Conductor size Gauge sizes decrease as the wire increases in size.

Number of strands = 3 n2 -3n + 1 where n = number of layers including the single central strand. The following conductors are used. AAC-all aluminum conductor AAAC-all aluminum alloy conductor ACSR-aluminum conductor steel re-inforced ACAR-aluminum conductor alloy re-inforced Line resistance R = l/A R2/R1 = (T0 +T2)/ (T0 +T1) R2 = Resistance at temperature T2 R1 = Resistance at temperature T1 T0 = Constant = 234.5 for annealed copper of 100% conductivity =241 for hard drawn copper of 97.3% conductivity =228 for hard drawn aluminum of 61% conductivity Skin effect is function of conductor size, frequency and resistance of conductor material. Discuss the proximity effect, stranding and spiraling of conductors

Line inductance - one phase & 3-phase

Single-phase overhead line Voltage drop in a single-phase line due to loop impedance

= 2 l (R + j l= line length, m

ln (Dm/Ds)/2 ) I

R= resistance of each conductor, m Dm= equivalent or geometric mean distance (GMD) between conductor centres Ds= Geometric mean radius(GMR), or self-GMD of one conductor = 0.7788 r for cylindrical conductor r= conductor radius I = current L= 2 x 10 -7 ln (Dm/Ds ) H/m Three-phase overhead line (unsymmetrical spacing) Dab +Dbc +Dca Equivalent equilateral spacing=Deq = Dm = (Dab DbcDca) 1/3 In practice , conductors are transposed. Transposition is carried out at switching stations Average inductance per phase L=2 x 10 -7 ln (Deq/Ds ) H/m

Line capacitance, 1-phase & 3-phase

Single-phase overhead line Cab = 2
0 r

/ ln (D/r) (F/m)

The capacitance to neutral for a two- wire line is twice the line-to-line capacitance, Cab. Three-phase overhead line Line-to-neutral capacitance Cn = 2
0 r

/ ln (Deq/r) (F/m)

Charging current /phase =j Cn Vph (A/m)

Effect of ground on capacitance of 3-phase line

The capacitance of a 3-phase transposed line considering ground effect is given by Cn = 2
0 r

/ [ln (Deq/r) -ln (h12 h23 h31/h11h22h33)] (F/m)

where h12= distance between conductor 1 and image of conductor 2, etc. Effect of ground is to increase the capacitance.

Long line equations (above 240 km)

The solution of the voltage wave equation using the initial conditions is V = (Cosh x) Vr + (Z0 Sinh x) Ir

I = (Y0 Sinh x) Vr + (Cosh x) Ir

= sqrt (yz) = + j = attenuation constant pu length = phase-shift constant pu length y = shunt admittance pu length z = series impedance pu length Z0 = surge impedance = sqrt (z/y); Y0 =1/Z0 Vs = AVr + BIr Is = CVr +DIr where A = Cosh l B = Z0Sinh l C = (1/Z0) Sinh l

D=A l= line length

Equivalent circuit for a long Line

The elements of the circuit are obtained from Z = B = Z0Sinh l = (Z Sinh l)/ l Y /2 = (A-1)/B = ( Cosh l - 1)/ Z0Sinh l = (tan( l/2).Y/2)/( l/2). The elements of the T circuit are obtained from ZT/2 = (A-1)/C = (Cosh l-1)/ ((1/Z0) Sinh l) ZT = 2 Z0 tanh ( l/2) = (Z tanh ( l/2))/ ( l/2) YT = C= (1/Z0) Sinh l = (Y Sinh l)/ l