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MATH 354 FALL 2011 SOLUTIONS: ASSIGNMENT 1

1. Question One
1.1. Part One. Take 1 p < , we will treat the case p = separately.
Let C and let x
p
. We need to show that x is also in
p
, so that
p
is closed
under scalar multiplication.
_

n=1
[ x
n
[
p
_
1/p
= [[
_

n=1
[x
n
[
p
_
1/p
< ,
because |x|
p
< .
Next, if x, y
p
, we need to show that x + y = (x
n
+ y
n
)

n=1
is also in
p
, so that
p
is closed under vector addition. For every n N,
_
n

k=1
[x
k
+ y
k
[
p
_
1/p

_
n

k=1
[x
k
[
p
_
1/p
+
_
n

k=1
[y
k
[
p
_
1/p
,
using Minkowskis Inequality for R
n
. But, (

n
k=1
[x
k
[
p
)
1/p
increases monotonically to
|x|
p
, and likewise for y, so that
_
n

k=1
[x
k
+ y
k
[
p
_
1/p

_
n

k=1
[x
k
[
p
_
1/p
+
_
n

k=1
[y
k
[
p
_
1/p
|x|
p
+|y|
p
.
Take the p-power of both sides:
n

k=1
[x
k
+ y
k
[
p
(|x|
p
+|y|
p
)
p
.
Since the above inequality is true for all n, we can conclude that

n
k=1
[x
k
+y
k
[
p
is a mono-
tone, bounded sequence and thus has a nite limit . It follows that lim
n
(

n
k=1
[x
k
+
y
k
[
p
)
1/p
=
1/p
< , so that x + y
p
.
Let x

; sup[ x
n
| : n N = [[|x|

< , so that x is in
p
. Let y

;
for all n,
|x|

+|y|

[x
n
[ +[y
n
[ [x
n
+ y
n
[.
Since |x|

+ |y|

is an upper bound for the set [x


n
+ y
n
[ : n N, |x|

+ |y|


sup[x
n
+ y
n
[ : n N = |x + y|

.
Finally,
p
(N) is a vector space since it is closed under addition and scalar multiplication
and is a subset of

N
C which is also a vector space.
1.2. Part Two. Referring back to Part One, the only property we have to verify is
positive-deniteness: that is, if x
p
(N), )then |x|
p
= 0 if and only if x = 0. This is
clear from elementary properties of suprema and sequences.
1.3. Part Three. Let us rst show that
p
(N)
q
(N).
Suppose q < . Let x
p
(N). Then p < and so |x|
p
is nite and implies [x
n
[
p
0
as n . Thus there is some integer N such that [x
n
[
p
< 1 whenever n > N. Since
p < q, we have q/p > 1 and so ([x
n
[
p
)
q/p
[x
n
[
p
or equivalently,
[x
n
[
q
[x
n
[
p
whenever n > N. By the comparison test for convergence, |x|
q
< . Thus x
q
(N).
1
[2] MATH 354 FALL 2011 SOLUTIONS: ASSIGNMENT 1
If q = then because [x
n
[
p
0, the sequence x is bounded.
Now, let us show that
p
(N)
q
(N)
If q = , then the constant sequence x such that x = 1 is not in any
p
for 1 p < .
So suppose q < . Dene x by
x
n
= n
1/p
.
Then

[x
n
[
p
is the harmonic series and thus diverges, whereas

[x
n
[
q
is

n
q/p
and
by assumption q/p > 1, and thus this series converges.
1.4. Part Four. Let 1 p < q < . We proved in class that p |x|
p
is monotonically
decreasing for x in C
n
. We know from the previous problem that if x
p
, x
q
also.
So, for all n N,
_
n

k=1
[x
k
[
p
_
1/p

_
n

k=1
[x
k
[
q
_
1/q
.
Taking the limits as n , which exist because x is in
p
and
q
, we nd that
|x|
p
= lim
n
_
n

k=1
[x
k
[
p
_
1/p
lim
n
_
n

k=1
[x
k
[
q
_
1/q
= |x|
q
as required.
Let q = . Let > 0 be arbitrary. Using properties of the supremum, there exists
some n N such that [x
n
[ > |x|

. Then
|x|
p
=
_

k=1
[x
k
[
p
_
1/p
([x
n
[
p
)
1/p
= [x
n
[ > |x|

,
and since was arbitrary we conclude that |x|
p
|x|

.
1.5. Part Five. Since x
1
, we know that lim
n
x
n
= 0, otherwise the series

[x
n
[
would not converge. So, there exists N N such that, for all n N, [x
n
[ [x
1
[. This
reduces our problem to considering the maximum of nitely many numbers rather than the
supremum of an innite sequence. Then we can say that max[x
1
[, . . . , [x
N
[ = sup[x
k
[ :
k N. Using this fact,
lim
p
|x|
p
= lim
p
_
N

k=1
[x
k
[
p
_
1/p
= max[x
1
[, . . . , [x
N
[
= sup[x
k
[ : k N = |x|

.
2. Question Two
2.1. Its a Norm. The case p = gives
|f + g|

= max [f(x) + g(x)[


max ([f(x)[ +[g(x)[)
max [f(x)[ + max [g(x)[
the last line following from the denition of the maximum.
The case 1 p < is exactly the same as in the one for sequences. We use the nite
Minkowski inequality so that if P is a partition of [a, b] and S(f, P) is the Riemann sum
[3] MATH 354 FALL 2011 SOLUTIONS: ASSIGNMENT 1
with respect to P. If P is an equallly spaced partition, we can use the nite Minkowski
inequality:
|f + g|
p
= lim
P
S([f + g[
p
, P)
1/p
lim
P
_
S([f[
p
, P)
1/p
+ S([g[
p
, P)
1/p
_
= lim
P
S([f[
p
, P)
1/p
+ lim
P
S([g[
p
, P)
1/p
.
2.2. No Inner Product If p ,= 2. Let f(t) = 1 +t, and let g(t) = 1 t. We will use the
substitution rule, letting u(t) = f(t) and v(t) = g(t); this is justied, since f and g are
dierentiable and [x[
p
is a continuous function of x. Also, the function [x[
p+1
/(p + 1) is
dierentiable on the open interval (0, 2) and continuous on [0, 2] with derivative [x[
p
, so
the fundamental theorem of calculus applies.
|f|
p
=
__
1
1
[1 + t[
p
dt
_1/p
=
__
2
0
[u[
p
du
_1/p
=
_
2
p+1
p + 1
_
1/p
|g|
p
=
__
1
1
[1 t[
p
dt
_1/p
=
_

_
0
2
[v[
p
dv
_1/p
=
_
2
p+1
p + 1
_
1/p
|f + g| =
__
1
1
[2[
p
dt
_1/p
= (2
p+1
)
1/p
|f g| =
__
1
1
[2t[
p
dt
_1/p
= 2
_
2
_
1
0
[t[
p
dt
_1/p
=
_
2
p+1
p + 1
_
1/p
By the parallelogram law, if an inner product exists, then
|f g|
2
p
+|f + g|
2
p
= 2(|f|
2
p
+|g|
2
p
)
which implies that
(2
p+1
)
2/p
+
_
2
p+1
p + 1
_
2/p
= 2
_
_
2
p+1
p + 1
_
2/p
+
_
2
p+1
p + 1
_
2/p
_
.
Subtracting
_
2
p+1
p + 1
_
2/p
from both sides and then dividing through by (2
p+1
)
2/p
gives
1 =
3
(p + 1)
2/p
which implies that

3
p
p 1 = 0.
But, this equation is true only if p = 2, because h(p) =

3
p
p1 is strictly increasing in
(2, ) and strictly decreasing in (1, 2). So, for p ,= 2, the norm of X does not come from
an inner product, because f and g provide a counterexample to the parallelogram law.
3. Question Three
By denition d(x, y) 0. If d(x, y) = 0 then
x, y = 1 = |x| |y| .
But this is equality in the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality, which holds for an arbitrary inner
product space, and equality in Cauchy-Schwarz implies that x = cy for some constant
c R. Taking the norm gives c = 1, and returning to the inner product gives c = 1 so
x = y.
Symmetry follows from the symmetry of the real inner product.
[4] MATH 354 FALL 2011 SOLUTIONS: ASSIGNMENT 1
To prove the triangle inequality, let x, y, z S. Using the Gram-Schmidt Algorithm
we can nd a vector u S such that u, y = 0 and
x = x, y y +x, u u,
and another vector v S such that v, y = 0 and
z = z, y y +z, v v.
Let = arccos(x, y) and let = arccos(z, y). Since |x|
2
= 1, x, y
2
+ x, u
2
= 1
which implies that x, u =
_
1 x, y
2
. But,
_
1 x, y
2
= sin(arccos(x, y)) = sin ,
so we can write x = cos y + sin u. The same calculation shows that we can write
z = cos y + sin v. Calculating the inner product,
x, z = cos y + sin u, cos y + sin v
= cos cos y, y + sin sin u, v
+cos sin y, v + sin cos u, y
= cos cos + sin sin u, v
cos cos |u||v| sin sin
= cos cos sin sin = cos( + ),
where we used the Cauchy-Scwarz inequality at the fourth line. But, we know that arccos
is a decreasing function on [1, 1], so that x, z cos( + ) implies that
d(x, z) = arccos(x, z) arccos(cos( + )) = +
= arccos(x, y) + arccos(z, y) = d(x, y) + d(y, z)
as required.
4. Question Four
4.1. Part (1). Suppose that there exists a monotone increasing function g such that, for
all x, y [a, b],
[f(y) f(x)[ g(y) g(x).
If t
0
= a, . . . , t
n
is some arbitrary partition of [ab], then
n

k=1
[f(t
k
) f(t
k1
)[
n

k=1
(g(t
k
) g(t
k1
)) = g(b) g(a),
where the last sum telescopes because g is increasing. Then the sum for any partition of
[a, b] is bounded above by g(b) g(a), so that V
b
a
(f) g(b) g(a) < .
Suppose that f is of bounded variation. It is clear that if f is of bounded variation of
[a, b], that f is then of bounded variation on [a, x] for any x [a, b]. Let g(x) = V
x
a
(f);
claim is that g(x) is monotone increasing and for all x, y [a, b], [f(y)f(x)[ g(y)g(x).
Let a x < y. Given > 0, there exists a partition t
0
, . . . , t
n
of [a, x] such that
V
x
a
(f) <
n

k=1
[f(t
k
) f(t
k1
)[
which implies that
V
x
a
(f) <
n

k=1
[f(t
k
) f(t
k1
)[ +[f(y) f(x)[ V
y
a
(f).
Since was arbitrary, V
x
a
(f) = g(x) V
y
a
(f) = g(y), so that g is monotone increasing.
[5] MATH 354 FALL 2011 SOLUTIONS: ASSIGNMENT 1
In order to show that [f(y) f(x)[ g(y) g(x), we must rst show that V
x
a
(f) +
V
y
x
(f) V
y
a
(f). Given > 0, choose a partition s
0
, . . . , s
m
of [a, x] and a partition
t
0
, . . . , t
n
of [x, y] such that
V
x
a
(f)

2
<
m

j=1
[f(s
j
) f(s
j1
)[
V
y
x
(f)

2
<
n

k=1
[f(t
k
) f(t
k1
)[.
Then s
0
, . . . , s
m
, t
1
, . . . , t
n
is a partition of [a, y] and
V
x
a
(f) + V
y
x
(f) <
m

j=1
[f(s
j
) f(s
j1
)[ +
n

k=1
[f(t
k
) f(t
k1
)[ V
y
a
(f),
and since was arbitrary, V
x
a
(f) + V
y
x
(f) V
y
a
(f). This implies that
[f(y) f(x)[ V
y
x
(f) V
y
a
(f) V
x
a
(f) = g(y) g(x)
as required.
4.2. Part (2). The set X is a subset of the collection A of all functions mapping [a, b] into
R. If we can show that X is closed under pointwise addition and scalar multiplication, it
is a subspace of A and thus inherits its vector space structure from A. Suppose that f
and g are of bounded variation and R, and let t
0
, . . . , t
n
be some arbitrary partition
of [a, b].
n

k=1
[f(t
k
) f(t
k1
)[ = [[
n

k=1
[f(t
k
) f(t
k1
)[ [[V
b
a
(f) <
n

k=1
[f(t
k
) + g(t
k
) (f(t
k1
) + g(t
k1
))[
n

k=1
[[f(t
k
) f(t
k1
)[ +[g(t
k
) g(t
k1
)[] V
b
a
(f) + V
b
a
(g) <
Then f and f + g are both of bounded variation, and we conclude that X is a vector
space.
Last, we must prove that |f| = [f(a)[ +V
b
a
(f) is a norm on X. If it clear that |0| = 0.
Suppose that |f| = 0. Then f(a) = 0, and for any x [a, b], [f(x) f(a)[ = [f(x)[
|f| = 0. Then f(x) = 0, and since x was arbitrary, f is identically 0. Let R, and let
t
0
, . . . , t
n
be an arbitrary partition of [a, b].
[f(a)[ +
n

k=1
[f(t
k
) f(t
k1
[ = [[
_
[f(a)[ +
n

k=1
[f(t
k
) f(t
k1
)[
_
,
which implies that | f| = [[|f|. Let g be another function of bounded variation. We
already showed above that V
b
a
(f + g) V
b
a
(f) + V
b
a
(g) in order to show that X is closed
under vector addition, so that the triangle inequality follows by noting that
|f + g| = [f(a) + g(a)[ + V
b
a
(f + g) [f(a)[ +[g(a)[ + V
b
a
(f + g)
[f(a)[ + V
b
a
(f) +[g(a)[ + V
b
a
(g) = |f| +|g|.
[6] MATH 354 FALL 2011 SOLUTIONS: ASSIGNMENT 1
5. Question Five
5.1. Part One. Since f and g are continuous real-valued functions, the function h(x) =
f(x) g(x) is also continuous. If t S(f, g) then h(t) = c and c ,= 0. By the continuity
of h there is a > 0 such that whenever [s t[ < with s (0, 1), [f(s) f(t)[ < c and
thus h does not vanish on (t , t + ).
To rephrase this: for each t S(f, g) there is an open ball B such that t B and
B S(f, g) and so S(f, g) is open
1
.
5.2. Part Two. There are two parts to this question; the rst is showing that d is actually
well-dened. The second is verifying that it is a metric.
To show that d is well-dened, suppose that U = I
i
= J
j
are two dierent decom-
positions of U into a disjoint union of open intervals. Fix some i; then I
i
J
j
and so
I
i
=
j
(I
i
J
j
). Since the intersection of two open intervals is again an open interval
or the empty set, the number of nonempty terms in the sequence I
i
J
j
must be one;
for otherwise I
i
would also be a disjoint union of more than one interval. But, this is
impossible because open intervals are connected
2
.
Thus I
i
= J
j
for some j and so the decomposition is unique. This shows that d is
well-dened.
For the triangle inequality: let f, g, h X; that is, f, g : (0, 1) R are continuous. Let
us verify the metric axioms:
(1) d(f, g) > 0 by denition. Suppose d(f, g) = 0. Since any open interval has positive
length, S(f, g) being the union of such intervals must be empty. Thus f = g.
(2) By denition of S(f, g), the function d must be symmetric.
(3) Triangle inequality: suppose t S(f, h). Then f(t) ,= h(t), and so by transitivity
of equality, we cannot have f(t) = g(t) and g(t) = h(t). This shows that S(f, h)
S(f, g) S(g, h). Let U = S(f, g) S(g, h), which is open as it is the union of two
open sets.
6. Question Six
The following is for the complex case. The real case is simplier and essentially the same
manipulations.
We rst dene a map (, ) : X C for all x, y X by
(x, y) =
1
4
_
|x + y|
2
|x y|
2
+ i |x + iy|
2
i |x iy|
2
_
.
If the norm is induced by an inner product, then it must satisfy this polarization identity.
First, by inspection, (x, y) = (y, x). Also,
(x, x) = |x|
2
.
Thus (x, x) 0 and (x, x) = 0 if and only if x = 0. Next,
8(x, y) + 8(x, z) = 2
_
|x + y|
2
|x y|
2
+ i |x + iy|
2
i |x iy|
2
+|x + z|
2
|x z|
2
+ i |x + iz|
2
i |x iz|
2
.
1
Alternatively, S(f, g) = h
1
(R\{0}), so S(f, g) is the inverse image of an open set under a continuous
mapping between metric spaces.
2
Recall that a subset of a metric space (or more generally, a topological space) is connected if it cannot
be written as a nontrivial union of two open sets
[7] MATH 354 FALL 2011 SOLUTIONS: ASSIGNMENT 1
We can use the parallelogram law, which holds by assumption, to replace the matching
quantities like |x + y|
2
and |x + z|
2
to get the above being equal to
|2x + y + z|
2
+|y z|
2
(|2x (y + z)|
2
+|y z|
2
)
+ i(|2x + i(z + y)|
2
+|y z|
2
)
i(|2x i(y + z)|
2
+|y z|
2
)
and now using the denition of (, ) again, this is equal to 4(2x, y + z) so that if we
replace x by x/2,
2(x/2, y) + 2(x/2, z) = (x, y + z). (1)
Going back to the original denition of (, ), we see that if y = 0 then (x, y) = 0 for
any x so that in particular, using Equation (1), 2(x/2, z) = (x, z) so that Equation (1)
reduces to
(x, y) + (x, z) = (x, y + z).
If we put x for x or y for y in the denition of (, ), we get that (x, y) = (x, y)
and (x, y) = (x, y). Now by induction for any integer n Z,
(nx, y) = (x, ny) = n(x, y).
For any vector x and any nonzero integer n,
(x, y) = (
n
n
x, y) = n(
1
n
x, y)
so that (x, ky) = k(x, y) for any rational k. Fix x, y X and consider now the map
f : R C given by
f() = (x, y) (x, y).
Fix R. For any > 0 there is a rational r such that r + = . Thus, by using the
already proved linearity and (x, y) = (x, y) for rational , we get
[f()[ = [(x, y) (r + )(x, y)[
= [(x, y) (x, y)[
[(x, z)[ + [(x, z)[.
Now, using the triangle inequality for the norm, for any x, y X,
|x| = |x y + y| |x y| +|y| ,
and thus by symmetry,
[ |x| |y| [ |x y| .
This shows that x |x + y| is continuous so that (x, y) is continuous for xed y and so
if y is xed, then x (x, y) is also continuous. Hence if |x| 0 then (x, y) 0. Thus
[f()[ = 0 for all real . Finally, by substituting ix for x in the denition of (x, y) we get
that (x, y) = (x, y) for all complex .

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