Engineering Geology, 32 (1992) 81-100

Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam

81

Landslide hazard mapping based on geological attributes

A.K. Pachauri and Manoj Pant* Department of Earth Sciences, University of Roorkee, Roorkee 247667, India (Received November 22, 1990; revised version accepted July 4, 1991)

ABSTRACT Pachauri, A.K. and Pant, M., 1992. Landslide hazard mapping based on geological attributes. Eng. Geol., 32: 81-100. A landslide susceptibility zoning technique is proposed and has been tested in a catchment area of 317 km 2 along the Aglar River, a tributary of the River Yamuna in the Himalayas. The Aglar catchment is characterised by varied rock types, mostly sedimentary, an active fault, landslides, moderate to intense seismic activity and moderate human influence. Very little is known about this terrain except for one previous study. This study focusses on the relationship between the terrain parameters and landslide hazard mapping. A landslide susceptibility map is presented which can serve as first generation map on which subsequent detailed information can be incorported. It is the first map of this kind from the Himalayas based on quantitative evaluation of geomorphological and geological parameters on a classified terrain database map. The study is in two stages: first, the terrain has been classified into several homogeneous patterns, followed by small physiographic units which are uniform in their characteristics throughout. Second, each unit acquires a score, from a rating system based on the degree of mutual relationship between landslides and geological attributes such as slope, distance from fault, relief, dip-slope relationship, etc.; each of which has been given weighting according to the strength of this relationship. The aim is to frame a practical database system rationally, which can be imported into a Geographical Information System for rapid digital handling of the data. A positive relationship, established between landslide and sediment yield, indicates that long term sediment production in the catchment area comes from the ongoing geological and geomorphological activity. The work may have applications in various parts of the Himalayas, especially the ungauged and unknown catchments falling in similar geological areas and latitudes.

Introduction

When planning a new development there can be several objectives. For example, promotion of accessibility to homes and other urban facilities; efficient use of resources; zoning of activities into those with compatible landuse, and ensuring that the development is pleasant (Keeble, 1964). It is difficult to achieve these objectives without considering the factor of the physical condition of the ground or, in other words, geological and geotechnical factors. To fulfill these, objectives, attempts have been made in developed countries towards classification of terrain systems and preparation of engineering geology and hazard maps (Carrara
*Presently at the Civil Engineering Department, I.I.T., Delhi, India. 0013-7952/92/$05.00

and Meranda, 1976; Hearn and Fulton, 1987) on the basis of a combination of geological, geomorphological and biological factors in order to make the ground data available for planners at scales of 1:63,360 and 1:50,000 (Watters, 1958; Savigear, 1965; Brunsden and Jones, 1972; Grant and Finlayson, 1978; Matula, 1979; Zimmermann et al., 1986; Fooke, 1987 and Fort, 1987). In addition, Verstappen (1989), Nossin (1989) and others have recommended the use of aerospace surveys for monitoring the global changes and natural hazard surveys. Some good examples of these studies are presented from the Vineto region of Italy, by Spagna and Schiavon (1989), and Nepal, by French (Fort, 1987) and Swiss workers (Ives and Messerli, 1981; Zimmermann et al., 1986). In India studies on terrain classification (Pachauri, 1970; Chansarkar, 1982; Pachauri and Krishna, 1984) and

1992 - - Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. All rights reserved.

~2

,~,K PA('HAIrRI AND M P.,\NI

qualitative landhazard classification have been attempted (Pachauri and Litoria, 1986; Pant, 1988; Joshi and Gupta, 1989). Some aspects of the relationship of landslides with geomorphology (Kalvoda, 1972) and erosion (Bartarya and Valdiya, 1989) have also been studied. However, a systematic approach to landslide hazard mapping using terrain classification as a potential data base is lacking. The purpose of this study is to propose a systematic approach to landslide hazard mapping and present a quantitative method for the preparation of first generation maps based on a weighted rating system of classified terrain units by analysing the possible relationship between geological and geomorphological parameters with landslides and using them in the rating system. A map showing landslide susceptibility zones is prepared by using, what Hensen has called the "direct and indirect mapping method" (Hensen, 1984). Such maps can be made available for planners and engineers, for whom they may serve as basic data maps from which subsequent interpretations can be made. A stepwise methodology is followed, starting with the preparation of a terrain classification base map, followed by the superimposition of data layers of various attributes. This has brought out the inter-relationship amongst the attributes used and certain unique maps have been prepared.

An area along the Aglar river catchment located in the Lesser Himalayan zone of Kumaon-Garhwal (Fig. l) was chosen for this study. The area lies between the latitudes 30c~27' to 3035' and longitudes 77c'58' to 78'16' in the Dehra Dun District, of the Uttar Pradesh Himalayas.
Geological characteristics o f the c a t c h m e n t

The catchment area of the Aglar River falls on the northern limb of Mussoorie syncline (Auden, 1934) in the Foreland Thrust belt of the Garhwal Himalayas. It is comprised of the following Group of rocks (Fig.2): Tal Formation: Tal Quartzites Krol Group: limestones, Quartzites, shales Blaini Formation: boulder beds and limestones Jaunsar Group: Nagthat Quartzites, Chadpur Phyllites and Shales The axis of this syncline trends NNW-SSE. A major dislocation - - the Main Boundary Fault (MBF) - - lies to the south of the catchment and follows the same trend. A fault named the Aglar fault marks the contact between quartzites and the shales of the two divisions of the Jaunsar Group, the Nagthat Quartzites and the Chandpur Shales. The river Aglar flows along this fault, hence the name. The detailed geology was worked out earlier
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Fig.l. Location of the study area and the four broad subdivisions of the Himalayas. The area of the Aglar catchment falls in the Lesser Garhwal Himalaya ( K u m a o n subdivision o f Gansser, 1964). The area is just north of the Main Boundary Fault (MBF) (modified after Gansser, 1964).

LANDSLIDE HAZARD MAPPING

83

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LEGEND
TA L ",'~'I K R O L BLAINI CIUARTZITES LIMESTONE Cambrian

BOULDER SLATES Precembrien NAGTHAT GLUARTZITE. =

i"~/' FAULT/THRUST FOLD AXIS

,)I ATTITUDE STREAM

CHANDPUR PHYLLITES

('" ".~

CATCHMENT BOUNDARY

Fig.2. Geological map of the area. Note the Aglar fault at the boundary of the Nagthat along the Aglar River, hence the name. The Mussoorie syncline is clearly visible. The southern limit of the catchment area is marked by the dashed line joining Mussoorie to Dhanaulti. The fault just south of Nag Tibba, the highest point (>3000 m) is also at the contact of Nagthat and Chandpur formations. This is referred to as the Deolsari lineament in the text. All rocks are now assigned a Precambrian age except the Tals (Cambrian) (Joshi et al., 1989; Sharma et al., 1990).

by Auden (1934), Pachauri (1972) and Rupke and Sharma (1974). Based on new data, the ages have now been revised (Joshi et al., 1989; Sharma et al., 1990). The Chandpur Formation constitutes a large part of the northern tract of the catchment, marking the hillocks which are rounded in shape, especially near Nag Tibba, the highest point (> 3000 m) in the area. The shales and slates of the Chandpur Formation, in the Jaunsar Group, are friable and weak as these have several planes of fissility due to the presence of phyllosilicates. The Nagthat Quartzites are massive but jointed. Occasionally these are interbedded with shales and phyllites, varying in thickness from 0.5 to 1 m, which are highly sheared and fractured and are the more incompetent layers within the quartzites. The inversion of graded beddings at Thatura along the river

Aglar indicates the occurrence of tight folding prior to movement of the Aglar fault. The Blaini formation is represented by bouldery slates and limestones mostly exposed on the southern side of the catchment. The limestones of the Krol Group show typical karst features and several collapse structures have been picked up in aerial photographs. Solution phenomena are very characteristic as caves are present in these rocks. The Tal rocks are locally exposed in a very small portion in the western part and do not have an important role in the overall geology of the area.

Lineament analyses and earthquake history

In order to apprecifite the relationship of lineaments with geological features analyses have been

84
made with the help of standard rose diagrams. It was possible to identify several lineaments on the basis of tonal contrasts, structural alignments, rectilinear trends of morphological features, and linear stream courses conspicuous by their abrupt changes in the courses. They show a varied distribution (Pant, 1988). A total of 276 lineaments have been plotted using Landsat images (1:250,000) over an area of 317 km z (Fig.3). The distribution is controlled by lithology. There are four major trends in the lineaments: (1) L1 (N-S): e.g., Paligad and Belgad lineaments. (2) L2 and L3: These represent fracture traces, e.g., Cheoti fault trace, which has brought Nagthats (Pre-cambrian) in contact with Blaini formation (Permo-Carboniferous). (3) L4: These are E - W lineaments, e.g., Aglar and Deolsari lineaments.

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(a)

Many of these lineaments were lbund to follow one of the planes of weakness. It was found that a substantial number of lineaments occur as straight courses of rivers for example, L~ which trends N S and follows the N S trending stream, especially in the northeastern part of the catchment. Quite a few of these lineaments are straight ridges, spurs or hill ranges. Sometimes the displacement along the lineaments is clear, for example, L1 and L 4. Apparently these represent fractures and fault traces. There is a certain lithological control over the distribution and the number of lineaments (Table I) as the Pre-cambrian Nagthat Quartzites show the highest incidence of lineaments. Further, the highest frequency and density of lineaments is in the Nagthat Formation, which is made up of quartzites with associated phyllite. This high frequency is probably related to their brittle nature and the occurrence of too m a n y bands of shales or phyllites which act as highly incompetent layers, being friable and fractured. Field evidence also proves the profuseness of joints in these quartzites. Two sets of data sources were used for lineaments: aerial photographs and the Landsat images. Out of the two it was found that aerial photographs are better suited for detailed lineaments but some lineaments were clear only on the images. Lineament density has been taken as a response of the rocks to fracturing, which appears to have a relationship to landslide susceptibility. Elsinga and Verstappen (1989) have also used such lineaments for earthquake hazard zoning and have shown that, amongst the various sources of data including the geological maps, the satellite images produced

ta

TABLE I Data on lineaments showing lithological control on the density of lineaments

NO. OF LINEAMENTS I

(b)

LENGTH OF LINEAMENT

sb ~km

Lithological formation Chandpur Nagthat Blaini Krol and Tal

Number 43 135 37 61

Length Frequency Density (km) (per kin) (per km2) 41.2 116 27 45.9 0.68 1.02 0.69 0.91 0.65 0.90 0.50 0.70

Fig.3. (A) Lineament map of the catchment. (B) Azimuth frequency diagram. Lineament L3 is parallel to the Aglar fault. L 1 set of lineaments (almost at 90 to it) follows north-south streams and ridges, as shown in the eastern part of (A).

LANDSLIDE HAZARD MAPPING

85

by SPOT are best suited for lineaments, especially in the softer rocks. An interrelative analysis of the mass movements with the lineaments shows that there appears to be a positive relationship between them. The proximity of several lineaments (especially those which are active, such as the Aglar fault) with the areas of mass movement suggest this possibility. In several parts of the world earthquake damage is correlated with distinct lineaments, for example, in Pescopagano and Calitri villages of the Sele river basin, Italy (Elsinga and Verstappen, 1989). The present area falls in zone IV of the seismic map of India. It was affected by the major earthquake of 4th April, 1905 (Middlemiss, 1910; Auden, 1942) as shown in Fig.4 (from Seeber and Armsbruster, 1981). This earthquake caused widespread damage to life and property. It damaged the entire town of Kangra in Himachal Pradesh, where many thousand people perished under the rubble of the earthquake. It had its main epicentre at Kangra and a secondary epicentre near Mussoorie, which marks the southern limit of Aglar catchment. These are shown by two circled areas in Fig.lA. This is now interpreted as a single zone of rupture 280 km in strike length and about 80 km wide; thus covering the entire area of the Aglar catchment as well north up to Uttarkashi-Kuthnaur (model 3 and 4 of Molnar, 1987 and Chandar, 1988). The isoseismal lines with a value of 8 pass through the area. The Doon Valley was uplifted by 10cm with respect to the Mussoorie ridge (Fig.4B) due to induced ground level changes (Middlemiss, 1910).
Terrain classification and distribution of landslides

may be named on the basis of lithological groups. These are the Chandpur pattern, Nagthat pattern, Blaini pattern and the Krol pattern, as shown in Fig.5. The terrain patterns are subdivided into smaller homogeneous units called "facets" which are based on the gradient of the slope. The angle of slope was used instead of percentage for convenience. This is what we considered as our base map. Later on, the attributes wree incorporated on each of these cells. The natural boundaries of the facets were considered as the primary factor for the physiographic basis of terrain classification (Townshend, 1981; Meijerink, 1988). In all, about 190 units called facets were identified and modified with the help of aerial photographs. The local areal coverage and the prominent slope class of the patterns is shown in Table II and the distribution of various facets, that is, the slope categories, is shown in histograms (Fig.6).

Landslide distribution Methodology: The methodology used in identifying the areas of mass wasting were the standard procedures suggested by several workers for aerial photographs and Landsat images (Nunnaly, 1974; Ray, 1977; Verstappen, 1977; and Sabins, 1978). Both aerial photographs and the Landsat images were used. The imageries were useful only in case of large landslides; the remainder were picked up easily on the aerial photographs. The bright tones, the landslide trails and hummocky topography were used for marking the landslides. Old landTABLE II Areal coverageof major slopecategoriesin the four patterns

Terrain classification
In order to prepare a base map, first a classification map was prepared on 1:50000 scale (Fig.5) using topographic and geological maps. The methodology (Pachauri, 1970; Chansarkar, 1982; Pachauri and Krishna, 1984) is more or less coincident with the concept of geoenvironmental unit mapping followed in Australia (CSIRO) (Oilier, 1977) and elsewhere (Belcher, 1960; Aitchison and Grant, 1967). There are four major patterns which

Pattern

Catchment Prominent Area of prominent area slope range slopein pattern (%) () (%) 19.9% 41.9% 17.03% 21.11% 20-30 30-35 25-30 25-30 33.33 56.43 38 > 40

Chandpur (No. 1) Nagthat (No. 2) Blaini (No. 3) Krol (No. 4)

86

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PRECOLLISIONAL SEDS AND CRYSTALLINES EPICENTERS 1 9 6 5 - ' 7 7

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BASEMENT

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Fig.4. (A) The area affected by the 1905 Kangra earthquake. Note two distinct areas shown by Rossi-Forel (RF) intensity contours. (B) Coseismic changes in the ground level elevation in the eastern zone just south of the area covered in the present study (courtesy of: Seeber and Armsburster, EOS, Trans. Am. Geophys. Union, 4: 259-277, copyright by Am. Geophys. Union).

7. Z
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LEGEND .// \" TERRAIN PATTERNS ~ ~ ~ ~ KROL* TAL BLAINI NAGTHAT CHANDPUR

1 2 3 4 5 ~ ,,~ ..--~'~ ,-----. RIDGE RIVER/STREAM FAULT/THRUST FACET BOUNDARY TOWN/VILLAGE

7 8 9

R I D G E TOP ~ ESCARPMENT VERY STEEP SLOPE STEEP SLOPE MODERATELY STEEP SLOPE LESS STEEP SLOPE MODERATELYGENTLE SLOPE GENTLE SLOPE VERY GENTLE SLOPE

Fig.5. Classification of the entire area into distinct homogeneous units numbered 1 to 9. These form the finer subdivisions of the four terrain patterns 1-1V based on the geological formations (shown by symbols) and named after them following the techniques described earlier (Pachauri, 1970; Pachauri and Krishna, 1984). This is the basic terrain classification map of the area. The units 1 9 are referred to as "facets".

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FACET C T G R AE O Y

F i g . & Histograms showing distribution of slope facets ( 2 - 9 ; 1 is ridge top) in all four patterns. Pattern I is the Chandpur Formation, mainly phyllites, which has less steep slopes ( 6 7 ) . P a t t e r n I I (Nagthat Formation) is mainly quartzites, and has mainly steep slopes ( 4 - 5 ) ; in pattern IlI (Blaini Formation) the rocks are mainly boulder slates with subordinate limestones, the facets are moderately steep slopes to less steep slopes (5-6) similar to pattern I V ( K r o l Formation, being mainly limestones). Facet 9 (very gentle slope) is almost absent from all the patterns.

slides were identified mostly by the morphological expression of the terrain. Geomorphological mapping was carried out and a host of geomorphological features were brought out by the aerial photograph interpretation (Fig.7). Many landslide scarps and valley fills (former, probably glacial, lake deposits) were identified and checked. These probably represent the imprints of ongoing neotectonic activity since the Holocene peroid at least. Figure 8 shows the distribution of prominent landslides of the area. Relation of geological attributes with the landslides The following attributes were used: (1) geotechnical parameters; (2) proximity to major fault;

(3) relative relief; (4) relative altitude; (5) lithology; (6) landcover; (7) slope; (8) distance from nearest ridge top; (9) road density. The above attributes were regressed against the occurrence of landslides. The following paragraphs deal with the inter-relationship between these attributes and the areas of mass movement.
Geotechnical parameters

Geotechnical parametes are the ones used in the analyses of slope stability, as well as slope kinematics. The relationship of the dip of the rocks and

LANDSLIDE HAZARD MAPPING

89

7~10" SCALE

skm

/I

~-.~,_~--~ \-\ ~.~.

GENTLE SLOPES
OEPOSITIONAL TERRACES ALLUVIAL FANS
CHANNEL BARS

F-I M D R T S O E O E AE L P S

Iltl STEEP SLOPES

COLLAPSE STRUCTURES (SOLUTION FLATS} EROSIONAL TERRACES/SCARS LANDSLIDE SCARS(PROMINENT)

(;~

CHANNEL FILLS
SCARPS

GULLIES

STREAMS/VALLEYS

_~_~ SHARP RIDGES

Fig.7. Geomorphological m a p of a part of the catchment showing features such as prominent landslide scars, solution structures, etc, which are concentrated in the Krol Limestone Unit in the southern part. Some areas of the stream channel are choked with landslide material, some of which is converted into terraces.

the slope, together with the joints, plays a very important role. We have used the dip-slope relationship as a parameter (Terzaghi, 1950; Hoek and Bray, 1977, and others). A frequency distribution of slope and dip analyses was made and it was found that the maximum frequency of landslides was 1.05 slides/km2., which coincides with the dip slopes, especially when the angle is > 35. In other areas of non-dip slopes the density was much less,

about 0.77 slide/km 2. In a recent study (Garg, 1990; Gupta, 1990) in an adjacent area of the Sauri Gad catchment, the joint data were collected and their stereographic projection analysed for the Chandpur Group of rocks, which are exposed in a stratigraphic continuity in the present area. It was found that slopes > 35 fell in the unstable category when subjected to the Markland test. In order to appreciate the relationship between

917)

A.K PA(HAURI

A N t ) M PAN I

,~.

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4"

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LANDSLIDE WITH AZIHUTH RIV ER5/STRE Ak,IS

0 i SCALE

51km 0 I 5 km I

SCALE

Fig.8. Areas of landslide distribution with azimuth direction. Most of the azimuth directions are controlled by the azimuth direction of the slope.

the general physiographic trend and the trend of landslide trails, the data were plotted (Fig.9). The majority of the landslides trend N-S, as against the general physiographic trend east-west, which shows no direct mutual relationship. The other secondary set shows a NNE-SSW or NNW-SSE

......

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trend. From the above, it emerges that those slopes which are normal to the general physiographic trend house the maximum number of landslides. Slope Mass Rating (SMR) ratings (Romana, 1988), a modification of Rock Mass Rating (RMR) ratings (Bienawski, 1979 in Romana, 1988), could also be used when detailed investigation of a specific area is needed, by including the standard data on the friction angle and the engineering properties of rocks. A slight change in the friction angle when plotted on the sterographic net (Hock and Bray, 1977) did not make a material difference (Garg, 1990; Gupta, 1990). Therefore, generalised values may not be taken into account as these do not substantiate and augment the analyses. On the other hand, it is worthwhile identifying the specific planes of weaknesses and failure, for example, the intersection of two planes in the case of wedge failure, and their relation with the direction of slope; this can be carried out in the area of interest for detailed analyses.

Fig.9. Rose diagram showing the relationship between the general physiographic trend and the trend of the trails of the landslides. The landslides are mostly at right angles to the physiographic trend. There is a secondary oblique trend at a small angle to the physiographic trend.

Proximity to major fault

The major fault in the proximity of the catchment is the Aglar fault itself, which runs parallel

LANDSLIDE

HAZARD

MAPPING

91

with the Aglar River. Apparently the flow of a large part of the river is controlled by the fault itself. The direction of the fault is east-west and it is a high angle reverse fault, as is clear from the reversal of beds (reversed graded bedding) in the Nagthat Group at the fault contact. The landslides follow a corridor in the proximity of the fault (Fig. 10). The highest percentage of landslides is in the vicinity of the fault. Studies carried out at other sites in the Himalayas also point to this (Pachauri and Krishna, 1984; Pachauri and Litoria, 1986; and Gupta, 1990). Landslide material has been reported and observed at several sites in the terraces around faults (e.g., the Main Boundary Fault) (Auden, 1942; Valdiya et al., 1984; author's own observations). It appears possible, therefore, that the mass wasting process may be related to the activity of the fault; however, this requires further checking at more sites.

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100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000 METER

RELATIVE RELIEF

Fig.ll. Histogram showing frequency of landslide as related to relative relief. The higher relief shows a greater proneness to landslides. Note the gradual decrease in the landslide frequency with lowering of relief.

Relative relief
The relative relief is shown in Fig.l 1 where the distribution is divided into 10 classes with an interval of 100 m. It is found that incidence of landslides is greatest in the areas of high relief (> 1000m). Gravity sliding and debris flow has

been more commonly noted in areas of higher relief.

Relative height
Most of the landslides fall in the height range of 1500-2500m. The frequency distribution (Fig.12) has a bell shape. This is understandable as, at lower heights, agricultural practices are much more favoured whereas at higher altitudes the forest cover is still preserved and acts as a cushion. Besides, road cuttings and human infringements are more prevalent in the lower to middle altitudes.

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DISTANCE FROM ACTIVE FAULT

N 20
.J 10
O 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 (xlOOm)

Fig.10. The study appears to show a relationship between the landslides and an active fault. This is shown in this figure. Most of the landslides are confined to within a few kilometers from the fault. The suggestion that the occurrence of landslides bears a relation with an active fault is corroborated by evidence from other sites (Pachauri and Krishna, 1984; Pachauri and Litoria, 1986; Garg, 1989; Gupta, 1989), however, it requires further proof.

RELATIVE HEIGHT

Fig.12. The relative height of the facets has a strange relationship in the sense that most of the landslides are confined to the middle level corridor of the terrain.

92

AK

PA('HAURI A N D M PAN I

Lithology
1.5 E

There are four main rock groups. The total area of each group was measured and the frequency distribution plotted with respect to lithological formation (Fig.13). The data show that highest number of landslides occur in the area of Nagthat quartzite-phyllite association followed (in order) by the Krol, Blaini and Chandpur Formations. This appears to be due to the fact that there are innumerable bands of phyllite associated with the Nagthat Quartzites which are highly sheared. Therefore, a combination of an incompetent layer between the competent ones, as well as the easy weatherability of the phyllosilicates into clays, which creates a heaving effect, has contributed to the severity of damage.

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LANDUSE

Fig.14. Landuse and landcover practices have a bearing on the frequency of landslides as the dense vegetation binds the soil on the slopes and also absorbs most of the water during rains, rather than allowing it to seep through the discontinuities in rocks causing dissolution of minerals and volume changes due to the mineralogical transformations.

Land cover
Basically, there are two main land use practices in this area. These are agriculture and the afforestation p r o g r a m m e of the Government. A landcover acts as a protection and reduces the risk of soil erosion, landslides and the splash action of the rain water. False Coiour Composite (FCC) of the Landsat and the aerial photographs were used to delineate the various areas of land cover in the catchment (Pant, 1988). Following the interpretation techniques described by Nunnaly (1974), Ray (1977) and Sabins (1978), seven classes of land use were identified. For the sake of convenience these were merged into three (Fig. 14): sparse vegetation;

agricultural land and forests (moderate to dense vegetation). In general, the incidence of landslides is more in the first category (1.5 slide/km 2) than the last (0.3 slide/km2).

Degree of slope
The gradient of the geomorphological surfaces plays an important role in generation of the mass wasting material. Though the relation of dip slope and joints is important in all cases of failure, especially in the plane and wedge failure, the two should be evaluated simultaneously. However, an exclusive relationship between the steepness of the slope and the mass wasting areas is also observed in highly rugged and high relief terrains such as the Himalaya. Many workers (Nunnaly, 1974; Sharma, 1986; and others) have recommended the analyses of slope disposition, especially the breaks in slopes. In environmental geology mapping and land hazard analyses, it plays an important role. The frequency of landslides were plotted against the degree of slope (Fig. 15) and it was found that the frequency of landslides is higher in steeper slopes ( > 35 ) irrespective of the lithology.

= E1'51 =
"~ NAGTHAI FM

z
0 1 I ~'-'~ ROCK Iv TYPE Iv ` l

Distance from the nearest ridge top

Geotechnical analysts usually study the height from the crown of the landslide and also height of the ridge above the crown. An attempt was

Fig.13. The lithologicat control on the frequency of landslides is very well pronounced. This is also brought out by the lineament analyseswhere the highest density was in the Nagthat Quartzites, which have many fissile zones due to the presence of heavy jointing and bands of phyllites.

LANDSLIDE

HAZARD

MAPPING

93

I 2"0
O3 m

~n 1.5
Z

E3

C~

increases towards the middle corridor, between the ridge and valley face, but the upper and the lower corridors remain virtually undisturbed. About 61.22% of the slides are found within less than 1 km of a ridge top in the middle to lower-middle corridors.

o 1.0 ~
Z
o

Road density
As a result of increased development activity the road density is constantly increasing. This causes toppling of many rock masses at several points within 1 km of the ridge top. The dip slopes mark the influence of this factor where sliding is accentuated by undercutting. Many cases of overhanging rocks, trees with hanging roots in the air just above the road, and a few cases of dip slopes undercut by the road, were noticed.

U3 U_

0.5

/ / / ///2

lb

15

20

25

30

ks

SLOPE ANGLES IN DEGREES

Fig.15. Most of the steep slopes have higher frequency of landslides, which gradually decreases with the decrease in slope.

made to study the relations b e t w e e n absolute height and areas of mass movement. It was found that there was no definite relation (Fig.16). This appears to be justified as plane and wedge or circular failures could occur at any height as they are controlled by other basic factors. From the figure, it can be seen that the maximum number of landslides fall in the distance range of 600900m, whereas the maximum distance to the nearest ridge top from the valley bottom is more than 1 km. It may be surmised that the susceptibility and expectation of a landslide close to the ridge tops is reduced because of the afforestation and vegetation cushion. The susceptibility
5040Lu o 30-

Other factors Weather&g: In the Himalayan terrain the soil cover is very thin and the rocks are often exposed directly on the surface, or with the C horizon close to it. This is more common in the higher reaches where mechanical weathering, due to the thaw effect of the snow, is more pronounced than chemical weathering. On the other hand, in highly weathered terrains in the shield areas, such as India Peninsula, where the rate of weathering is slow but very prolonged without disturbance, weathering is conspicuous and hence could be very important. In the present case we have not taken this as a factor and have assumed its influence to be uniform, although anomalous conditions could exist in some parts, in which case care must be taken. Besides, acceptable weathering parameters for various rock types are yet to be made available for such terrains as the Himalayas (Zimmermann, 1987, personnal communication). Groundwater: This factor also has been considered as uniform for the purpose of first generation maps. However, it cannot be altogether discarded, especially where the soft cover is present in the form of semi-consolidated material. In such cases it could become an important factor for which a weighting should be given. This is observed that in the areas of shallow cover of loose or semi-

Z J

20

10

F///~///A
3 6 9 12 15 18 21

24 m

DISTANCE ( xl00)FROM THE

R I DGE TOP

Fig. 16. Relationship of landslides with distance from ridge top. If the distance classes are merged then it is found that the landslides occur mostly in the first kilometer of the ridge top although there are other factors, such as road cutting, which accentuate the landslide at those levels.

94

A K P A C H A U R I , \ N D M PAN I

consolidated overburden, where the groundwater follows the contact plane of the overburden with the rock below. If there is a road cut it could be dangerous. Therefore, the value of height between the ground surface and the groundwater level in comparison with the total thickness of the overburden may be taken into account (Bhawani Singh, personal communication, 1990) as the level of groundwater should be lower than the level of road cuttings. In such areas good weighting to this factor can be given. Landslide hazard mapping based on a rating system Several authors have attempted to use some kind of classification system based on ranking (Howard and Ramson, 1978; Stevenson, 1977). In order to prepare a landslide hazard map on the basis of above mentioned factors, it is necessary to quantify the land using a weighting and rating system. All qualitative classes require a ranking method by which each class can be quantified and weighting given to each factor to create a land hazard rank (Hensen, 1984; Varnes, 1984). Our logical assumption is that the risk of occurrence of a damaging event is a direct consequence of these parameters. Therefore, these parameters can be given due weighting resulting in weighted landslide hazard values for each subclass. A composite value for each class can be found by adding all the values and a landslide hazard index can be produced for the class in question. Table III shows the ranks and weightings for each factor and its sub-class. There is yet another possibility: the use of regression coefficients to arrive at the landslide hazard score. Each parameter has been partitioned into a number of classes (Maximum 5 and minimum 3) based on frequency distribution and the dispersion of data. Each class has been given an index value of 1,2,3, etc. arranged in hierarchical ranks, as shown in the Table III columns 1,2, and 3). Each parameter is given a weighting depending on its degree of affiliation to the landslide hazard. This certainly can not be uniform for each region as geomorphological and geological conditions vary, apart from the user's perception. An attempt is

made to reduce the subjectivity by regressing the parameters with the landslides. The highest weighting is given to geotechnical parameters, such as the dip slope relationship, followed by the distance from the nearest thrust, etc. This gives a clue as to how much weighting between 11 and 3, should be given (Table III). The highest weighting obviously means a greater influence for the parameter. Following the above method, the weighted landslide hazard ratings are obtained (column 6, Table III). The final landslide hazard score is obtained by the summation of these values. Thus each terrain unit has got a value which is divided into classes as landslide hazard zones. Nine classes were obtained using Sturge's formula (Gupta, 1983): K=3.3 loglo-n+ 1 where K is the number of classes in total data set (n). A detailed map with nine classes was initially prepared. In order to make it more presentable, a coarse or condensed classification has been adopted. This is shown in Fig. 17 in various shades. Colours (red to green) can be used for the two extreme classes where yellow and blue colours may be used to refer to intermediate classes.

Scope for GIS and related computer systems

In recent years, a vast change has taken place in the use of computer software to handle geographical data (Tomlinson, 1976). Geographical Information Systems (GIS) have been defined as a powerful set of tools for collecting, storing, retrieving at will, transferring and displaying spatial data from the real world for a particular set of purposes (Burrough, 1986). The present study requires collection, storage, retrieval and handling of a large amount of data. Probably the best and quickest method would involve ultimately a GIS for handling such data by which the data can be presented in an understandable form and made accessible to a variety of users (Drummond, 1989). ITC, Holland, has developed a powerful tool for the developing countries called ILWIS. This aims "to contribute to the improvement of the availability and quality of information on which watershed mnagement can

LANDSLIDE HAZARD MAPPING

95

T A B L E III Weighted landslide hazard rating system in the Aglar catchment (1) Factor (2) Class (3) No. (4) Weighting

(5)
Class rating

(6) Weighted rating

Geotechnical factor Dip slopes Non-dip slopes Distance from active fault 0-2 2-4 4-6 6-8 >8 Slope angle >40 30-40 20-30 10-20 < 10 Relative relief >800m 600-800 m 400-600 m 200-400 m 0-200 m Main rock quartzite limestone bolder slate phyllite Sparse vegetation Cultivated land Forested land Distance from ridge top 0-900m 900-1800m 1800-2700m Road density > 2 km/km 2 1-2 k m / k m 2 < 1 km/km 2 * Value is never actually zero but the relatively lowest in rank. 03 3 2 1 09 06 03 05 3 2 1 15 10 05 08 5 4 3 2 I 40 32 24 16 8 09 4 3 2 1 0 36 27 18 09 0* km km km km km 10 4 3 2 1 0 40 30 20 l0 0* 11 2 0 22 00"

Geological formation Nagthat Krol Blaini Chandpur Landcover

07

4 3 2 l 3 2 1

28 21 14 07 18 12 06

06

be based" (Valenzuela, 1988). Schematic representation of this system is shown in Fig. 18. The basic unit chosen here is a natural subdivision of terrain and represents an area homogeneous in physical characteristics. This is named a "facet" (Pachauri, 1970) or Terrain Mapping Unit (TMU) (Meijerink,

1988). The central unit used in our study is the facet, which is the basic unit of our terrain classification map. This is more or less the same as the T M U of Meijerink. Use of tabular data in combination with maps can be made. On each unit of terrain classification, the weightage of various

78o10, 780115" 5 km
o
SCALE

o o o uo ' ~

~ u/ I

; oOT(

... :: :.. :.-,.;,..

. . . . . , ,.

SUAKHOLI
HAZARD CLASSES

m iiiiiiiiii7 HIGH LOW

VERY H I G H

MODERATE
VERY LOW

DHANAULTI

...._ ~

SIRKANDA

,,>

7810"

78IiS"

>.

Fig. 17. Showing coarse classes of landslide hazard. Note that the low risk zones are invariably away from the main river and the fault along the river Aglar.
21 "-c 7

LANDSLIDE HAZARD MAPPING

97

REMOTE SENSING PRODUCTS

AEROSPACE INTERPRETATION FIELD WORK A~CILLARY INFORMATION DATA GATHERING /

IMAGE PROCESSING BBC ERDAS MiD i RAMTEK CONTEXVlSlON ; GIS/LIS USEMAP MAP CRIES ARCIINFO

IMAGE PROCESSING

DIGITIZING

INPUT FORMS

IMAGE ~NHANCE~ENT
CLASSIFICATIONS

DATA INPUT UPDATIN~

OITING BASE

1
VALIOATION GGRIGATION

(i

HYDROLOGY SWATRE ETO ANSWERS STANFORD TNO -MODEL TSM USDAHL LAND EVALUATION LECS USDA SYSTEM OUEFTS MASUMAS MAIS

I
TMU

INT~RMEOIATE

FILES
RASTER TABLES

VECTOR

RELATIONS

I I
I
~'=

CROP YIELD PREDICTION WOFOST WMO FAD YIELD RESPONSE

RULE BASE CARTOGRAPHIC MODELLING SIMULATION MODELS MONITORING

EROSION SILSOE ANSWERS ADJUSTED USLE CREAMS

DATA ANALYSIS

.i
~ASTER

l
VECTOK RESULTS

i~

DATABASES SOIL MINIPITS USDA PEDON CODING DATASASE Ill DATABASE IV LOGSOFT

Fig.18. Schematic representation of the ILWIS system suggested by ITC, Holland, (Valenzuela, 1988; Meijerink, 1988). Many of the data inputs suggested are the ones used in this study. The basic unit used here is the facet which has a natural boundary which Meijerink has called TMU (terrain mapping units).

parameters can be imported. Additional factors, such as the KLS Factor (erosion susceptibility) and the R Factor (rain erosivity) could be included (Meijerink, 1988). We have already used the C factor (vegetation cover) and also indirectly, the other factors. However, use of GIS- and ILWIS-type systems require training and facilities. Since we did not have the facilities, it was decided to achieve similar results manually or mechanically. Therefore, in this work the most practicable technique has been used. It does not require costly software systems but can be imported into a GIS wherever available.

Sediment yield estimation In an active Himalayan terrain such as the one studied here, choked valleys or stream floors full of boulders and landslide material are common. Often this material occurs in the terraces as well, as it is reworked and is deposited downstream. Landslides form a good source of the sediment so produced. Therefore, as a corrollary to the above study, an attempt has been made to estimate sediment yield. The assumption here is that, in a young mountain range like the Himalayas, the highest rate of erosion is responsible for the major

98

AK

PACHAIJRI A N I )

PAN-I

source of sediment. Therefore, the sediment yield is a direct consequence of the ongoing erosion, rainfall, neotectonism, and the related mass-wasting processes in the various lithological units of the catchment. The sediments so produced can assume alarming proportions downstream depending on the catchment shape and the availability of the mode of transport in the region. In the present case we have assumed that the sediments produced in the region are related to the period of about the last 5 million yr. The main agencies which have sculptured the landscape are the fluvial and the glacio-fluvial processes operating since the Pleistocene. Meijerink (1974), has reported evidence of glacial erosion in the upper reaches of the Aglar catchment. A fluvio-glacial deposit was noted by the authors near Dhanaulti during field work. There is much evidence to the effect that mass movements have contributed a great deal to the sediments here, as can be seen from the clogged channels and choked valleys. Some authors have studied the influence of the climate exclusively, for example, Wisch's plot (Fig.19) for global data (Wilson, 1969; in Hadley et al., 1985). As shown in this figure, the annual precipitation of 1200-1600 mm (as in the study area) corresponds to a sediment yield of 325 650 t/ kmZ/yr. This is 4-6 times less than the estimation given by Meijerink who also considered factors other than precipitation. As has been shown by many workers, topography and the area of the catchment govern the quantity of the sediment (Schumm, 1965, in Hadley et al., 1985; Dhruva Narayana, 1983). Initial observations carried out by Meijerink, in
A

a small section (35 km 2) of the Aglar catchment in the northeastern part opposite Almas, have been correlated with the landslide hazard scores. The method of sediment yield estimation for this small part of the catchment is enumerated by Meijerink using graphical triangulation and parallax measurements in topographical sections on aerial photographs for the early Holocene to late Quaternary landscape. He estimated the former level of a fill of the terrace on either side across a valley and related it to the present level and gradient of terraces. Assuming a specific gravity value of 1.65, Meijerink produced six classes and calculated the sediment yield to be 9760 t/km2/yr. He also calculated long-term sediment yield to be 2500 t/km2/ yr. Using this as a training set we attempted to extend the study to the entire catchment. We found several classes of sediment yield which are dependent on slope and, in part, the vegetation, as also pointed out by Meijerink. The land hazard scores were correlated to the mid values of the sediment yield class. The correlation was positive (0.56) which is significant at the 99.9% level. Using the following stright line equation relation: Sp= 1.099 LHS - 116.83 where Sp is the sediment production and LHS the Landslide hazard score. The sediment yield for the entire area was computed and averaged. The average sediment yield so computed comes out to be about 2583.88 t/ kmZ/yr, which is reasonable and within the permissible limits. The difference from Meijerink's values can be understood by the fact that the highest LHS values fall outside the area of the training set of Meijerink. This suggests that the parameters used have a relation to the sediment yield in the Himalayan catchment and one of the most important sources of sediments is the process of mass wating. Thus, landslide hazard scores based on geoenvironmental parameters can be used to determine the sediment production in the area after testing at additional sites.
Conclusions

'7"i_ 1200

?E
800
Q t,J

I-Z

60O

z "

I 400

l 800

I 1200

I 1600

I 2000

2400

MEAN ANNUAL PRECIPITATION (mm )

Fig.19. Relationship of rainfall with sediment yield (Wilson, 1969, in Hadley et al., 1985).

A quantitative method has been put forward for landslide hazard susceptibility mapping, using geo-

LANDSLIDE HAZARD MAPPING

99 Chansarkar, R.A., 1982. Terrain classification and parametric data base for coastal and desertic areas. In: S. Merh (Editor), Recent Researches in Geology. Hindustan Publ. Corp., Delhi, Vol. 9, pp.51-60. Dhruva Narayana, V.V., 1983. Downstream impact of soil conservation in Himalayan region. Mt. Res. Dev., 7(3): 287-298. Drummond, J.E., 1989. Models and data quality handled in a dBASE/AutoCAd GIS. ITC J., 3/4:205-211. Elsinga, R. and Verstappen., H.Th., 1989. SPOT for earthquake hazard zoning. ITC J., 1: 21-25. Fooke, P.G., 1987. Land evaluation and site assessment (hazard and risk) In: M.G. Culshaw, F.G. Bill, J.C. Cripps and M.O. Hara (Editors), Planning and Engineering Geology. Geol. Soc. Eng. Geol., 4: 273-282. Fort, M., 1987. Geomorphic and hazard mapping in dry continental Himalaya, 1:50,000 maps of Mustang district, Nepal. Mt. Res. Dev., 7(3): 22 -238. Gansser, A., 1964. Geology of the Himalayas. Inter-Science, London, pp. 1-20. Garg, A., 1990. Efficacy of joint data in slope kinematics from Sauri Gad catchment, District Uttarkashi. M.Sc. Thesis, Earth Science Dep., Univ. Roorkee, India (unpublished). Grant, K. and Finlayson, A.A., 1978. The assessment and evaluation of geotechnical resources in Urban and regional environments. Eng. Geol., 12: 219-293. Gupta, P.V., 1990. Landhazard mapping in Garhwal Himalaya. M. Tech. Thesis, Earth Science Dep., Univ. Roorkee, India (unpublished). Gupta, S.C., 1983. Fundamentals of Statistics. S. Chand, New Delhi, India, 240 pp. Hadley, R.F., Lal, R., Onstead, C.A., Walling, D.E. and Yair, A., 1985. Recent developments in erosion and sediment yield studies. International Hydrological Programme, UNESCO, Paris, pp.7-75. Hearn, G.J. and Fulton, A., 1987. Landslide hazard assessment techniques for planning purposes: a review. In: M.G. Culshaw, F.G. Bell, J.C. Cripps and M. O'Hara (Editors), Planning and Engineering Geology. Geol. Soc. Eng. Geol.. 4: 303-310. Hensen, A., 1984. The landslide hazard analyses. In: D. Brunden and D.B. Prior (Editors), Slope Instability. John Wiley, London, pp. 523-602. Hoek, E. and Bray, J.W., 1977. Rock Slope Engineering. Inst. Min. Metall., London, pp.7-81. Howard, A.D. and Remson, I. 1978. Geology in Environmental planning. McGraw-Hill, New York, 459 pp. Hutchinson, J.N., 1988. Morphological and geological parameters of landslides in relation to geology and hydrogeology. In: C. Bonnard (Editor), Proc. Int. Symp. on Landslides, 5th (Laussanne) Balkema, Rotterdam, Vol. 1, pp.3-35. Ives, J.D. and Messerli, S., 1981. Mountain hazard mapping in Nepal: Introduction to an Applied Mountain Research Project. Mt. Res. Dev. 1 (3-4): 223-230. Joshi, B.C. and Gupta, R.P., 1989. Landslide risk zoning in Ramganga catchment, Himalayas. Proc. Nat. Symp. on the Application of Rock Mechanics in River Valley Projects (Roorkee), Univ. Roorkee, Roorkee, Vol. 3 pp.35-40. Joshi, A., Mathur, V.K. and Bhat, D.K., 1989. Discovery of Redlichid trilobites from the Arenaceous member of the Tal

logical attributes. Terrain classification based on a physiographic approach provides a sound database system for landslide hazard mapping. First generation maps can be prepared using such attributes in Himalayan catchments. The study also suggests that the Aglar fault is probably active. This is indicated by the positive relationship between landslides and the fault, as also noticed at other sites. However, additional testing of this will be useful. The positive correlation of the landslide hazard scores and the sediment yield suggests that there is a possibility of using landslide hazard scores for the prediction of sediment yield in ungauged catchments, but this should be checked at a few more places. The weighting to parameters can be supplemented by real field observations, in accordance with the requirements and objectives, and additionl data can be incorporated in first generation maps for verification and analyses. References
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A K . PA( H A U R I A N D M. PANt

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Rupke, J. and Sharma, R.P., 1974. Preliminary geological map of the eastern Kumaon Himalayas. In: J. Rupke. (Editor), Stratigraphic and Structural Evolution of Kumaon Lesser Himalayas. Sed. Geol., 11:81 256. Sabins, F.F., 1978. Remote Sensing principles and Interpretation. Freeman, San Francisco, Calif., pp.15-167. Savigear, R.A.G., 1965. A technique of morphological mapping. Ann. Assoc. Am. Geogr., 53: 514-538. Seeber, L. and Armsbruster, J.G., 1981. Great detachment earthquake along the Himalayan arc and long term forcasting. EOS, Trans. Am. Geophys. Union., 4: 259-277. Sharma, A.K., 1986. Landuse classification of Muktasar area, Punjab and Landsystems mapping of part of Dehra Dunn, Uttarkashi district, U.P.M. Tech. Thesis, Earth Sci. Dep., Univ. Roorkee, India (unpublished). Sharma, K.K., Rameshwar, D., Rao, R.J., Azmi, R.J., Gopalan, K. and Pantutu, G.V.C., 1990. Rb-Sr age of the Pc C Boundary in Garhwal Himalayas, India. Int. Symp. on Geochronology and Cosmochronology. Spagna, V. and Schiavon., A., 1989. Geological zoning for risk reduction in planning urban and open areas. ITC J. 3/4: 189 193. Stevenson, P.C., 1977. An emperical method for the evaluation of relative landslides risk. Bull. Int. Assoc. Eng. Geol., 16: 69 72. Terzaghi, K., 1950. Mechanism of landslides. In: S. Paige (Editor), Application of Geology to Engineering Practice. (Berkey Volume) Geol. Soc. Am., Boulder, Colo., pp.83 125. Tomlinson, R.F., 1976. Computer Handling of Geographical Data. UNESCO, Paris, 150 pp. Townshend, J.R.G., 1981. Terrain Analyses and Remote Sensing. Allen and Unwin, London. Valdiya, K.S., Joshi, D.D., Sanwal, R.S. and Tandon, S.K., 1984. Geomorphic development across the active Main Boundary Thrust: an example from the Nainital Hills in Kumaon Himalayas. J. Geol. Soc. India, 25: 761-774. Valenzuela, C.R., 1988. ILWIS overview. ITC J., l: 4-14. Varnes, D.J., 1978. Slope movement types and processes. In Landslides analyses and control. Sp. In: R.L. Schuster and R.J. Krizek (Editors), Spec. Rep. Transportation Res. Board. Nat. Acad. Sci. Washington, D.C., pp.l 1-13. Varnes, D.J., 1984. Landslides hazard zonation: a review of principles and practice. UNESCO, Paris, pp. 1-55. Verstappen, H.Th., 1977. Remote Sensing in Geomorphology. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 214 pp. Verstappen, H.Th., 1983. Applied Geomorphology: Geomorphological Surveys for Environmental Development. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 437 pp. Verstappen, H.Th., 1989. Geomorphology, natural disasters and global change. 1TC J. 3/4: 159-164. Watters, R.S., 1958. Morphological mapping. Geography, 43: 10 17. Wilson, L., 1969. Les relations entre les processus geomorphologiques et le climat modern comme methode de paleoclimatologie. Rev. Geogr. Physique Geol. Dynam. Ser. 2, 2: 303-314. Zimmermann, M., Bichsel, M. and Kienolz, H., 1986. Mountain Hazard mapping in Khumbu Himalayas, Nepal. Mt. Res. Dev., 6(1): 29-40.