria decision making techniques (Rinner, Raubal, & Spigel, 2005) and are therefore, often developed by the integration of geographic information systems with appropriate expert knowledge, data and models (Engelen, & White, 1997). Location based services provide users of mobile devices with access to GIS applications, which employ the users current location to answer specific spatial queries. Similar to SDSS, LBS assist users with their spatial decision-making process during the performance of tasks in space and time. However, SDSS are designed to assist managers and decision-makers in resolving spatial problems that are usually characterised by multiple, conflicting and incommensurate evaluation criteria. These problems are normally illstructured in nature. 3.2

10 | P a g e

3.3

SDSS in Freight Management

Eom, et al, (1998) stated that the transportation industry has been dependent on decision support systems in their routine operations such as in managing freight, scheduling vehicles and personnel. The design and implementation of SDSS in transportation research and applications is widespread in the literature (Borzacchiello, et al, 2008; Kai, 2005; Arampatzis, et al, 2004; Frank, et al, 2000; Shen and Khoong, 1995). Thill, (2000) edited a special compilation of geographic information systems in transportation research published by Elsevier Science Limited. The volume comprises a collection of research work by various scholars in the field of transportation. It provides an insight into the application of GIS in transportation studies and shows how GIS has evolved in the field of transportation planning, analysis and management. Goodchild (1992) notes that GIS has matured from a tool to an aspect of information technology, and finally to a domain of scientific investigation called Geographic Information Science. GIS is today regarded as an indispensible tool in transportation science applications (Spring, 2004). Because of the important role of transportation in socio-economic development, scholars have focused a lot of attention on the transport problem analysis using various perspectives. The range of transport research areas include transportation planning (Shen & Khoong, 1995; Kai, 2005; Arampatzis, et al, 2004), freight and commodity distribution modelling (Wisetjindawat, et al, 2006; Powell, Bouzaiene-Ayari & Simao, 2006), passenger movement (Csisz, 2003), among many others. Datta, (2000) classified research in the area of application of operational research in the transportation problems in developing countries, into three broad classes; planning and evaluation, distribution; location and scheduling and routing. Datta, (2000) however concluded that though much have been done in transportation research, not many of the research have addressed the issues of transportation as it relates specifically to the developing countries in terms of distribution, technology, infrastructure and management. Like Datta, (2000), Borzacchiello, et al, (2008) and Goodchild, (2000), also classified research on GIS and Transportation studies into three broad groups; data representation, analysis and modelling and applications. Borzacchiello, et al, (2008) however adopted geodatabase, geomapping and geomodelling framework in their classification of GIS in transportation research. Most spatial problems have conflicting objectives and can therefore be addressed using decision support systems. Eom, et al, (1998) reported a review of decision support system applications between 1988 and 1994. The review consists of a total of 271 (two hundred and seventy-one) published applications. Eom, et al (1998) classified DSS applications into two broad categories; corporate functional management fields; which include applications in production and operation management. These applications account for 41% of all the published papers reviewed in the research, and other areas; which include government, military, educational, hospital and healthcare, urban/community planning and administration. Frank, et al, (2000) developed a SDSS that attempts to resolve the conflict between population at risk and efficiency concerns in transporting hazardous materials. The focus of the research was on risk mitigation through route selection techniques. In achieving this objective, however, Frank, et al (2000) has to minimize travel time while other criteria; total population at risk, distance, accident and consequence are constrained. In the process, they came up with a desktop application capable of handling realistic network data, while offering
11 | P a g e

sophisticated route generating heuristics. The approaches developed are also able to handle data manipulation, data and solution visualisation, user interfaces as well as optimisation heuristics. Integrating technological approach in some aspects of supply chain management can therefore improve the entire process and help save valuable time in transit. Miller, et al, (1999) report a GIS-based decision support system for dynamic congestion modelling and shortest path routing in time-critical logistics. The system predicts network flow at detailed temporal resolutions and solves for the combined departure time and shortest path required for a shipment to arrive at its destination by a given deadline. Yi-Hwa, et al, (2001) also report a GIS-based decision support system for analysis of route choice in congested urban road network. In follows that GIS and SDSS is applicable and highly desirable in the planning and implementation of supply chain management issues 3.4 Freight and Logistics Management in Nigeria

Freight transportation maintains core relations with urban areas since the city is concomitantly a unit of production, distribution and consumption which requires strategies in ensuring efficient freight movements (Rodrigue, Comtois, & Slack, 2009). A number of studies have also been conducted in the area of freight and logistic management in Nigeria. Apart from Somuyiwa & Adewoye, 2010; Akomolafe, et al, 2009, these have been limited to the application of traditional quantitative and /or qualitative approach and did not investigate the impacts of information and communication technologies (ICT) in ameliorating transportation problems in Nigeria. Okoko (2008) carried out an analysis of the spatial pattern of urban goods movement in Akure, Ondo state. He employed gravity and linear programming modelling to obtain predictions on the spatial pattern of urban goods movement, using time as the impedance factor. Somuyiwa & Dosunmu (2008) using qualitative and quantitative approach, underscores the need for modal shift from the exclusive use of road for freight transportation to other modes of transport so as to reduce traffic congestion experienced in and around the Apapa port in Lagos. In conclusion, Somuyiwa & Dosunmu (2008) advocate the need for the development of other modes of transport, particularly, rail and inland water ways to facilitate freight transport between the port and all the geo-political zones in the country. Fadare & Ayantoyinbo, (2010) also reported a study on the impacts of road traffic congestion on freight movement in Lagos metropolis. The identified the effects of traffic congestion on freight movement in the metropolis to include longer travel time resulting in decrease in vehicle utilisation, decrease fuel efficiency, higher cost of freight operation, shrink in market coverage and less reliable pick-up and delivery times for truck operators. Ogunsanya, (2002) argues that urban traffic congestion in Lagos metropolis is a symptom of a malfunctioning urban traffic system which can be explained by poor traffic management, route inadequacy, absence of traffic and transportation planning, upsurge in urban transport demand, and human misuse of transport infrastructure. Ogunsanya, (2002) also notes that roadside and on-road parking, roadside trading and total disregard for traffic regulations by road users are significant human contribution to traffic problem. These factors are prevalent in most developing countries. The urban traffic situation has substantial negative impact on urban residents and business transactions. These include loss of time and restricted accessibility to business and social opportunities in cities.

12 | P a g e

Somuyiwa, (2010) however, investigated the impact of freight flows on the city logistics in a megacity of developing economy. The focus was on the economic cost of inefficiency cause by the flow of freight in the metropolis rather than the effect of congestion on freight (Fadare & Ayantoyinbo, 2010). Somuyiwa, (2010) concludes that there is need for a more rigorous planning of urban resources in order to minimise congestion caused by freight movement across the city. Akomolafe, et al, (2009) demonstrate the use of geospatial technology in enhancing road monitoring and safety. They generated digital map of major highway in Nigeria to assist traffic personnel in road safety and monitoring activities. Somuyiwa and Adewoye (2010), adopting a descriptive approach, however, provided a theoretical background necessary for effective logistic information system in an industrial outfit. 4.0 4.1 Geographical Themes in Location Based Services Studies Time-Geography

Time-geography, initially proposed by Hagerstrand (1970), was developed to study the relationships between human activities and various constraints in space-time context. It provides a framework for investigating spatial interaction in space and time with time constraints and assumes that an individuals activities are limited by various constraints. Time geography addresses the question of how participating in activity at a given place and time affects abilities to participate in activities at other places and times (Miller, 2005; Kwan, 2004). Transport and information and communication technologies facilitate activity participation by improving the efficiency of trading time for space in interaction. Janelle & Gillespie, (2004) refer to this process as space-time-adjusting processes. As Yu & Shaw, (2007) put it, Hagerstrand and his colleagues argue that time should not be considered only as an external factor when we examine human activities. Time, as essential as space, should be included explicitly in the process of examining human interaction. Treating time as a term equal to space, the framework adopts a three-dimensional orthogonal coordinate system, with time as the third dimension added to a two-dimensional spatial plane. The space dimension is used to measure locational changes of objects, while the time dimension is used to order the sequence of events and to synchronise human activities. Hagerstrands (1970) formulation of time-geography had three central principles; viz, that human life is temporally and spatially ordered; that human life has both a physical and social dimension and that the activities constituting human life are limited by certain temporal and spatial constraints that condition various individual and group-based combinations of possible activities. Hagerstrand, (1975a) identified eight fundamental conditions necessary for any precise theoretical research. These conditions are; i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. the indivisibility of the human being the limited length of each human life the limited ability of human beings to take part in more than one task at a time the fact that every task has a duration the fact that movement between points in space consumes time the limited packing capacity of space spatial units of any scale must have a limited outer size the fact that every situation is inevitably rooted in past situations

Time-geography also implies that an individuals activities in space and time are conditioned by three types of constraints; capacity constraints, coupling constraints and
13 | P a g e

authority constraints (Hagerstrand, 1970; Guys, 1998). Capacity constraint limits the activities of the individual through both his own biological make up and also the capacity of the tools he can command. Coupling constraint arise because it is necessary that individuals, tools and materials are bound together at given places and at given time. And authority constraint refers to limitations and control of access. These occur at different levels to produce hierarchies of accessibility. Miller, (1999) identified the constraints-oriented approach, attraction-accessibility measures and benefit measures as three complementary perspectives of measuring accessibility with respect to rigour. As he puts it, while a constraints-oriented approach treats each opportunity as equal without distinguishing differences among attractiveness and travel costs, attraction-accessibility and benefit measures generally do not consider temporal constraints or the time available for activity participation at locations. Janelle & Gillespie, (2004) opine that four interrelated time-space concepts; timespace convergence, time-space compression, human extensibility and trackability, are fundamental to understanding the coupling between space-time-adjusting technologies and the processes that eventually shape altered states of regional and community organization. They stated further that these processes permit the restructuring of human interactions at all geographic scales and may subvert the usual constraints imposed by distance, spatial contiguity and temporal continuity. Time-space convergence as Janelle & Gillespie, (2004) put it is the rate at which travel time between places declines in response to transport and communication innovation and investment. Time-space compression on the other hand, implies the accelerating throughput of events in daily individual life. This leads to intensified pace of existence whereby people are able to overcome time-space constraints through technology as information is made available anywhere at any time. The concept of human extensibility describes how individuals and institutions are able to project their presence and ideas beyond their immediate locales using technology. Janelle & Gillespie, (2004) identified two dimensions of the concept of human extensibility. First is the fact that it present both opportunities and threats simultaneously and secondly, it afford the individual the opportunity to maintain a multitude of personal networks almost at will, regardless of their specific location at any point in time. Trackability has enabled the individual to maintain mobility and connectedness with others, coupled with flexibility of activity in time and space. This connectedness is facilitated by such technologies as automobiles, cell phone, personal digital assistance and computers. These tools also provide a means for tracking in details an individuals spatial and temporal interactions. The concepts advanced by Janelle & Gillespie, (2004) have implications in transport analysis and management. They can assist in real-time transport monitoring, control and management. Two entities are crucial in time geography analysis; these are the space-time path and the space-time prism (Miller, 2005). The space-time path traces the movement of an object in space and time. Space-time path tends to convey information about an individuals activity space. Ellegard, (1999) argue that everything done in time-geography, which includes doing nothing, is regarded as an activity. This implies that every point in the space-time path is associated with an activity. More than one activity can equally take place simultaneously (Shaw & Yu, 2008). Kwan & Lee (2003); Kwan, (2004) demonstrate the use of GIS-based geo-visualization methods in the description and analysis of human activity patterns in spacetime. In the process, Kwan, (2004) highlighted recent developments in GIS-based geocomputation and 3-D geo-visualization methods. The space-time path shows the constraints imposed by activities that occur in specific space and time and the need to consume time
14 | P a g e

when moving between activities. Shaw & Yu, (2008) also demonstrated the ability of space spacetime GIS for organizing complex activity and interaction data as spatio-temporal processes in spatio temporal an integrated space-time environment. They presented a time time time-space GIS design, the focus of S which was the representation of individual activities and interactions as spatio spatio-temporal processes in a hybrid physical-virtual space. Their design was based on a set of extended virtual time-geographic concepts aimed at accommodating human activities through information geographic communication technologies.

Figure 3: Space-time path and space-time prism. (Adopted from Yu, 2006) time

Space-time prism measures the ability to reach locations in space and time given the time location and duration of fixed activities. Space time prism has also been described as the Space-time orthogonal space-time coordinate system formed by the possible locations that an individual time can travel within a given time frame. When it is projected onto a two-dimensional space, the two dimensional result is a potential path area (Yu, 2006; Miller, 2005a) Space-time stations are locations containing resources required for activities such as time eating, shopping, sleeping, work, etc. if the path is vertical, the person is conducting a stationary activity. The person is moving among stations, if the path is not vertical. A relatively shallow slope indicates that less time is required per unit space when moving. This implies a more efficient transportation system, which is the goal of most societies. 4.2 Spatial interaction Model action

Spatial interaction models are useful in predicting spatial choices reflected in flows of passengers, freight or information between an origin and a destination. These models are expressed as transport demand/supply relationships over a geographical space. Spatial geographical interaction covers a wide variety of movements such as journey to work, migrations, the market areas of retailing activities, international trade and freight distribution. The assumption of spatial interaction models is that flows are functions of the are attributes of the locations of origins, the attributes of the locations of destination and the friction of distance between the concenred origins and destinations. The general formular of the spatial interaction model is;

Where: Tij is interaction between location i (origin) and location j(destination). Its units of measurement are varied and can involve people, tons of freight, traffic volume, etc. it also has to do with time periods e.g. weekly, monthly or yearly.

15 | P a g e

Vi is attributes of the location of origin i. variables often used to express these attributes are socio-economic in nature e.g population, number of jobs available, industrial output or gross demestic product. Wj is attributes of the location of destination j. it also uses soco-economic units of measurement. Sij is attributes of seperation between the location of origin i and the location of destination j. this is also known as friction of distance. Distance, transport costs or travel time are variables often used in expressing these attributes. 4.2.1 Gravity and Entropy Maximization Gravity model, based on Newtons theory of gravity, was one of the first attempts at addressing movements and flows across space. It computes the number of trips between origin i and destination j (Tij) as a simple function of the sizes of the origin and destination (Pi and Pj), and the distance between them (dij) using a scaling factor k.

This formulation then gave way to a more general one that recognizes that the relationships embedded in the equation above may vary across trips and within the socioeconomic attributes of zones. Though the gravity model has been described as providing reasonably accurate estimates of spatial flows, it does not possess any theoretical background in individual travel behaviour. Entropy maximization models represent improvement over the gravity model. These set of models developed by Wilson (1974) resulted in a family of spatial interaction models such as the production-constraint model, attraction-constraint model and the doublyconstraint model. The models identify constrainst at the origin and destination zones giving rise to such concepts as origin constraints models and destination constrained models. They are referred to as single constrained models. Ayeni, (2000) notes that it is possible to derive other models by accounting for additional constraints. Entropy maximization model derives its name from the concept of entropy in thermodynamics or statistical physics and maximizes a function that is similar to the entropy function in physics. It also owes its current formulation to information theory which is an off shoot of the broad area of communications engineering. 4.2.2 Urban Transport Models The transport problem is prevalent in urban areas, particularly in developing countries. Traffic congestion, inadequate and often, poorly maintained vehicles and roads are some ways this problem manifest in cities. Miller, et al, (1999) categorised causes of traffic congestion into immediate and long-term structural causes. They noted that immediate causes of urban traffic congestion include; rapid population and job growth in metropolitan areas, more intensive use of automobiles, failure to build new roads and failure to make drivers bear the full cost of driving. While long-term structural causes include a desire for low-density neighbourhoods, firms preference for low-density workplaces and travellers desire for private vehicles. Transportation networks, as Fisher (2003) noted, are flow networks. They are characteristed by their topology and flow attributes e.g. capacity constraints, path choice and
16 | P a g e

link cost functions. These networks, as Bell & Lida, (1997) state represent the movement of people, vehicles or goods. Transportation network models have therefore been described as special types of network problems (Imam, Elsharawy, Gomah, & Samy, 2009). Fisher,(2003) states that data modelling involves three levels of abstration; conceptual, logical and physical levels. Transport networks have been widely modelled in the literature, many of which focuses on transport demand modelling. Gentile & Vigo, (2007) note that in the case of freight shipment in urban areas, demand generators are the destinations e.g. shops, warehouses, etc while for passenger transport, the generators are the origins of the trips. Wang & Cheng (2001) developed a spatio-temporal data model to support activity-based transport demand modelling in a GIS environment. Kim & Chon, (2005) used the binary logit model in modelling drivers route diversion behaviour and real-time traffic data. They observed that drivers prefer shorter routes in terms of travel time when considering diversion. Their result also show that on-site information has significant influence on route diversion behaviour, though non-site information from the media also affect driversdecisions. Crocco, et al, (2010) employed an integrated approach in modelling freight and passengers demand for transportation services. They argue that by using an integrated approach, aggregate movement could be minimized as goods and passengers travel using the same vehicle. This, they believe will reduce external costs of mobility (pollution, congetsion, and other negative externalities). Puckett, (2009), highlights developments in the network modelling and empirical freight travel behaviour applications. He noted that in other to improve our understanding of the determinants of freight travel behaviour, there is need to employ a range of tools and approaches since most aspects of these problems are inter-related in nature. Puckett, (2009) advocates an expansion of both scale and scope of freight travel behaviour research that is centered on policy impacts. The influence of landuse on transport demand in urban areas is also evident in the literature (Hunt & Simmonds, 1993; Sivakumar, 2007; Wilson, 1998). This has been highlighted by Sivakumar, (2007) and Wegener, (2004) who posit that spatial development determines the need for spatial interaction, or transport, but transport, by the accessibility it provides, also determines spatial development. Wegener, (2004) states further, however, that it is difficult to empirically isolate impacts of landuse on transport or vice versa as a result of other factors that equally changes simultaneously. The importance of the relationship that exists between landuse and transportation led to the development of a series of models that are collectively refered to as transport/landuse models (TLUM) or landuse-transport models (LU-T models). These models have, however been criticised on the basis of a number of shortcomings e.g. excessive spatial aggregation, excessive reliance on static equilibrium assumptions among others. 5.0 Research Gaps

The rapid evolution of information and communication technology and its impact on business and social life cannot be overemphasised. ICT has revolutionised how businesses are conducted as well as how people in society relate with one another. This impact is felt in all spheres of human endeavour, transportation therefore, cannot be an exception. Database is a critical consideration in the design and implementation of SDSS (Armstrong & Densham, 1990). Similarly, the capture, modelling, maintenance and querying of location information form a critical aspect of LBSs. The quality of the spatial data
17 | P a g e

employed in any spatial analysis will determine how good the results obtained from such analysis will turn out to be. The data related to the location therefore, need to be capture in a manner that enhances the efficiency of service provisioning and management. A number of issues are inherent in the design of database for the purpose of location-based services. Some of the more apparent issues in LBS literature include irregular dimension hierarchy, imprecise location data, and partial containment between dimension values, among many others. The database forms the foundation in LBS and SDSS applications, appropriate data model must therefore be selected for application design objectives to be achieved. Apart from Jensen, et al, (2001) and Jensen, et al, (2004) very little research has been conducted in the area of database design and implementation as it relates to location-based services. It is therefore important to further investigation database design issues related to SDSS and LBS applications The application of ICTs in transportation analysis and management is data-driven. This may usually, require importing data from various sources for the creation of spatial databases. There is no empirical evidence in the literature to show that attempts have been made to focus on conducting research on specific methodologies for acquiring data relevant for transport analysis in developing countries in general and Nigeria in particular. The need for standard databases for managing transportation related issues cannot be over emphasized. There is need, therefore to consider investigating spatial database design that is able to specifically address transport management and modelling issues in developing countries. Increasing urban traffic congestion has resulted in the need for vehicle routing in urban environment. The vehicle routing problems are usually addressed using travel and service times. Most of these models presented in the literature are static models assume predefined travel and service times. These travel and services times are usually derived from shortest path analysis on road networks with known values on each link in the network (Giaglis, et al, 2004). Such assumptions are usually not realistic in urban areas where traffic conditions are constantly changing during the day (Fleischmann, Gnutzmann, & Sandvob, 2004). Technology can, however, be employed in ameliorating urban transport problem by assisting business managers to predict areas liable to congestion at various periods of the day and suggest alternative routes and hence improve supply chain and logistic management while enhancing customer satisfaction. The goal of supply chain management is to strategically manage the process of acquisition, movement and storage of materials, parts and finished inventory through the organisation and its marketing channels in ways that current and future profit is maximized through cost-efficient fulfilment of orders. The goal of an efficient supply chain management strategy may not simple be to maximise profit, but in the process, minimise average delivery and/or pick up time. It is therefore important to investigate how ICT can assist in managing transport related issues in the urban environment. As Sivakumar, (2007) noted, most of the transport demand models today treat freight in an aggregate and ad-hoc manner. Therefore, only few studies have been conducted that attempt to development behaviourally realistic model systems of freight demand that can be integrated into landuse-transport models. This is as a result of inadequate awareness of the importance of freight transportation, lack of appropriate data for modelling and complexity of freight movements into, out of and within cities. More research is therefore required on the behavioural aspects of freight transportation modelling. Yu, (2006) states that human activities and spatial interaction largely takes place in some physical space, with the physical presence or contact of the participants involved.
18 | P a g e

Today, however, with development in information and communication technologies, there are significant changes in the way human interactions take place. Much of the interaction today takes place in what has been referred to as virtual space (Adams, 1995; Miller, 2005; Shaw & Yu, 2008; Yu, 2006;). The implications of virtual interaction pattern of individuals and groups on travel and route choice behaviour will definitely provide an interesting insight into our understanding of travel demand. Though some work has been done on the use of information communication technology in transportation analysis (Crainic, Gendreau, & Potvin, 2008; Powell, Bouzaiene-Ayari & Simao, 2007; Wisetjindawat, et al, 2006), none has been reported that specifically applied an integration of SDSS and LBS in addressing freight management issues. It will be necessary to investigate how an integration of these technologies can assist decision makers and field officials in making critical choices, particularly in situations where time is a major constraint. 6.0 Conclusion

SDSS and LBS are ICT applications that are useful in addressing a number of spatial problems. While SDSS are designed to assist decision-makers in addressing spatial problems that are usually unstructured and have conflicting, incommensurate and multiple objective criteria, LBS are services provided to mobile users taking into cognisance their present location in space. An integration of these two technologies, therefore, will be useful in addressing spatial problems that are of particular interest to the modern nomadic man as it librates him from the constraint imposed by physical space by enabling him work and play in virtual space. This paper has therefore attempted to show, through a survey of literature, the possibility for this type of system in applying SDSS and LBS in systems to address challenges encountered by transport operators.
Bibliography Adams, P. (1995). A reconsideration of personal boundaries in space-time. Annals of the Association of American Geographers , 85 (2), 267-285. Akomolafe, D., Adekayode, F., Gbadeyan, J., & Ibiyemi, T. (2009). Enhancing road monitoring and safety through the use of geospatial technology. International Journal of Physical Sciences , 4 (5), 343-348. Aloudat, A., Michael, K., & Yan, J. (2007). Location-Based Services in Emergency management- from government to citizens: global case studies. Retrieved April 12, 2011, from University of Wollongong Research online: http//:ro.uow.edu.au/infopapers/562 Antony, R. (1965). Planning and Control Systems: A framework for analysis. Boston: Havard University Graduate School of Business Administration . Arampatzis, G., Kiranoudis, C., Scaloubacas, P., & Assimacopoulos, D. (2004). A GIS-based decision support system for planning urban transportation policies. European Journal of Operational Research , 152, 465475. Armstrong, M., & Densham, P. (1990). Database organization strategies for spatial decision support systems. INT. J. GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS, , 4 (1), 3-20. Bauer, H., Reichardt, T., & Schle, A. (2005). USER REQUIREMENTS FOR LOCATION BASED SERVICES. IADIS International Conference e-Commerce 2005 (pp. 211-218). IADIS.

19 | P a g e

Becker, C., & Durr, F. (2005). On the location models for ubiquitous computing. Pers Ubiquit Comput , 9, 2031. Bell, M., & Lida, Y. (1997). Transportation Network Analysis. Chichester: John Wiley. Berger, S., Lehmann, H., & Lehner, F. (2003). Location-based services in the tourist industry. Information technology & Tourism , 5, 243-256. Borzacchiello, M., Casas, I., Ciuffo, B., & Nijkamp, P. (2008). Geo-ICT in Transportation Science. Retrieved March 13, 2011, from ftp://zappa.ubvu.vu.nl/20080001.pdf Church, R., Murray, A., Figueroa, M., & Barber, K. (2000). Support system development for forest ecosystem management. European Journal of Operational Research , 247-258. Crainic, T., Gendreau, M., & Potvin, J.-Y. (2008). Intelligent Freight Transportation Systems: Assessment and the Contribution of Operations Research. Department of Computer Science and Operations Research, Universite de Montreal,. Montreal, Canada: CIRRELT. Crocco, F., de Marco, S., Iaquinta, P., & Mongelli, W. (2010). Freight transport in urban areas: an integrated system of models to stimulate freight demand and passengers demand for purchase trips. International Journal of Mathematical models and methods in applied csiences , 4 (4), 265-273. Datta, S. (2000). Applications of Operation Research to the transportation Problems in Developing Countries: A Review. Global business Review , 1 (1), 113-132. Densham, P. (1991). Spatial Decision Support Systems. In J. Maguire, M. Goodchild, & D. Rhind (Eds.), Geographical Information Systems: Principles and Applications. London: longman Publishing Group. Ellegard, K. (1999). A time-geographical approach to the study of everyday life of individuals- A challenege of complexity. GeoJournal , 48, 167-175. Elsevier Science Ltd. (2000). Geographic Information Systems in Transportation Research (1st ed., Vol. 1 & 2). (J. Thill, Ed.) Oxford, UK: Elsevier Science Ltd. Engelen, G., & White, R. a. (1997). Integrating constrained cellular automata models, GIS and decision support tools for urban planning and policy making. In H. Timmermans, Decision Support Systems in Urban Planning. Chapman and Hall. Eom, S., Lee, S., Kim, E., & Somarajan, C. (1998). A Survey of decision support system applications (19881994. Journal of Operational Research Society , 49, 109-120. Erharuyi, N., & Fairbairn, D. (2003). Mobile geographic information handling technologies to support disaster management. Geography , 88 (4), 312-319. Fadare, S., & Ayantoyinbo, B. (2010). A study of the effects of road traffic congestion on freight movement in Lagos metropolis. European Journal of Social Sciences , 16 (3), 420-429. Fisher, M. M. (2003). GIS and Network Analysis. (Hensher D., Button K., H. K., & S. P., Eds.) Pergamon. Fleischmann, B., Gnutzmann, S., & Sandvob, E. (2004). Dynamic vehicle routing based on on-line traffic information. Transportation Science , 38 (4), 420-433. Frank, C., Thill, J.-C., & Batta, R. (2000). Spatial decision support system for hazadous material truck routing. Transportation Research Part C , 8, 337-359. Gentile, G., & Vigo, D. (2007). Movement generation and trip distribution for freight demand modelling applied to city logistic. Roma: Universita di Bologna, Italy.

20 | P a g e

Giaglis, G. M., Kourouthanassis, P., & Tsamakos, A. (2003). Towards a Classification Framework for Mobile Location Services. In B. E. Mennecke, & T. J. Strader (Eds.), Mobile Commerce (pp. 67-85). Hershey. Giaglis, G. M., Minis, I., Tatarakis, A., & Zeimpekis, V. (2004). Minimizing Logistics Risk through Real-Time Vehicle Routing and Mobile Technologies: Research To-Date and Future Trends. International Journal of Physical Distribution and Logistics Management , 34 (9), 749-764. Goodchild, M. (1992). Geographic Information Science. International Journal of Geographic Information Systems , 6, 31-45. Goodchild, M. (2000). GIS and Transportation: Status and Challenges. Geoinformatica , 4, 127-139. Gorry, G., & Scott Morton, M. (1971). A framework for management information systems. Sloan Management Review , 13 (1). Guy, M. (1998). Methods and Techniques in Human geography. England: Wiley and Sons Ltd. Hagerstrand, T. (1975a). Space, time and human conditions. In A. Karlquist, L. Lundquist, & F. Snickars (Eds.), Dynamic allocation of urban space (pp. 3-12). D.C. Heath: Farnborough: Saxon House/Lexington. Hagerstrand, T. (1970). What about people in regional Science? Papers of the Regional Science Association , pp. 7-21. Hunt, J., & Simmonds, D. (1993). Theory and application of an integrated land-use and transport modelling framework. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design , 20 (2), 221 244. Ichoua, S., Gendreau, M., & Potvin, J.-Y. (2007). Planned route optimization for real-time vehicle routing. In V. Zeimpekis, C. Tarantilis, G. Giaglis, & I. Minis (Eds.), Dynamic Fleet Management: Concepts, Systems, Algorithms & Case Studies (pp. 1-18). Springer. Imam, T., Elsharawy, G., Gomah, M., & Samy, I. (2009). Solving Transportation Problem Using ObjectOriented Model. International Journal of Computer Science and Network Security , 9 (2), 353-361. ITU. (2010). Press Release February 23rd, 2010. Geneva. Retrieved September 24, 2010, from International Telecommunication Union: http://www.itu.int/newsroom/press_releases/2010/08.html Jacobsen, H.-A. (2004). Middleware for Location-Based Services. In J. Schiller, & A. Voisard, Location-based Services (pp. 95-127). Morgan Kaufmann Publishers. Janelle, D., & Gillespie, A. (2004). Space-Time Constructs for Linking Information and Communication Technologies with Issues in Sustainable Transportation. Transport Reviews , 24 (6), 665-677. Jensen, C., Friis-Christensen, A., Pedersen, T., Pfoser, D., Saltenis, S., & Tryfona, N. (2001). Location-Based ServicesA Database Perspective. Proc. of the Eighth Scandinavian Research Conference on Geographical Information Science, (pp. 59-68). Jensen, C., Kligys, A., Pedersen, B., & Timko, I. (2004). Multidimensional data modeling for location-based services. The VLDB Journal , 13 (1), 1-21. Johnson, C. (1998). Proceedings of the 1st Workshop on Human Computer interaction with Mobile Devices. In C. Johnson (Ed.), GIST technical report. University of Glasgow. Kaasinen, E. (2003). User needs for location-aware mobile services. Perspective in Ubiquitous Computing , 7, 70-79. Kai, H. (2005). Developing a GIS-based Decision Support System for Transportation System Planning. Paper submitted to AASHTO GIS-T 2006 Student Paper Contest.

21 | P a g e

Keenan, P. (1996). Using a GIS as a DSS generator. In J. Darzentas, J. S. Darzentas, & T. Spyrou (Eds.), Perspectives on DSS (pp. 33-40). Aegean, Greece.: University of the Aegean, Greece. Kim, H., & Chon, K. (2005). Modelling en-route diversion behaviour under on-site traffic information. Journal of the Eastern Asia Society for transportation Studies , 6, 1833-1843. Kim, J. (2002). Location-Based services (LBS): An emerging innovative Transport Service Technology and a research agenda. Annual meetings of European regional Science Association. Dortmund. Koeppel, I. (2000). What are Location Services? From a GIS perspective. Retrieved June 17, 2010, from digitalearth web site : http://www.digitalearth.net.cn/GISFundamentalIssues/LBSLocation%20Besed%20Service/What%20are%20Location%20Services%20%20From%20a%20GIS%20Perspe ctive Kupper, A. (2005). Location-based services: Fundamentals and Operation. London: John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Kwan, M.-P. (2004). GIS Methods in Time-Geographic Research: Geocomputation and Geovisualization of Human Activity Patterns. Geografiska Annaler , 86 B (4), 267-280. Kwan, M.-P., & Lee, J. (2003). Geovisualisation of human activity patterns using 3D GIS: A time-geographic approach. In M. Goodchild, & D. Janelle (Eds.), Spatially Integrated Social Science: Examples in Best Practice. Oxford University Press. Larsen, A., Madsen, O. B., & Solomon, M. (2007). Classification of dynamic vehicle routing systems. In V. Zeimpekis, C. Tarantislis, G. Giaglis, & I. Minis (Eds.), Dynamic Fleet management (pp. 17-40). Springer. Leung, H., Burcea, I., & Jaconsen, H.-A. (2003). Modelling Location-based Services with Subject Spaces. Retrieved May 6, 2011, from http://www. Liutkauskas, V., Matulis, D., & Plestys, R. (2004). Location Based Services. Elektronika IR elektrotechnika , 3 (52). Magon, A., & Shukla, R. (2001). LBS, the Ingredients and the Alternatives. Retrieved December 23, 2010, from gisdevelopment.net: http://www.gisdevelopment.net/technology/lbs/techlbs006.htm Malczewski, J. (2006). GIS-Based multicriteria decision analysis: a survey of the literature. International Journal of Geographical Information Science , 20 (7), 703-726. Mallick, M. (2003). Mobile and Wireless Design Essentials. Indianapolis, IN: Wiley Inc. Miller, H. (1999). Measuring Space-time Accessibility Benefits within Transportation Networks: Basic Theory and Computational Procedures. Geographical Analysis , 31, 187-212. Miller, H. (2005). Necessary space-time conditions for human interaction. Environment and planning B: Planning and design , 32, 381-401. Miller, H., Yi-Hwa, W., & Ming-chih, H. (1999). GIS-Based dynamic traffic congestion modelling to support time-critical logistics. Proceedings of the Hawai internation conference on system science. Maui, Hawai: IEEE. Nagarajan, A., Canessa, E., Nowak, M., Mitchell, W., & White III, C. (2005). Technology in Trucking. In C. W. Dale Belman (Ed.), Trucking in the age of information (pp. 147-182). Ashgate Publishing Ltd. Burlington VT. Novaes, A., Burin, P., & Frazzon, E. (2011). Dynamic Vehicle Routing in over congested urban areas. In H.-J. Kreowski, B. Scholz-Reiter, & K.-D. Thoben (Ed.), 2nd international conference, LDIC 2009 (pp. 49-58). Bremen, Germany: Springer Verlag. Ogunsanya, A. (2002). Maker and Breaker of Cities. 59th Inuagural Lecture, University of Ilorin, Nigeria.

22 | P a g e

Okoko, E. (2008). The spatial pattern of urban goods movement in Akure, Nigeria. Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences , 5 (3), 226-234. Open Geospatial Consortium. (2005). Open Location Services 1.1. Powell, W., Bouzaiene-Ayari, B., & Simao, H. (2007). Dynamic Models for freight transportation. In C. Barnhart, & G. Laporte (Eds.), Transportation, Handbooks of Operations Research and Management science (Vol. 14, pp. 285-365). Amsterdam, Holland. Puckett, S. (2009). Improving our understanding of frieght travel decision making: motivations, constraints, incentives and interactions. International association for travel behavior research. Jaipur, India. Raper, J., Gartner, G., Karimi, H., & Rizos, C. (2007). Applications of Location-based services: a selected review. Journal of Location Based services , 1 (2), 89-111. Raubal, M., & Rinner, C. (2004). Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis for Location based Services. Geoinformatics 2004. University of Gavle, Sweden. Reichenbacher, T. (2005). Adaptive egocentric maps for mobile users. In L. Meng, A. Zipf, & T. Reichenbacher (Eds.), Map-Based Mobile Services: Theories, Methods and Implementations (pp. 141-158). Rinner, C. (2008). Mobile maps and More-extending Location-Based Services with multi-criteria decision analysis. In L. Meng, A. Zipf, & S. Winter (Eds.), Map-based mobile Services. Lecture notes in Geoinformation and Cartography (pp. 335-349). Berlin: Springer. Rinner, C. (2003). Web-based Spatial Decision Support: Status and Research Direction. Journal of Geographic Information and Decision Analysis , 7 (1), 14-31. Rinner, C., Raubal, M., & Spigel, B. (2005). User Interface Design for Location Based Services. International Conference on GeoInformatics. Toronto, Canada. Rodrigue, J.-P., Comtois, C., & Slack, B. (2009). The Geography of Transport Systems, Second Edition. New York: Routledge. Roongrasamee, B., Vatcharanporn, E., & Nitin, K. (2003). A Model of Location Based Services for Crime Control. Retrieved October 12, 2010, from Map Asia Conference: www.gisdevelopment.net/technology/lbs/ma03217pf.htm Rutledge, D., McDonald, G., Cameron, M., McBride, G., Poot, J., Scrimgeour, F., et al. (2007). Development of Spatial Decision Support Systems to Support Long-term, Integrated Planning. In L. a. Oxley (Ed.), MODSIM 2007 International Congress on Modelling and Simulation (pp. 308-314). Modelling and Simulation Society of Australia and New Zealand. Sarkar, A. (2007). GIS Applications in Logistics: A Literature Review. School of Business, University of Redlands. Shaw, S., & Yu, H. (2008). A GIS-based Time-Geography Framework for Spatio-Temporal Analysis of Individual Activities and Interactions. Third International Specialist Meeting on ICT, Everyday Life and Urban Change. Bristol, U.K. Shen, W., & Khoong, C. (1995). A DSS for empty container distribution planning. Decision Support Systems , 15, 75-82. Shiode, N., Li, C., Batty, M., Longley, P., & Maguire, D. (2004). The Impact and Penetration of Location-based Services. In H. Karimi, & A. Hammad (Eds.), Telegeoinformatics: Location-Based Computing and Services (pp. 349-366).

23 | P a g e

Simon, H. (1960). The Science of Management Decision. New York: Harper Brothers. Sivakumar, A. (2007). Modelling Transport: A synthesis of Transport Modelling Methodologies. Retrieved July 13, 2011, from imperial college.ac.uk: www3.imperial.ac.ik/pls/portallive/docs/1/50669701.pdf Somuyiwa, A. (2010). Impact of freight flows on city logistics in a megacity of a developing economy. Journal of Geography and Regional Planning , 3 (2), 29-34. Somuyiwa, A., & Adewoye, J. (2010). Managing logistics information system: Theoretical underpinning. Asian Journal of Business Management , 2 (2), 41-47. Somuyiwa, O., & Dosunmu, A. (2008). Logistic infrastructure and port Development at Apapa Port, Nigeria. Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences , 5 (9), 953-959. Southworth, F., & Peterson, B. (2000). Intermodal and international freight network modelling. (J. Thill, Ed.) Transportation Research part C , 8, 147-166. Spiekermann. (2004). General aspects of location based services. In J. Schiller, & A. Voisard (Eds.), LocationBased Services. Morgan Kaufmann Publishers. Sprague, R. (1980). A framework for the development of Decision Support Systems. MIS Quarterly , 1-26. Spring, G. (2004). Application of GIS in Transportation. In M. Kutz (Ed.), Handbook of Transportation Engineering. New York: McCraw-Hill. Steiniger, S., Neun, M., & Edwardes, A. (2006). Foundations of Location Based Services. Department of Geography. University of Zurich, Switzerland. Townsend, A. (2007). Seoul: Birth of a broadband metropolis. Environment and Planning B: Plannimg and design , 34, 396-413. Virrantaus, K., Markkulas, J., Garmash, A., & Terziyan, Y. (2001). Developing GIS supported Location-based services. Proc. of WGIS 2001- first int. workshop on Web geographical information systems, (pp. 423-432). Tokyo, Japan. Virrantaus, K., Tirri, H., Veijalainen, J., Markkulas, J., Katanosov, A., Garmash, A., et al. (2001). Developing GIS-supported Location-based services. 2nd International conference on Web Information Systems Engineering (WISE'01), (pp. 66-75). Warf, B. (2006). Geography of Telecommunication. In B. Warf, Encyclopaedia of Human Geography. Sage Publishers Inc. Wegener, M. (2004). Overview of landuse transport models. In D. Hensher, & K. Button (Eds.), Transport Geography and Spatial Systems: Handbook 5 of the Handbook in Transport (pp. 127-146). Kidlington, UK: Pergamon. Wilson, A. (1998). Landuse/Transport interaction models: past and future. Journal of transport economics and policy , 32 (1), 3-26. Wilson, A. (1974). Urban and Regional Models in Geography and Planning. Chichester, Sussex: John Wiley. Wisetjindawat, W., Sano, K., Matsumoto, S., & Raothanachonkun, P. (2006). Micro-Simulation model for freight agents interactions in urban freight movement. 86th Annual Meeting of the Transportation research Board. Washington, D.c. Worrall, L. (1991). Spatial analysis and spatial policy using geographic information systems. New York: Belhaven Press.

24 | P a g e

Yi-Hwa, W., Harvey, J., & Ming-chih, H. (2001). A GIS-Based decision support system for analysis of route choice in congested urban road networks. Journal of Geographical systems , 1-30. You, J., & Kim, T. (2000). Development and evaluation of a hybrid travel time forecasting model. In J.-C. Thill (Ed.), Geographic Information Systems in Transportation Research (Vol. 8, pp. 231-256). Oxford, U.K.: Elsevier Science Ltd. Yu, H. (2006). Spatio-Temporal GIS design for exploring interactions of human activities. Cartography & Geographic Information Science , 33 (1), 3-19. Yu, H., & Shaw, S. (2007). Revisiting Hagerstrands's time-geographic framework for individual activities in the age of instant access. In H.J.Miller (Ed.). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer Science.

25 | P a g e