CHEE2940: Particle Processing

Lecture 8: Multiple Particle Settling

This Lecture Covers

Hindered settling of particle suspensions

Batch settling
Continuous settling

Chee 2940: Multiple Particle Settling

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
Settling of individual particles is
affected by the presence of other
particles in suspensions.

Two important effects: hydrodynamic

and non-hydrodynamic (colloidal
interaction forces)

Hydrodynamic effects: dependence of suspension

viscosity and drag force on particle concentration.
Chee 2940: Multiple Particle Settling 1
Colloidal interparticle forces are significant at
very high particle concentration.
Attractive interaction produces aggregation,
causing two or more particles to settle as an
effectively larger entity and, thereby,
increase the velocity.
Repulsive interaction produces dispersion
and hinders particle settling.

Hydrodynamic effects are dealt with in this

lecture. Colloidal effects will be described later.
Chee 2940: Multiple Particle Settling 2
8.1 HINDERED SETTLING OF PARTICLES

Solid volume fraction, ε,

Volume of particles
ε=
Total volume of particles & liquid

Liquid volume fraction = 1 - ε

Particle concentration is considered in effective

suspension density, ρe, and viscosity, µe.
Chee 2940: Multiple Particle Settling 3
Suspension density

ρe = ρ sε + ρ f (1 − ε )

Suspension viscosity

Einstein equation: µe = µ (1 + 2.5ε ) for ε < 0.01

µ … liquid viscosity

Extended Einstein equation (Batchelor, 1977):

µe = µ (1 + 2.5ε + 6.2ε )
2

Chee 2940: Multiple Particle Settling 4

For ε > 0.3, non-Newtonian shear thinning or
thickening occurs and the effective viscosity may
depend on the shear stress. Empirical
correlations have to be used (Quemada, 1984):
−2
 ε 
µe = µ  1 − 
 εm 
εm … maximum packing volume fraction (= 0.63)

General correlation: µe = µ f ( ε )

Chee 2940: Multiple Particle Settling 5

Stokes law for relative velocity in suspension
- Fluid density is replaced by ρe
- Fluid viscosity is replaced by µe
- Particle velocity, Vrel, relative to liquid gives

D g ( ρ s − ρe ) 2

Vrel =
18µe
Inserting equations for ρe and µe yields

D g ( ρs − ρ f )
2
1− ε
Vrel = ×
18µ f (ε )
Stokes velocity for single particles Effect of concentration
Chee 2940: Multiple Particle Settling 6
 1− ε
Vrel = VT ⋅ F ( ε ); F ( ε ) = ≅ (1 − ε )
3.65

1 + 2.5ε + 6.2ε 2

F(ε) is less than 1

Actual velocity is hindered.
1

0.8
Correction factor, F

0.6

0.4
Dependence of F on ε
0.2 - Circles for 1 + 2.51ε−+ε 6.2ε
2

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
- Red line for (1 − ε ) .
3.65

Particle volume fraction, ε

Chee 2940: Multiple Particle Settling 7

Generalisation for hindered settling velocity

Vrel = VT ⋅ F ( ε ,other properties )

Particle relative velocity
Vrel = Particle velocity − liquid velocity = V p − V f

Particle hindered settling velocity

V p = V f + Vrel = V f + VT F ( ε ,...)

Vf depends on settling conditions (batch-wise or

continuous).
Chee 2940: Multiple Particle Settling 8
8.2 BATCH HINDERED SETTLING
Hindered settling in a measuring container is
batch-wise.

There is no net flow through the vessel:

Qp + Q f = 0
Qp … volume flow rate of particle settling
Qf … volume flow rate of liquid moving upwards
Q p = V p Aε and Q f = V f A (1 − ε )
A … cross-sectional area of the vessel
Chee 2940: Multiple Particle Settling 9
Velocity of upward flow liquid
ε
V f = −V p
1− ε
Hindered settling velocity of particles
ε
V p = V f + VT F ( ε ,...) = −V p + VT F ( ε ,...)
1− ε
V p = VT (1 − ε ) F ( ε ,...)

Stokes Law for Hindered Settling

F ( ε ,...) = (1 − ε ) ; V p = VT ⋅ (1 − ε )
3.65 4.65

Chee 2940: Multiple Particle Settling 10

Empirical Equation for Batch-wise Hindered
Settling
V p = VT ⋅ (1 − ε )
n

n is the Richardson-Zaki index (1954).

n depends on the particle diameter and other
parameters (Khan & Richardson, 1989):
4.8 + 0.103 Ar 0.57
n=
1 + 0.043 Ar 0.57

D3 ρ f ( ρ s − ρ f ) g
Ar =
µ 2
…Archimedes number.
Chee 2940: Multiple Particle Settling 11
Analysis of Solid Settling Flux
Volume flow rate of particle settling: Q p = V p Aε
Solid settling flux, Js, is defined as
Qp
Js ≡ = V pε
A
(Js = superficial particle velocity)
In terms of terminal velocity, Js, is described as
J s = VT ε (1 − ε )
n

Typical plot for Js versus ε show a maximum.

Chee 2940: Multiple Particle Settling 12
 0.08

Solid flux/Terminal velocity

0.06

0.04

0.02

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Solid fraction concentration

Variation of solid flux, J s / VT , versus solid

3
concentration, ε (D = 100 µm, ρs = 2500 kg/m )
Chee 2940: Multiple Particle Settling 13
 Solid volume fraction, ε

Relationship between
hindered settling and
solid flux.
- Low solid flux at low
concentration (few
particles exist) and at
high concentration
(settling is reduced).

Chee 2940: Multiple Particle Settling 14

Sharp Interface in Suspension Settling
Vp1
ε1

ε2
VInt
Vp2

Interface or discontinuity in concentration occurs

in the settling of particle suspension.
Mass balance over the interface gives
(V p1 − VInt ) ε1 = (V p 2 − VInt ) ε 2
Chee 2940: Multiple Particle Settling 15
 Re-arranging yields

V p1ε1 − V p 2ε 2 J s1 − J s 2 ∆J s
VInt = = =
ε1 − ε 2 ε1 − ε 2 ∆ε

dJ s
VInt =
dε
Significance on a flux plot (Js versus ε)
1) The gradient of the curve at ε is the velocity of
a suspension layer of this ε.
2) The slop of a chord joining 2 points at ε1 and
Chee 2940: Multiple Particle Settling 16
ε2 is the velocity of an interface between
suspensions of the concentrations.
0.08
Slope = velocity of suspension layer at ε
Solid flux/Terminal velocity

0.06

Slope = velocity of interface between

suspensions of ε1 and ε2.
0.04

0.02

ε2 ε ε1
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Solid fraction concentration

Chee 2940: Multiple Particle Settling 17

The Batch Settling Test
- A suspension of particles of known
concentration is prepared in a measuring
cylinder.
- The cylinder shaken to mix the suspension
and then placed upright to allow the
suspension to settle.
- The positions of the interface are monitored
in time.
Two types of settling occur depending on the
initial concentration, εB, of the suspension.
Chee 2940: Multiple Particle Settling 18
Type 1 settling (hindered settling)
- Occurs at low initial concentration
- Three zones of constant concentrations:
zone A = clear liquid, ε = 0; zone B =
suspension of the initial concentration, εB;
and zone S = bed of settled particles of εS.

ε ε ε
εΒ εΑ=0 εΑ=0 εS
εΒ εS

Chee 2940: Multiple Particle Settling 19

 Interface between clear liquid and initial
suspension (Slope gives velocity)

Interface between clear liquid and

settled bed

Interface between initial

suspension and settled bed

Change in position of interface AB, BS, and AS.

Chee 2940: Multiple Particle Settling 20

Type 2 settling (zone settling)
- Occurs at high initial concentration
- Four zones of constant concentrations: in
addition to zone A, B, and S, a zone E of
variable concentration is formed.

ε ε ε
ε εΑ=0
εΒ εΑ=0 εΑ=0
εS εEmax εS εS
εΕ

Chee 2940: Multiple Particle Settling 21

Zone E: Concentration changes with height but
the minimum and maximum concentrations εEmax
and εEmin are constant.

Change in position of interfaces in type 2 settling.

Chee 2940: Multiple Particle Settling 22
 JS Intercept point

Tangent point

ε
εΒ1 εΒ2 εS

Flux plot showing determining if settling will be

type 1 or type 2. εs is known.
Chee 2940: Multiple Particle Settling 23
Determination of the solid flux from the
interface height versus time

The experimental data for the interface

height vs. time can be used to determine
the velocity of interface: VInt = dh / dt .

Equation for interface velocity and solid flux:

dJ s
VInt =
dε
dJ s dh
=
dε dt
Chee 2940: Multiple Particle Settling 24
Mass conservation gives
Mass of solid = constant at any time
  dh  
εNB h0 A = ε h + ε  − t A
  dt  

t=0
εB -dh/dt
mass at t = 0  
mass at time t
h0 t ε h
dh
ε B h0 = ε h − ε t
dt
h1…intercept of
dh h1 − h h1 − h
tangent to h(t)
 =−
dt 0−t t
ε = ε B h0 / h1
Chee 2940: Multiple Particle Settling 25
 Solid flux vs concentration

J
h0 εB
ε
Interface height vs time

h1

Diagram showing the construction of flux curve from a bath settling

Chee 2940: Multiple Particle Settling 26
test

Construction of flux curves (K&S, p. 334)

- The curve h(t) is given by the settling test
- We want to determine ε and J at time t.
The procedure is based on Eqs: ddJε = ddht & εh = hε .
s B

1 0

1) Calculate: scale for the J –axis = time scale *

height scale*concentration scale.
2) Draw a vertical line at ε = εB and a horizontal
line at h = h0.
3) Draw a tangent to the curve h(t) at time = t &
Chee 2940: Multiple Particle Settling 27
 a parallel line from the origin of the J diagram
4) From the intercept point D draw a horizontal
line to cut the εB line at E.
5) Produce a line FE to cut AB at G to give ε.
6) Draw a vertical line at G to cut the parallel
line at H, which is a point of the J(ε) curve
7) Repeat step 2 to 6 to obtain enough points
for the flux curve.

Chee 2940: Multiple Particle Settling 28

8.3 CONTINUOUS HINDERED SETTLING
Occurs in the industrial dewatering in thickeners
Modelling is based on the steady continuous
mass balance. Three cases are considered:
settling with down flow only, up flow only and
combined down and up flows.
Q, εF
Down flow settling
h ε
Js Jf Feed: Volume flow
rate, Q, and solid
concentration εF.
Chee 2940: Multiple Particle Settling 29
The mass balance gives
Q = A( J s + J f )
Js … solid flux; Jf … liquid flux
A … cross-sectional area of the vessel

The general theory of hindered settling gives

Js Jf
Vrel = V p − V f = − = VT F ( ε )
ε 1− ε
Qε
Combining yields J s = + VT (1 − ε ) ε F ( ε )
A
Chee 2940: Multiple Particle Settling 30
 Total solid flux = flux due to settling+flux due to bulk flow
Qε
J s = J set + where J set = VT (1 − ε ) ε F ( ε )
A
Jset can be determined by a bath settling test
0.1

Total continuous downward flux

0.08
Solid flux/Terminal velocity

0.06

0.04 Flux due to bulk flow

0.02
Flux due to settling

εF
0
0 εB 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Solid volume fraction
Chee 2940: Multiple Particle Settling 31
 Continuous settling with upward flow only

Q, εF Feed: Volume
flow rate, Q,
h Jf
and solid
Js ε
concentration εF.

The mass balance gives

Q = A( J f − J s )
The theory of hindered settling gives
Chee 2940: Multiple Particle Settling 32
 Js Jf
Vrel = + = VT F ( ε )
ε 1− ε
Qε
Combining yields J s = VT (1 − ε ) ε F ( ε ) −
A
Total solid flux = flux due to settling-flux due to bulk flow
Qε
J s = J set −
A
where J set = VT (1 − ε ) ε F ( ε ) = VT ε (1 − ε )
n

Jset can be determined by bath settling test

Chee 2940: Multiple Particle Settling 33

 0.1

0.08

0.06
Solid flux/Terminal velocity

0.04
Flux due to settling
0.02
εF εB
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
-0.02
Total continuous upward flux
-0.04

-0.06 Flux due to bulk flow

-0.08

-0.1
Solid volume fraction

Chee 2940: Multiple Particle Settling 34

 Settling in a real thickener
(with upflow and downflow sections)

Q, εF

εΤ
εΒ O, εο

U, εu
Feed flow rate Q, concentration εF
Underflow rate U, concentration εu
Chee 2940: Multiple Particle Settling 35
Overflow rate O, concentration εo
Volumetric flow rate and concentration balances

Q = O +U
Qε F = Oε o + U ε u

Solving gives
ε F − εo εu − ε F
U =Q & O=Q
εu − εo εu − εo

Knowing the feed flow rate and the solid

concentrations, the underflow and overflow rates
can be calculated.
Chee 2940: Multiple Particle Settling 36
The feed flow is split at the feed inlet into the
downward flow (below the feed inlet) and upward
flow (above the feed inlet) considered previously.

Flux below the feed inlet

Uεu
Total downward solid flux: J down = + J set
A

The flux plot is obtained using the technique

used in the construction of the continuous
settling with down flow only. An example diagram
Chee 2940: Multiple Particle Settling 37
 0.1

Net flux below feedwell

0.08
Downward solid flux

0.06
J crit

0.04
Settling flux

0.02
ε (+)crit
Underflow withdrawn flux ε crit ε m ax
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Solid volume fraction
is shown below.

There is a minimum solid flux at εcrit. Since all

solid must pass this point, position with ε < εcrit
will receive more particles, and position with
Chee 2940: Multiple Particle Settling 38
ε > εcrit will receive fewer particles, until εcrit is
reached.
At equilibrium, Jcrit must equal to the feed and
underflow fluxes so that a thickener can be
designed from the conditions

Qε F U ε u
J crit = = and ε o = 0
A A

The condition of minimum is given by dJ down / d ε u = 0

dJ set U
=> =−
dε A

Chee 2940: Multiple Particle Settling 39

The thickening at εcrit is called the critically
loaded thickening (feed flux = underflow flux).
Flux above the feed inlet

Oε o
Total downward solid flux: J up = J set −
A
The flux plot is obtained with the same technique.
0.1
(Downward)

0.08

0.06

0.04 settling flux

0.02
Solid flux

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
-0.02

-0.04 Net flux over the feedwell

Overflow widrawal flux
pward)

-0.06
Chee 2940: Multiple Particle Settling 40
Underloaded thickeners

When the feed concentration, εF, is less than the

critical concentration, εcrit, the thickener is said to
be underloaded.

The normal operation of thickeners is under the

regime of slightly underloaded thickening.

Chee 2940: Multiple Particle Settling 41

Overloaded thickeners

When the feed concentration, εF, is greater than

the critical concentration, εcrit, the thickener is
said to be overloaded.

The overloaded operation will return to the

critically loaded regime at long time to reach
equilibrium.

Chee 2940: Multiple Particle Settling 42

 Practical Applications

Chee 2940: Multiple Particle Settling 43

Chee 2940: Multiple Particle Settling 44
Chee 2940: Multiple Particle Settling 45
 Settling facilities in drinking water treatment
Chee 2940: Multiple Particle Settling 46