Beware of the Man with One Book: An Exploratory Study of Teachers as Mediators of Identity-Based Conflict in Bosnia-Herzegovina

Paul Chiariello Linacre College

Dissertation submitted in part-fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MSc Education (Comparative and International Education) Trinity Term 2011

Abstract

Current research into the reflexive relationship between identity-based conflict and education has developed the idea of the two faces of education, both antagonistic and constructive. However, this reasoning is not used to consider the role teachers play in contexts of conflict. To create effective educational reforms, this study argues that the frames of reference teachers use to mediate curricula and reform efforts in such contexts must be understood. Acknowledging that teachers play a similarly reflexive role, this study seeks to first develop a framework that will describe the frames of reference teachers use in mediation and second to create an initial description of Bosnia-Herzegovinian teachers. Relying on the literature on conflict and education, the study identifies three major themes important in describing teachers frames of reference. They are 1) a critical construction of beliefs and perspectives, 2) an understanding of difference in beliefs and practices and 3) perspectives on inclusivity of identity. This framework was used to develop questions and indicators for interviews with ten Bosnia-Herzegovinian teachers in Tuzla and Zenica. An initial description of teachers is analyzed followed by a discussion of the framework developed from the literature. This is an exploratory study of a framework and of Bosnia-Herzegovinian teachers and therefore concludes with further research necessary to create a more comprehensive understanding of these issues.

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Acknowledgements

As for anyone confronted with the problem of writing acknowledgements, there are simply too many people to name who have helped realize this project. First, I have to thank my advisor, Professor David Johnson, for all of the hours of work he has put in, panic attacks he has had to deal with and the positive encouragement that has helped me finish this. Second, I could not have written this without the support of my partner, Siobhan Riordan. I can never pay her back completely for letting me rant about whatever it was I was thinking of at that particular moment and encouraging me when I doubted myself. To my friends in Bosnia-Herzegovina, you are too many to name. Specifically, I must acknowledge Emin Eminajic for his friendship and particular help in getting some of my referral chains going. I want to thank all of the participants who were so wonderful, especially who those who sacrificed their own time to help find further teachers to participate. I made a lot of friends and I couldnt have finished this without them. Last, but not least, I want to thank the library staff at Oxford, my fellow course-mates and all of the professors that have met with me, however brief, to discuss my dissertation

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List of Abbreviations

2U1R BiH CUREC CIIM FR GMR Ofsted PotB RCI RE RRI UNESCO URI

Two Schools Under One Roof policy Bosnia-Herzegovina Central Universitys Research Ethics Committee Common In-Group Identity Model Frames of Reference Global Monitoring Report Office of Standards in Education in the United Kingdom People of the Book Re-Categorized Civic Identity Religious Education Re-Categorized Religious Identity United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Universal Re-Categorized Identity

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Table of Contents
ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................................... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................................ iii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ......................................................................................................... iv Introduction Chapter........................................................................................................................ 6 The Importance of Teachers ........................................................................................................ 7 Bosnia-Herzegovina .................................................................................................................... 8 Aims and Research Questions ................................................................................................... 11 Methodology and Study Outline ............................................................................................... 11 Literature Review Chapter ............................................................................................................ 13 Teachers as Mediators ............................................................................................................... 13 Literature Research: Themes Important in Describing Teachers Frames of Reference ............ 15 First Theme: A Critical Construction of Beliefs and Perspectives ............................................ 16 Second Theme: An Understanding of Differences in Beliefs and Practices ............................. 18 Third Theme: Perspectives on Inclusivity of Identity ............................................................... 20 The Framework ......................................................................................................................... 23 Methodology Chapter .................................................................................................................... 25 Sampling.................................................................................................................................... 25 Interview Procedures and Rationale .......................................................................................... 28 Sensitive Subjects: Methodological Issues and Rapport ........................................................... 29 Ethical Issues ............................................................................................................................. 32 Research Questions ................................................................................................................... 33 Findings and Analysis Chapter...................................................................................................... 34 First theme: A Critical Construction of Beliefs and Perspectives ............................................. 34 Second theme: An Understanding of Differences in Beliefs and Practices............................... 43 Third theme: Perspectives on Inclusivity of Identity................................................................. 49 Beware of the Man with One Book ........................................................................................... 55 Discussion Chapter ........................................................................................................................ 57 Conclusion Chapter ....................................................................................................................... 64 Bibliography .................................................................................................................................. 67 Appendices .................................................................................................................................... 75

Introduction Chapter

Only recently has the view of education in contexts of conflict shifted from that of a panacea to that of a sometimes willing accomplice. Particularly in identity-based conflict, research has been mounting towards the view that education has two faces, a thesis argued best in The Two Faces of Education in Ethnic Conflict (Bush and Saltarelli, 2000). This reevaluation has come not a moment too soon. The Global Monitoring Report (GMR) (UNESCO, 2010) Reaching the Marginalized has argued that experts must focus on the marginalized if progress is going to continue. In efforts to reach such children, GMR 2010 has called specific attention to children in conflict affected countries, where nearly half of out of school children live. This urgency has led to the GMR report The Hidden Crisis: Armed Conflict and Education (UNESCO, 2011). In order to provide quality education to those most in need and ameliorate the often antagonistic effects of education on identity-based conflict itself it is increasingly acknowledged that an education system must first be understood. Only then can changes in curriculum, training, administration and other issues be addressed. In the present study, this reasoning is taken a step further and applied to teachers. Often teachers, individually and collectively, are treated as agent-less mediums mechanically dispersing curricula to students. However, teachers, like education itself, reflect the biases of their environment and can manifest two faces. Regardless of the curriculums content, teachers still consciously and unconsciously teach hidden curriculums to students in their actions, tone, jokes or what they dont have time for. This hidden curriculum is mediated by what I call, following Thornton (1991), their frame of reference (FR). A teachers FR is not the practices they actually use in this hidden curriculum, but the beliefs and perspectives that produce them. As with the importance of understanding an education system before one can attempt to fix it,

teachers FR must be understood if any lasting change in curricula or training is to be made.

The Importance of Teachers

Countries with identity-based crises still face problems around the world which are remedied, reflected and perpetuated by education systems. The positive and negative roles of education take many forms. South Africa experiences difficulty achieving equitable language policies. As white Afrikaners remain attached to an Afrikaans identity, historically discriminated groups continue to speak English. Universities therefore continue holding lectures in Afrikaans for the majority of students with, at best, simultaneous translations in English for others. In the Middle East, Groiss (2004; 2008) examines school textbooks for appropriate representations of others. Studies of Egyptian, Palestinian and other textbooks have brought to light both violent representations and condemnations of intolerance. In Northern Ireland segregation has been a central concern. With state schools dominantly Protestant, many Catholics attend private Church-run schools. The present study focuses the lense on teachers and the positive and negative roles they might play. Teachers similarly reflect their environment and lend their own complicit hands to conflicts. To better understand the role education plays in South Africa, the Middle East and Northern Ireland the FR teachers use in mediating issues of identity-based conflict must be understood. For example, how do professors view ethnicity and assimilation/accommodation? How do Middle Eastern teachers understand the concepts they teach? Do Irish teachers believe integration is preferable or will work? The curriculum or education system may be mandated to teachers, but teachers still facilitate, interpret and resist according to their frames of reference.

Bosnia-Herzegovina

Bosnia-Herzegovina (BiH) is historically comprised of three ethnic groups defined largely by religion. Identity-based conflict in BiH has a contested history and a full study of it is outside this studys scope. However, it is important to understand the context of BiH in order to ask what teachers FR used in mediating conflict are. Interviews with BiH teachers relied largely on topics discussed below to access the concepts important to understanding teachers FR, as discussed in the Literature Review, and will therefore be referenced again in the Findings-Analysis Chapter. The unique mix of BiHs Muslims1 or Bosniaks, Croats and Serbs were formed out of two key events: the splitting of the Roman Empire along Catholicism and Orthodoxy and the expansion of the Islamic Ottoman Empire. During these centuries the region experienced a complex political dance of shifting alliances with Catholic Rome or Orthodox Constantinople, followed by resistance and compliance with the Ottomans and then the Austro-Hungarians. During WWII, the Croatian Ustashe aligned with Germany persecuted Serbs by killing, converting and expelling them resulting in Serbian nationalist Chetnik resistance. Josip Titos communist and diverse Partisans, however, rose as victors and then suppressed ethno-religious identities for the socialist mantra of brotherhood and unity. The attempt was to form a unified Slavic nation, Yugoslavia. This union lasted until the War in the 1990s when constituent nations seceded. Varying interpretations of this past have been a major cause of identity-based conflict. They include both international explanations for recent violence and historical narratives internal to the Balkans. Many historical themes internal to the Balkans and relevant to modern BiH revolve around who the Bosnian Muslims are. It is not the purpose of this paper to answer this but to explore the various answers. Malcolm (1994) explains that in recent
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Terms used throughout the study requiring further explanation are explained in the Glossary in Appendix, 1. Their first use is italicized.

decades Croats have claimed Bosnian Muslims as really Croats while Serbs do the same. The most common reference point is the early Bosnian Church. Each ethnic group claims it as a heretical Catholic or Orthodox Church. Conversely, a popular, and debunked, theory was that it was Bogomil, a poorly understood heretical Christian sect. All such narratives assume that the Bosnian Church converted entirely to Islam at first chance. A similar narrative is that Bosnian elites and/or peasants converted for economic or political reasons once offered. Malcolm (1994) and Lovrenovic (2001) argue, however, that these narratives are full of holes as little is known of the Bosnian Church which certainly did not convert entirely. It likely disappeared during the 150 year period Bosnians began slowly converting to Islam. Instead, ethnic categories came after religious ones as the Ottomans organized their empire around religious and not linguistic groups. In addition to efforts to claim Muslims, narratives demonizing them also prevailed. These include the heretical nature of Bosnian Church narratives, opportunistic conversions under the Ottomans or association with Muslims as Turks and ethnic traitors (Drakulic, 2009). Narratives have also painted Muslims as Serbs or Croats with moral, genetic or social defects. Bosnian Muslims, however, have also taken pride by forming their own narratives, including continuity with a unique Bogomil Church or an essentially peaceful Bosnian coexistence of the three groups (Mahmutcehajic, 1998). Outside of these internal discourses, the international community has offered a variety of explanations as well. Malcolm (1994) argues that early Balkan conflict was economic and later conflict not religious but discussed in terms of politically minded individuals. Mazower (2000) focuses alternatively on romantic nationalism of conflicting patriots. Roots therefore go back primarily to Catholic Europes Eastern Question to intervene in the regions fate between Orthodox Russia and the Muslim Ottomans. Sells (1996) champions the position that religion is underrepresented in this discourse. The focus is too often shifted away from Catholic and Orthodox propaganda or Islamic Jihadists. Sells points to the abundance of religious symbols and narratives, especially depictions of Muslims as Christ killers. Lastly, is the international communitys focus on historic hatred. Malcolm (1994) describes Americans and Europeans as maintaining a simplistic picture of ancient ethnic hatred that should be allowed to burn out.
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This mix of international and internal dialogs culminated in and about the war in the 1990s. The compromise of the US-led Dayton Accord organized an enormously decentralized state ensuring autonomy to each group. BiH was split into the centralized Republic of Srbska and the dominantly Croat and Muslim 10 cantons of the Republic of BiH. These 11 states, plus the Republic of Brchko, each have their own education systems that serve their ethnic composition. This fractured system has led to a multitude of educational issues that reflect and perpetuate identity-based conflict. First, the separate curriculum taught to students depends on the schools ethno-religious demographics, perpetuating the biased, negative narratives outlined above. These curricula consist of separate national subjects: history, religion and language. Studies of these texts often promote self-victimization and demonize others as the Great-Serbian aggressors or Ustashe as fascists and racists (Torsti, 2007). Many Croat and Serb curricula are published outside BiH in the capitals of Croatia and Serbia (Russo, 2000). Second, the Two Schools Under One Roof (2U1R) policy exemplifies the walls between these groups. Some ethnic schools are combined only by sharing a door-less wall or organizing separate morning and evening shifts in a single building. However there are also areas of hope in the role education can play. The currently segregated city of Mostar is host to the United World Colleges International Summer School on Peace and Conflict Resolution. Their mission is to deliver a challenging and transformative educational experience by inspiring them to create a more peaceful and sustainable future (United World College, 2011). Considering the wide variety of issues discussed above, it is important to understand teachers FR. With an adequate understanding of what teachers use to mediate the curricula we can better understand how they act in this context and how further training and education reforms will be mediated by teachers. As no such framework exists to investigate teachers FR, the present study will develop one by surveying the relevant literature and then using informed interviews to explore BiH teachers FR and the framework itself.

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Aims and Research Questions

The aim of this study is to further research that adequately informs education reconstruction in conflict and post-conflict societies by focusing on the important and often neglected role that teachers play. There are two research questions posed in this study: First, relying on the literature, what themes are important in developing a framework to describe teachers frames of reference used in the mediation of contexts of identity-based conflict? Second, what are teachers frames of reference relevant in mediating issues of identity-based conflict in Bosnia-Herzegovina? This latter question will further elucidate the framework initially described in the first research question.

Methodology and Study Outline

Field research consisted of interviews with BiH teachers. Because the present study discusses sensitive subjects, snowball sampling will be used to build rapport and gain access, as discussed in the Methodology Chapter. Ten teachers were interviewed from two major BiH cities, Tuzla and Zenica. The interviews explored a wide variety of discussions aimed at uncovering concepts developed from the literature and composed into three themes in the Literature Review. The interview findings will be analyzed and then discussed to further understand the concepts used and framework itself. The interviews provided a detailed method for answering the research questions. First, they explored the themes identified in the literature. The Discussion Chapter further investigates reliable and valid interview questions and concepts, question for
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further study about the three themes and a possible fourth theme arising from analysis of findings. Second, the interviews provide an initial description of BiH teachers FR, with required additional research in the Discussion Chapter.

The present paper follows the format of Literature Review, Methodology Chapter, Findings-Analysis Chapter, Discussion Chapter and Conclusion. The Literature Review analyzes what the present literature argues is important to understand concerning teachers frames of reference in contexts of identity-based conflict. The Methodology Chapter describes and justifies the methodology used in the present study of BiH teachers. The initial framework developed in the Literature Review was used in creating interview questions and in organizing and analyzing the following Findings-Analysis Chapter. The Discussion Chapter will outline further study of both BiH teachers and suggestions for further research to expand the initial framework described in the Literature Review. The Conclusion will summarize the research problem and questions, the studys findings on these issues and the studys limits.

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Literature Review Chapter

This chapter explores both the literature supporting the research problem discussed in the Introduction of educations two faces, teachers frames of reference (FR) and mediation. Following is an initial framework representing the three major themes identified in the literature for describing teachers FR. These themes are not exhaustive or mutually exclusive. In the Discussion Chapter, suggestions for further research into the inter-relatedness of the themes and a new theme not gathered from the literature will be discussed.

Teachers as Mediators

For many years policy makers and educationists passively understood education as a positive force in conflict situations. However, there is growing consensus that education has two faces, contributing to both conflict and its resolution (Bush and Saltarelli, 2000; Davies, 2004). As Buckland (2005: 11) discusses, education is a key social institution that is impacted by and can influence characteristics that perpetuate or resolve conflict. As Johnson and Stewart (2007: 249) add, education can reflect rather than cause the general hostility between communities. The reflexivity that education has with its environment enables it to instigate post-conflict situations and provide a background for positive civic engagement and tolerance. This dynamic is now addressed in many post-conflict programs. But while education systems and curricula are investigated according to this reflexive dynamic, the same reasoning is not applied to teachers. Such programs are implemented as if teachers are a broadly uniform conduit. However, it is important to understand the actual perspectives of teachers in the communities that these reforms seek to reach.

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Many acknowledge that teachers are the most critical resource in education reconstruction (Buckland, 2005: 49), but little is given to the role that teachers individually and collectively make on their own agency towards shaping their educational and social contexts. Top down policies are often simply pushed through the medium of teachers or aim to mold them according to some certain frame. However, as Holmes and McLean (1989) argue, teachers play the role of guardian over the curriculum. Their deeply held beliefs make curriculum change slow and difficult and determine their responses to proposals for curriculum reform (Holmes and McLean, 1989: vii, 138). In order to affect change in the classroom, teachers must internalize new beliefs. Otherwise, teachers will continue to express the freedom they have behind closed doors (Holmes and McLean, 1989: 74). Thornton (1991) similarly argues that teachers are gate-keepers. Teachers make day to day decisions on the actual content of their lessons and the experiences that students have access to (Thornton, 1991; Adler, 1991). Tawil and Harley (2004) here draw a distinction between the intended, officially prescribed curriculum and the real, hidden or actually implemented curriculum. The latter hidden curriculum includes indirect meanings or connotations, teacher behaviors and attitudes and expectations in assessment. These decisions come from their frame of reference (FR), which comprises their beliefs about the value or likelihood of things, regardless of whether they are good or bad; rigorously thought through or passively consumed (Thornton, 1991: 237). A teachers FR is further important to understand as it is both consciously and unconsciously expressed in the classroom. Teachers are constantly examined not only by their students, but also their communities (Ismail, 1997: 44). Internalization is needed if they are to practice what they preach (Njoroge, 2007; Holmes and McLean, 1989). Because teachers are the most proximal lens through which children are socialized in the classroom, their actual behavior and attitudes are constantly assessed and absorbed by the student. Even if the curriculum is taught mechanically, conforming to orders is undesirable because it means teaching without conviction when conviction is needed (Peshkin, 1972: 67). Without the acceptance of the beliefs taught, teachers will not be
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able to fully engage students and the curriculum in ways that will effectively socialize those values. As Thornton (1991) argues, the form of teachers interaction with students, whether shaped out of volition, their unconsciousness or conveniences sake, may outweigh the impact of the taught curriculum. This FR is developed by a complicated socialization process that involves the community in which teachers live. Teachers, like education itself, reflect the structural biases of their environment (Socknat, 2006: 149; Nelson, 1991; Peshkin, 1972). Teachers beliefs and their reflexive relationship with their community therefore need to be understood if any positive change is to be made using education. It is the role of teachers as guardians and gate-keepers that I will refer to them as mediators. Teachers mediate an issue, whether the lesson is specifically on that issue or not, through their deeply held beliefs or frame of reference. Mediation includes their conscious and unconscious behavior which reflects their beliefs. Therefore, because of the importance and resilience of the beliefs teachers hold, any policy reformer or teacher trainer needs to be able to understand the actual beliefs held by teachers. The remainder of this chapter will engage the literature to design an initial framework of three themes for describing teachers FR, which influence the mediation of identity-based conflict2. To explore this initial framework, these themes will be used in analyzing interview findings with teachers in BiH.

Literature Research: Themes Important in Describing Teachers Frames of Reference

In a review of the literature, three central themes were identified as important for teachers FR in mediating identity-based conflict. They are the critical construction of beliefs, understanding of difference of beliefs and practice and perspectives on the inclusivity of identity. The remainder of this chapter will establish from the literature the
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Identity-based conflict is used, following Tawil and Harley (2004), instead of ethnic and religious conflict to draw salience to the issue of identity and avoid ambiguities of the latter.

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important components of these three themes. These themes were used to develop interviews used in field research. Literature on peace education and identity-based conflict was the primary focus of this literature review. However, social psychology, religious education, conflict resolution and other disciplines were investigated. Terms searched and cross-referenced included, but was not limited to, belief$, perspective$, ethni$, religio$, teacher$, education, mediat$, and conflict. After the three basic themes were identified, further searches included, empath$, identity, knowledge, critical and others. Once a selection of literature was found, further resources were selected from bibliographies. Journals, such as the Journal of Peace Education and the Muslim Education Quarterly, were also routinely searched.

First Theme: A Critical Construction of Beliefs and Perspectives

The first theme concerns the critical construction of beliefs and perspectives. In understanding teachers FR it is important to understand how they construct them. Before teachers can become transformative agents (Miller and Ramos, 1999) or have instructional effectiveness (Gay and Kirkland, 2003), teachers must maintain a critical consciousness, a readiness to question beliefs and have the ability for cognitive flexibility, self-assessment and reflection (Carter, 2007: 245). Gallagher (2004) discusses why this conscious critical awareness is important. He argues we should consider the thinking styles of prejudiced thinkers versus reasoned thinkers as a primary issue in developing stereotypes. Prejudiced thinkers develop beliefs that are rigid and fixed and are more likely to be defended than changed faced with conflicting evidence, while reasoned thinkers are flexible, critical and amenable to change as new information is encountered (Gallagher, 2004: 24). The former maintains stereotypes, while the latter is important for dismantling them.

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Active incorporation of multiple interpretations is also important because it challenges beliefs that form barriers to reconciliation. Nieto (2010) and Niens (2009) argue for critical multiculturalism, which openly challenges racist and other beliefs, allowing similarities and confronting prejudices. In a complimentary dynamic, Doi (1990) argues for critical thinking as central to education in multi-cultural countries for its role in making it difficult for misconceptions and prejudices claimed to be widely accepted. Openness to multiple interpretations or perspectives and a critical view of culture allows an escape from ethnocentrism and acknowledges positive perceptions of differences and ways of knowing (Hickling-Hudson, 2003; Gay and Kirkland, 2003). . A critical construction of history is a central concern during identity-based conflict as it plays an important role in identity formation. In this role, history is often used for political ends and should be critically engaged (Bush and Saltarelli, 2000). Davis (1996) argues that particular narratives are interpreted to justify particular interpretations of the present by connecting them with the past. This practice of interpretation often includes an affective or emotional construction of history involving both personal and collective memory (Bekerman and Zembylas, 2010). While not necessarily negative, these narratives can legitimate victimhood engendering anger and bitterness (McGrellis, 2004) and justify negative reactions and stronger in-group identity (Bekerman and Zembylas, 2010). Acknowledging that history need not follow the past allows dialogic possibilities and the construction of new narratives (Bush and Saltarelli, 2000; Bekerman and Zembylas, 2010). New narratives create the possibilities for reconciliation, creating new identities (Bekerman and Zembylas, 2010) and better understanding the dynamics of group relations (Reid, 1999; Miller and Ramos, 1999). An uncritical view of history as static or repetitive will ensure that it is, while using history to selectively justify present beliefs will hinder the formation of new ones. Whether or not they are history teachers, references to history infiltrate every classroom and a teachers representation of it will provide lessons for the possibility of constructive change. Further, a teachers construction of history reflects important aspects of their beliefs about identities.

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Empathy, lastly, is a necessary ingredient for a critical FR. Here we are concerned with the cognitive definition which can be deliberately learned and taught (Kahn and Lawhorne, 2003). This use of empathy consists of viewing the perspective of decision makers, and develop[ing] an understanding for the problems and opportunities they face (Stover, 2005: 207). For Kahn and Lawhorne (2003) empathy consists of accurate perspective taking which involves identifying and understanding the others emotions. Similarly, Barton and Levstik (2004) prefer the term perspective recognition which involves identifying the multiple perspectives of an issue. In this paper I will use perspective recognition as it implies a more reasonable act than assuming one can take the perspective of another. This process is important in that it may lead to motivation for ameliorating others conditions (Kahn and Lawhorne, 2003) and increase interaction, cooperation and curbing of violence (Malhotra and Liyanage, 2005). In short, empathy is the colloquial practice of walking in anothers shoes or acknowledging anothers eyes to add to ones own individual experience. In surveying some of the literature that is concerned with the critical construction of beliefs and perspectives, I have identified four broad, overlapping concerns. A critical construction of beliefs consists of 1) a flexible and critical construction of beliefs, 2) an active use of multiple perspectives, 3) a critical focus on historical narratives, and 4) the use of empathetic perspective recognition. A critical construction is important in the context of identity-based conflict as it allows teachers, and the students they teach, to be aware of previous stereotypes, dismantle them, break out of ethnocentric perspectives, bring others into dialog, facilitate the formation of new ideas and make positive associations with others circumstances.

Second Theme: An Understanding of Differences in Beliefs and Practices

The second theme concerns understanding differences in beliefs and practices. Teachers should have a general understanding of other groups, whether in terms of

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culture or religion, beliefs or practices, in order to better understand and mediate relevant issues. Ignorance of difference in beliefs and practices can inhibit efforts for reconciliation or exacerbate conflict. Inadequate and shallow teaching may only reinforce and encourage the application of stereotypes when analyzing contemporary or historical issues (Council on Islamic Education, 2002). One form of shallow teaching is representing only one isolated sketch of a religion in a particular time or place giving the image of a static, undifferentiated item (Douglas, 2001). Monolithic stereotypes of beliefs and practices can also lead to misunderstandings and nurture animosity in analyzing actions and arguments (Njoroge, 2007; Unites States Institute of Peace, 2005a). This includes discussions in subjects besides religious education or history since issues relevant to ethno-religious conflict permeate all subjects (Smith, 2006). A more detailed study of beliefs and practices, whether explicitly in curricula or through the teachers own nuanced mediation of relevant issues, would help students better analyze contemporary events and arguments by pluralizing Otherness to disarm notions of an undifferentiated block or monolithic representation (United States Institute of Peace, 2005b). Understanding of other groups may also provide positive perspectives and facilitate dialog. Active, informed study of others may produce positive attitudes towards diversity (Morris, 1999). The Office of Standards in Education in the UK (Ofsted) concluded a relationship between lack of teacher knowledge with their confidence teaching Religious Education (RE) and also poor RE provision with student attitudes towards diversity (Ofsted, 2010). Without better understanding of differences, students with a daily dialogue in multi-cultural settings may simply talk past each other due to the often unique use of representations of different cultures and religions (Cilliers, 2007). Teachers also should be aware of students when teaching in diverse classrooms. In order to teach you, I must know you Delpit (1995: 183) quotes a Native Alaskan saying. In multicultural classes, understanding the different backgrounds and starting points of students, as well as your own in comparison, is important for class management (Gay and Kirkland, 2003; Delpit, 1995).

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Teaching informed about practices, as opposed to solely doctrine, is also important and better represents how faiths are lived out (United States Institute of Peace, 2005a). Experiencing rituals creates a more accurate picture of groups and allows an experience of worldviews as others see them (Smock, 2007; Abu-Nimer, 2007). Mere contact may not be enough to remedy ignorance either. McGrellis (2004: 22) has found that after programs operating on the contact hypothesis many teachers in Northern Ireland maintained previously held beliefs and attitudes of their home communities. To develop an understanding of another groups beliefs and practices regular interaction with friends, family, local community and personal study may play a central role in developing and maintaining an accurate understanding of differences. An understanding of difference of beliefs and practices is important in that it helps 1) dismantle negative stereotypes and undifferentiated monolithic representations, 2) construct positive attitudes and dialog and 3) facilitates teachers better understanding the actions and needs of students. An understanding of such difference concerns both beliefs and practices. Personal experiences of these are important for understanding how different faiths are lived out. Further, regular exposure with friends, family and community may develop and maintain an accurate understanding of differences.

Third Theme: Perspectives on Inclusivity of Identity

The Third Theme concerns perspectives on the inclusivity of identity. Teachers may view the in-group they most identify with as excluding certain groups or, on the other hand, including what is commonly considered an out-group. This is important for how teachers mediate issues concerning group relationships. Identity is often a primary instigator of conflict, and increasingly ethno-religious identity (Stewart, 2008; Danesh, 2007). Social scientists in various fields have argued about what constitutes such identity. Primordialists believe ethnic identities are extreme socio-biological givens (Wolff, 2007; Stewart, 2008). Ones culture is determined by
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birth, making its traditions and traits inherited. In contrast are Instrumentalists who believe ethnicity is fluid and both groups and members can change identities (Wolff, 2007; Stewart, 2008). The salience of certain identities for individuals or groups and the characteristics emphasized are manipulated by social forces, most commonly group leaders. While many currently believe that this latter interpretation of ethnicity as fluid better reflects its dynamics, it is important to acknowledge that for individuals within those groups identity is still often perceived as primordialist. The perception of primordialism or instrumentalism is important for how individuals treat messages from group leaders and the possibility of change (Gallagher, 2004). A perceived primordialist identity is often formed in reference to an out-group (Wolff, 2007) with education, formal or informal, regularly used to develop such distinctions (Johnson and Stewart, 2007). Kelly (1993: 65-66) has argued that often the stronger the individuals sense of in-group identification, the more negative the perception of those out-group characteristics. This point is particularly important for instrumentalists who charge leaders with manipulating this dynamic. Negative stereotyping of out-groups is a particular concern for teachers who historically have been used as a weapon in cultural repression defining such groups for students (Bush and Saltarelli, 2000: 10). How we form in-groups and out-groups can, however, create more positive intergroup relationships. Hybrid identities that focus on common characteristics, hopes and fears can encourage reconciliation and diminish negative assumptions (Doi, 1990). The level of inclusivity of identity, therefore, is important as the more inclusive ones salient identity is, the less likely they will maintain negative stereotypes against what others may perceive as out- groups. Danesh (2007) identifies three worldview types: Survival, Identity and Unity worldviews. Survival worldviews, Danesh argues, are based on power and domination, and often used by individuals during crises. Identity worldviews also focus on survival, but of groups in competition. A notion of the survival of the fittest and objectives to get ahead of others accompany these worldviews (Danesh, 2008: 160). Unity worldviews, however, promote safety, cooperation and reject all forms of prejudice and
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segregation (Danesh, 2007: 141). In this worldview common characteristics and ends are focused on in attempts to work together. Gaertner, Dovidio, Anastasio, Bachevan and Rust (1993) propose the Common In-group Identity Model (CIIM), comparing the effects of categorization, decategorization and re-categorization in several empirical tests. Categorization consists of defining in-groups and out-groups and maintaining or enhancing biases. Decategorization takes advantage of pluralizing otherness, as mentioned by United States Institute of Peace (2005b) above. This renders each member more distinctive and this potentially blurs the prior categorization scheme (Gaertner, et al, 1993) reducing bias. Re-categorization, however, is argued as more effective. Here categories are formed into a single group either through the process of 1) increasing the salience of existing common super-ordinate characteristics (Gaertner, et al, 1993: 6) or 2) introducing new common characteristics, goals, etc, for example, a new national identity,. The study showed that re-categorization had a greater reduction in bias primarily by increasing the attractiveness of former out-groups. De-categorization reduced bias, though less so, by decreasing attractiveness of the former in-group. Reducing bias with CIIM, the researchers argue, expands the boundaries of identities increasing inter-group harmony. In respect to more inclusive religious identities, many authors focus on the similarities of the Abrahamic religions. This includes forming new syncretic religions, such as Chrislam which hybridizes Christianity and Islam. Abu-Nimer (2007: 23) argues that during inter-faith dialogue emphasizing these similarities is necessary for building trust and for discovering the human bond that ties. Noibi (1994) focuses on the Islamic category People of the Book (PotB) as a binding characteristic. All groups keep their original religions but focus on similarities over differences. For this he cites such passages in the Koran as 2: 135, 3:64-67, 10:47. However, Danesh (2007) and Harris (1988) argue that a new identity should be formed beyond such religious beliefs. Being human, they argued, is itself sufficient for a new re-categorized or unity worldview. Whether individuals believe their identity is ingrained or not, we can identify four categories between Danesh (2007) and Gaertner, et al (1993) concerning perceptions of inclusivity of identity. First, it is important to discuss de-categorization as opposed to
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Daneshs Survival worldview, as both posit individuation of group identity. For Danesh the Survival worldview is marked by individuals putting themselves in conflict with outgroups that include all other individuals. De-categorization, however, separates individuals from their previous in-group by deconstructing the homogeneities that separated groups, individuating the members of each group. In other words, me against the world versus simply meeting individuals instead of representatives of groups. Second, both Identity worldviews and categorization represent a status quo in maintaining the identity commonly held between groups. Third, the Unity worldview is here taken to be analogous to re-categorization. However, three kinds of new unified identities can be formed in relation to previous group identities. 1) An individual may focus on common factors between the two groups resulting in a more salient new identity, such as PotB, or 2) abandon old identities for a new identity based on similar traits, i.e. syncretic identities like Chrislam. Lastly, 3) a new identity could be formed by introducing new traits and goals un-related to the old groups, for example, a national identity. Fourth, corresponding to the logical extension of the Unity worldview, we can importantly identify a universal re-categorized identity, namely humanity. Maintaining a more inclusive and instrumentalist perspective on identity allows teachers to engage messages from group leaders, perceive the possibility of change, resist structures that perpetuate in- and out-groups, reduce bias and organize groups oriented toward common ends.

The Framework

This chapter surveys three themes the literature argues are important for teachers FR. The Discussion Chapter will introduce a fourth theme developed from initial findings and suggest further studies of this framework. Exploration of the concepts above in interviews will weave a description of how teachers construct their FR, understand others and identify in relation to others. These themes are necessary to understand in order to grasp how teachers consciously and unconsciously mediate and reflexively affect the education system and curricula. With a better understanding of
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teachers we can better understand their responses to reforms and how best to create effective new reforms. The description above is only an initial, partial and mutually inclusive framework comprised of three themes. First is teachers critical construction of beliefs and perspectives. It is important to understand how teachers reflexively interact with their context and form their FR. A critical perspective, use of multiple perspectives and empathy are the central concerns of this theme. This allows teachers, and the students they teach, to criticize stereotypes and positively acknowledge others narratives. Second is teachers understanding of difference in beliefs and practices. It is important to understand how teachers understand other groups they mediate to students. An understanding of lived practices and beliefs which can best be learned by personal exposure is here the central concern. This allows teachers and students to adequately engage both educational content and the dialog in which they live. Third are teachers perspectives on inclusivity of identity. It is important to understand how teachers perceive their relations to others which inform their interactions and understanding of historical interactions. A primordialist or instrumentalist concept of identity and the inclusivity of identity is the concern of this theme. This facilitates teachers beliefs about how different groups have interacted, possibilities for new identities and the associations they form with corresponding in- and out-groups that teachers mediate to students. This framework will be used to describe teachers in BiH. How this framework will be used in empirical field research is discussed in the following Methodology Chapter. In later chapters, the findings of this study will be analyzed and used to discuss further studies and the framework itself.

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Methodology Chapter

The present study is an initial exploration of the framework developed in the Literature Review and therefore allows special sampling and methodological considerations that a more comprehensive study would require. However, validity, reliability and research ethics remained key concerns. This study relies on qualitative empirical analysis gathered during field research consisting of interviews with teachers3. BiH was chosen as a site for several reasons. First, BiH manifests a variety of the negative and positive roles of education, as the Introduction discusses. This provides a relevant context to explore the framework developed in the Literature Review. Second, it has been my own observation and that of colleagues knowledgeable of BiH society that this study could be conducted safely and respectfully. BiH, therefore, presents a unique context that is still both relevant for respondents and appropriate to be discussed. Third, this study relies on convenience, snowball sampling. Personal contacts in BiH were able to answer logistical issues and develop initial contacts with teachers interested in participating in the study. For these reasons BiH was an ideal choice to conduct an exploratory study of this kind.

Sampling

Convenience sampling methods were used in this study, specifically snowball or chain referral sampling. Snowball sampling uses referrals made among people who share or know of others who possess some characteristics that are of research interest
3

For an example interview transcript see Appendix, 2.

25

(Biernacki and Waldorf, 1981). The characteristics initially of interest were Bosnian secondary school teachers comfortable interviewing in English. Several personal contacts, all Bosnian citizens, acted as initial locators of possible respondents. The use of referrals initiated by personal interactions was chosen for its informal approach in the hopes of lending rapport to the researcher. Though snowball sampling is most often used for so called deviant behaviors, such as drug use, it is also useful for approaching sensitive issues, of which identity-based conflict is one. A foreign researcher, or even school administration, may not have access to the willingness of possible respondents (Biernacki and Waldorf, 1981). Locators, contacts and past respondents that search for future respondents willing to participate, were instructed to not discuss interview questions, but were allowed to discuss other information. Locators were not reimbursed for their participation. Further instructions, initially, involved the requirements that respondents were secondary school teachers willing to participate in English. Most often locaters contacted and initially discussed the project and myself with a variety of possible respondents. If willing, locators forwarded contact information after which I personally contacted respondents to discuss the study further and arrange other logistics of the interview. Questions about the study were also asked directly by respondents during this introduction. This period of introduction occurred often over a series of messages via email, Facebook and phone, depending on respondent preferences. A broad sample with minimal requirements of respondents characteristics was initially welcomed (Biernacki and Waldorf, 1981). This was followed by a second stage where specific under-represented demographic traits were sought by controlling the referral chains. All three initial locators were able to reference other non-teachers who further participated as locators in finding respondents and locators. Initial referral chains involved possible respondents in the cities of Zenica, Tuzla, Sarajevo and Mostar. The referral chains developed and materialized most quickly and broadly in Zenica and Tuzla before interviews started in other cities, leading to the decision to continue pursuit of respondents exclusively in these locations. This would provide both an easier interview schedule and minimize logistical complications. Due to the sampling methodology and size, broad generalizations would be invalid, however the trends that did initially emerge from the study would be much easier to characterize to the similar demographics of these
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two cities. Unlike other cities considered, both Zenica and Tuzla consist of a Muslim majority and a relatively integrated Croat minority, with other ethno-religious groups only nominally represented. After half of the goal of 10 respondents was interviewed, the second phase started and locators were asked to find more Bosniak Muslim respondents, which was accomplished, seemingly, without difficulty. Similarly, the use of English in interviews led eventually to the explicit search for English teachers. Several locators said that they had asked a variety of teachers of other subjects, but none were comfortable enough to participate in English. Other demographics were also monitored though were not underrepresented enough to influence an explicit change in the second stage. A total of ten interviews averaging 105minutes, ranging 77 to 130 minutes, was taken and fully transcribed. Four respondents from Tuzla and six from Zenica were interviewed. The resulting sample included four men and six women; five respondents that attended secondary school primarily before the war in the 1990s and five after and two respondents with Muslim parents, four with Croat parents and four with mixed Croat and Serb parents. Whether respondents grew up in Yugoslavia or the present BiH was considered significant because of 1) the wide divergence in social and educational policies and 2) their different experiences of the war in the 1990s. Many of the younger respondents at their own confession did not remember the conflict or understand what they were experiencing. The teachers interviewed taught at a variety of schools including public schools with a Muslim majority, Catholic schools and vocational secondary schools. As an exploratory study a rigorous, representative sample is not the aim. Further studies seeking to describe the frames of reference (FR) representative of BiH teachers in these cities and BiH as a whole must interview a larger sample and proportionate amount of Muslim teachers. The present study nearly reverses the proportions of the Croat and Muslim populations (the proportion of Croat and Muslim teachers in these cities could not be found). Snowball sampling further limits the sample to specific networks of teachers which may represent a sub-population within these cities. This however, was accounted for where possible by locators approaching teachers in different schools and who they were not personally close with. However, this study only seeks to explore the
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framework detailed in the Literature Review and therefore only an initial exploration of the various discourses and perspectives of the population are needed and then described in the Findings-Analysis Chapter.

Interview Procedures and Rationale

The initial aim for interviews justified during CUREC approval4 was for a series of two semi-structured interviews with respondents totaling an estimated two hours, scheduled at the respondents convenience. There were a variety of reasons to structure interviews in this way, though original plans changed due to considerations during field research. The rationale for a series of interviews was argued to provide several benefits. It 1) would allow respondents to further think about the topics discussed in the first half and 2) would unburden respondents from lengthy two-hour interviews. In the Participant Information Form5, and at the beginning of each interview it was explained to respondents that they could stop the interview at any time and resume it later, or not, in a second session at their convenience. Though some respondents acknowledged they might decide to continue the interview later, all respondents eventually, from my own perspective, became engaged in the content of the interview and decided to continue until all of the interview questions were asked. One respondent even asked to continue the interview in another setting instead of postponing it until a later time once we were asked to vacate an office we were using. All interviews were completed in single interviews with respondents. A semi-structured interview has been used to balance two aspects discussed by May (2004), specifically 1) the ability to compare answers so that broader conclusions can be made and 2) the ability of respondents to fully expressed themselves and the chance for interviewers to explore these answers. While the former focuses on
4 5

See Appendix, 3 for the CUREC 1a application and Appendix, 4 for CUREC Approval. See Appendix, 6.

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uniformity of question and is need to look for patterns of answers the latter focuses on the flexibility of questions and allows unique follow up questioning directed at further understanding individual respondents particular answers. Therefore, open questions were asked while respondents were encouraged to answer at length with further questions exploring these answers.

Sensitive Subjects: Methodological Issues and Rapport

Issues of conflict fall under the category of sensitive subjects. Questions in this study did not enter, except tangentially, on respondents or their close familys personal experiences of conflict but instead on their perceptions and opinions of issues related to identity, learning, friends, family and current issues. Issues that might cause any emotional or psychological stress for respondents were avoided and I constantly repeated to respondents their ability to stop the interview or not answer questions if they chose to. However, as Lee (1993: 5) argues, It is not unusual for the sensitive nature of an apparently innocuous topic to become apparent once the research is under way. This study already begins far from innocuous. Therefore, a variety of precautions were taken concerning methodological risk. If questions are perceived to be too sensitive they may be under or over reported, avoided, taken offense to or create in the respondent a negative view of the interviewers intentions influencing how they later interpret questions. First, Lee (1993) argues that open questions could deal with issues of under reporting of participation that respondents are aware may be considered socially inappropriate or that the interviewer might see as such. Avoiding this was one reason interviews were chosen to the exclusion of questionnaires. Further questions that asked the respondents to rate themselves compared to others were avoided. Instead interview questions focused on respondents narratives and perspectives on issues without comparison to others. The use of open questions also allowed me to develop a clearer set of questions for increased reliability and validity. It is important to understand how respondents
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themselves understand specific terms or the questions being asked so that each question when asked to different respondents is interpreted reliably and consistently in the same way. It is also important to understand how individual respondents use certain terms and questions so that the questions given and the answers they give validly and accurately refer to those indicators aimed at by the researcher. It is important not that the speaker, whether it be the researcher or respondent, knows what is meant, but that listener also knows what is meant. Converse and Presser (1986) suggest that open questions are important to use as they allow researchers to explore respondents use of specific words and how they understand different questions. This suggestion was used at the beginning of interviews. For example, teachers were asked a series of questions about their age, the subject they taught and also how they identify themselves and the ethno-religious demographics of their school and town. I admitted in these introductory questions that different people used different categories and terms, so I was interested in how they understood them. Whether or not, for example, the respondent referred to Muslims or gave legitimacy to the term Bosniak informed me of their thoughts about those terms and how they would interpret questions later. After several interviews, I also better understood how individual questions were understood by respondents answers and the questions they asked for clarification. These discussions allowed me to better understand answers in previous interviews and better edit future questions. Second, is the critical issue of validity of self-reported data in discussions of sensitive subjects. To improve the validity of self-reports Lee (1993) suggests comparisons for consistency of respondents answers with their answers at different points in the interview or separate interviews. During the lengthy two hour interview, several issues were revisited. However, it is important while discussing sensitive subjects not to be perceived by respondents as treating them as untrustworthy which may result from asking them the same question repeatedly in a noticeable way. Therefore, questions repeated were varied. Similarly, for certain general topics discussions on several different issues were also used to triangulate respondents views. An example of this was the separation of discussions over education. During the beginning of the interview respondents were asked questions about their own personal education. This was compared later, towards the interviews end, with their views on specific educational
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policies, many of which were raised in the earlier discussion. This example, however, does not compare exactly the same answers as the question and their contexts have changed. What were also being compared in this example were respondents answers to questions in different contexts, different stages of comfort (rapport) with the interviewer and after different amounts of time thinking and discussing such issues. Lastly, the issue of rapport and the dynamic between the interviewer and interviewee is central to any discussion of research on sensitive subjects. Building rapport with respondents can help elicit valid and reliable answers. Burgess (1984) argues that unstructured and semi-structured interviews may lead to greater honesty and openness in responses than structured interviews and questionnaires. More unstructured interviews allow the chance for the respondent to learn about the motives, perspective and personality of the interviewer by asking questions in return and a more conversational format. Prior to interviews, I often discussed a variety of unrelated issues sports, news, hobbies and explained that I am not evaluating their views but only curious about their thoughts on certain issues. There are several aspects the interviewerinterviewee relationship that are important to discuss. Going into an interview it is important to understand that the characteristics of the interviewer place limits on the roles that the interviewer can adopt (Burgess, 1984: 105). As a young foreigner, there are a few issues that need consideration. I certainly cannot take on, or more importantly be perceived as taking on, a position of authority on issues that others believe are unwarranted by my age or position as an outsider. Fortunately, it is possible to see the exercise of power in the interview as a two way process: it can be exerted by both the interviewer and the respondent (Lee, 1993: 110). Using these characteristics as an advantage, it was decided to take a less authoritative stance during interviews. For discussions where respondents were describing their beliefs about a particular policy or historical narrative this strategy seemed to be particularly useful. If I was deemed to be less or comparably knowledgeable on a topic, then those respondents that were relatively unconfident in their beliefs had less of a risk of looking foolish as I could not judge their accuracy. These advantages could be easily taken too far, however. Some respondents would begin by explaining relatively simple
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points where my original question sought more nuanced information. Further it is important to maintain some degree of authority or apparent knowledge to appropriately steer the conversation. In addition to the interviewers characteristics, the characteristics of the interview site are also important. Practical considerations, primarily background noise and accessibility, were taken into account when discussing where the interview should take place. Often we would meet in one location easily recognizable to myself, who was initially unfamiliar with the streets of Tuzla and Zenica, and walk to another site for the interview. This also allowed for further conversations not related to the interview creating opportunities for rapport, discussed above. Respondents, with the exception of one who preferred having the interviews in unused classrooms, chose cafes. Cafes in most Bosnian cities are regularly visited throughout the day and a popular place to meet with friends in a laid back setting. In a few instances the first caf had to be abandoned because of noise considerations, but a nearby alternative was quickly found.

Ethical Issues

In addition to methodological issues, there are also a variety of ethical considerations. Approval for this study has received clearance for CUREC 1a6 from an ethics committee at the University of Oxford Central University Research Ethics Committee. Respondent consent was approached in two stages. First, before the interview respondents were given a Participant Information Form7 and asked to read it before signing and dating the Consent Form8, which I additionally signed. Second, during the beginning of the interview I again introduced myself, the project and repeated the information included in the Participant Information form in a more conversational tone.

6 7

See Appendix, 3 and 4. See Appendix, 6. 8 See Appendix, 5.

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Respondents were asked if they had any questions throughout the explanation. After all questions were answered and respondents stated they understood all of the information just discussed, the interview began. Confidentiality is a central concern for social science research. All respondents were kept completely anonymous after data collection. Electronic copies of transcripts did not contain names or other identifying features not needed for the study. This includes names of schools and family. All data was stored and backed up in password protected software only accessible to myself. All recordings were deleted shortly after transcripts were completed.

Research Questions

This study aims to further research that adequately informs education reconstruction efforts by focusing on the neglected role of teachers. To do this the study asks 1) what framework do we need to describe teachers FR? And 2) what are teachers FR in Bosnia-Herzegovina? This study has attempted to answer these by developing indicators and questions to be discussed in interviews within the context of BiH, described in the Introduction. These interviews will not only give a description of BiH teachers in the second question but will allow an empirical exploration of the framework in the first.

The framework has already been outlined in the Literature Review. Next, the initial description of these interview findings is analyzed in the Findings-Analysis Chapter. These interviews used indicators developed from concepts in the literature. Lastly, the reliability and validity of these indicators will be weighed in the Discussion Chapter.

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Findings and Analysis Chapter

In this chapter the research findings of BiH teachers frames of reference (FR) will be analyzed in three sections corresponding to the themes identified in the Literature Review. The research generated a vast amount of data. I have therefore selected what best represents the research questions. First, this chapter will provide an initial pilot interested in describing the BiH teachers FR. Second, it provides an initial exploration of the framework developed in the Literature Review. The findings presented below will be used in the Discussion Chapter to identify valid and reliable interview questions and techniques, discussions proving less useful, topics to expand on in further study of BiH teachers, new topics to discuss in interviews to expand on teachers FR, further research to expand on possible related aspects of the three themes of the framework and suggestions for further research into a possible fourth theme.

First theme: A Critical Construction of Beliefs and Perspectives

The first theme focuses on the construction of beliefs and perspectives of teachers concerning issues relevant to identity-based conflict. It describes teachers critical reflection, use of multiple perspectives, empathy and critical perspectives on history. The second theme describes teachers understanding of difference in beliefs and practices. However, because the present study did not have the resources to test teachers understanding of specific doctrines and practices, which are often heavily contested and malleable, it was decided to use the means by which teachers learn about and are exposed to differences in beliefs and practices as an indicator.

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This has created an overlap in asking 1) if teachers use multiple perspectives and 2) what are their practices or exposure when learning about difference. For example, most of the teachers interviewed read at least some of both the Koran and Bible. Therefore, instead of presenting this finding twice under the first theme concerning multiple perspectives and the second theme concerning learning about differences it was decided, for the sake of organization and presentation, to separate certain indicators to one or the other theme in this chapter. The section on the first theme will focus mainly on the importance respondents place on different issues while the second theme on describing respondents practices. So the first section will focus on the importance of reading different scriptures while the second describes teachers practices reading them.

This section is divided into a discussion of 1) the importance teachers place on the use of critical and multiple perspectives of educational policy, 2) the importance teachers place on the use of critical and multiple perspectives of private learning and 3) the importance and use of empathetic perspective recognition of individuals experiences of issues of conflict. This analysis provides a necessary aspect in understanding teachers FR. As discussed in the Literature Review, a critical construction allows teachers to be aware of and dismantle previous stereotypes, facilitates the formation of new interpretations and makes positive associations with others circumstances.

To explore the importance teachers place on the use of critical and multiple perspectives in the history and religious instruction curriculums and schools policies a number of subjects were discussed. The majority of findings were reported during discussions of the Two Schools Under One Roof policy (2U1R), the national subjects9, teachers roles and the respondents own education. Almost all of the respondents stated that the 2U1R policy and several aspects of the present division of national subjects were, counter-productive, stupid or radical.

See Introduction.

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Even if they were not personally very familiar with such schools or other versions of the national subjects, they most often had strong opinions about the harm that they caused students. Some however, also offered explanations for how the separation of students into separate schools using separate history curriculums may have made sense at the time but became habit. For example, that specific parents of different ethnic groups were fighting which eventually caused the communitys families to send their kids to separate schools. The separation of students by ethno- religious background into segregated schools, as discussed in the Introduction, was seen as a way of allowing teachers and parents to maintain their own biases. Students were seen as too young to understand why they were separated and would therefore construct or maintain arbitrary differences. Several respondents also pointed out what they saw as the reality that students would inevitably socialize after class and therefore break down the barriers others created. Such socialization, before or after class, was seen as a necessary prerequisite for getting along, being able to get comfortable and joke about problems to break tension, to learn tolerance and to learn that other groups are normal people too. Most respondents also repeatedly stated that it may not be as necessary in other more homogenous countries, but that these lessons were critical in diverse places like BiH where you inevitably encounter, live and work with people of different religions. Views differed more while discussing the various, conflicting national subjects. The religious curriculum was seen as understandable, but only as long as there was the option of secular ethics classes. About half of the respondents, however, stated that religious instruction in one religion should be replaced by a secular history of religions, often explicitly mentioning the need for non-indigenous religions, like Hinduism, and non-religious perspectives. Several stated that religious instruction should be given only via church and family. The secular version was seen as important for providing basic knowledge of other religions needed for understanding and maintaining a richer knowledge of a diversity that many were explicitly proud of. Religion and ethnicity being an indigenous resource, a combination of East and West, several were proud of when comparing Bosnia to more homogenous neighbors. Most also expressed
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throughout the interview, sometimes giving anecdotes, that even some educated Bosnians unfortunately knew little about religion, theirs or others, and that this created intolerance. None reported that religious instruction played or should play a role in conversion or maintaining legitimate practice and beliefs. Some mentioned that others of all religions often made these arguments. Respondents also most often stated that individuals didnt need to know much about different religions, but only the basics and anything more only if you were personally curious. Religion was private and all religions taught the same ethics. The variety of history curriculums were also widely seen as problematic. Several at first mentioned that there were few, unimportant differences, or only different emphases. However, when discussing recent history, namely the war in the 90s, all agreed that there were important problems. Many respondents repeated that history is written by the winners. Almost all, even if not stating this phrase themselves, explicitly placed blame on politicians for corruption and the manipulation of ethnic politics. Historians were not seen as explicit tools of specific politicians, but as part of the political atmosphere and therefore working together to justify certain versions. As a solution to the existence of different, manipulated versions of the history curriculum two paths were usually recommended. First, many recommended not including recent history, stating that more time would need to pass. Its inclusion required better research which couldnt be done with present tensions that inevitably caused conflict if discussed. One teacher described the strategy of some teachers, So maybe we get to, and a little bit further, but not to the 90s or so. Maybe intentionally, probably intentionally. Second, almost all recommended, sometimes as an alternative to the first policy, that one single curriculum needs to be pushed through all schools. Some argued this very strongly: Final verdict. Exclamatory mark. Teachers if you are unsatisfied, quit Parents, there is one option, Option B is non-existent. Several argued, though less often, such enforcement was needed for abolishing the 2U1R policy. In both discussions of the 2U1R policy and national subjects some respondents mentioned the need for choice. Most interpreted the 2U1R policy as excluding the exercise of choice. However, some added that once students were welcomed by ethno37

religiously privileged schools, those schools provided important options and diversity. Only one respondent argued that schools should be completely secularized, adding they were the exception. The value of choice, however, was reserved mostly for the language curriculum, which I did not prepare to discuss10. All who discussed the need for choice also felt the need to defend their own schools as not favoring one group and excluding others. Several teachers also discussed the importance of lack of choice in Yugoslavia. One teacher explicitly argued the lack inability to express ones religion and identity under Tito in areas like education fueled the conflict. A variety of curricula was therefore a way for people to express themselves. Without such schools, the only source of learning is the home which is harmful because not talking about [history in public] can only exacerbate the problem. Nearly half of respondents who grew up predominantly after the war emphasized the importance of specific history teachers. One respondent stated Im so grateful to him, especially for building up certain attitudes. My own way to approach certain topics in history [to] take into consideration different opinions. Another praised a former teacher who never pointed a finger at anyone. A third praised teachers they had for what they perceived as softening certain parts of the history for certain minorities in the class. Values that many recognized as important for learning about history were sensitivity of others feelings and perspectives and the need to be aware of and dispassionately analyze the different versions that exist. Another common discourse revolved around the importance of facts in presenting history and historical inquiry. Facts were portrayed in opposition to individuals opinions. History curriculums should, it was argued, revolve around objective facts as opposed to subjective, emotional or biased ones. Most teachers seemed to assume a clear difference. Some sited authoritative bodies, particularly The Hague and other court decisions, as being able to help provide or assert simple what, where and who answers. Authoritative historians and scientists were thought to play a role but have merely not been a part of the process yet or enough or have been co-opted
10

Focus was given to the history and religion curriculum and not language based on considerations of time.

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by politics. However, some teachers, who discussed it in more detail, eventually admitted that objective, discreet facts were often also emotionally charged. Two teachers referred to the disputes over the number of Serbs killed during WWII. While some Croats claim it was only 15,000, Serbs argue it was minimally 70,000. You cant accept 70 and 15 as the same but its hard to find people who are really experts who deal in these sorts of things. Historians who would research and uncover the real truth. Its really hard to say but it can be done. Most teachers were vocal about the creation of biased myths, as one respondent argued different narratives were already becoming. Almost all respondents argued that what was needed was for historians to edit the various curriculums or come together using only facts to create an authoritative single history. The majority of teachers opted for the latter.

To explore the importance teachers place on the use of critical and multiple perspectives of private individual construction of beliefs a number of subjects were discussed. The majority of findings were reported during discussions of personal interests learning about history and religion, of friends and family and ethno-religious events. Respondents held different views on a variety of learning resources. The various perspectives that different television, internet and newspapers sources catered to was often stated as an explicit problem. You know the biggest problem here is that if I am a Croat, I will watch Croatian TV and Muslim then I will watch this one and Serbs this one. And you know, you listen to one side of the story That is a problem because most do not think that way. So books, internet every day almost But we should be very cautious because the source is [unlike in] science well confirmed So double check always. Resources that discussed recent conflicts or other religions were often seen as arguing for their own version. Many argued that writers on issues of recent history were too emotional or subjective to be able to write about it yet and therefore any individual research would be useless or stoke tension. However, several respondents also expressed
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a concern that even when media sources werent biased the constant repetition was a problem in that it did not allow people to put the past behind them and avoid tension. The capture of the war criminal Mladic occurred half way through the interview schedule. Every respondent after his arrest noted how the event sparked conversations. One noted such instances were important for some groups to confront their heroes, mentioning similar cases that personally affected her. Concerning religion, views were split between those that argued authors shouldnt write about other religions and those that thought with enough study they could. Respondents from both sides, however, reached their conclusions because all religions taught the same things. This notion was also invoked for the relative unimportance of reading others scriptures in depth, unless you were particularly interested in it. Though all agreed at least some exposure was important, for instance to learn generally enriching facts about others or to understand another individuals beliefs. Television and newspapers were often seen as venues for negative messages by politicians and religious figures. Religious figures were seen as rarely if ever saying negative things about other groups in churches or mosques, although most quickly qualified their statements by repeating their lack of attendance. However, when asked about outside of church or questioned further respondents stated that in larger public roles many religious figures acted as politicians. In churches and mosques, Ive never heard that during their official ceremonies Negative messages from priests, they come from their free time, even discussions on TV. As politicians they stepped outside of their roles as religious leaders. Politicians were almost uniformly condemned as doubled faced hypocrites who were able to fool most people. As far as I can see its just a way they can try to gain victory The politicians are serving that story to the people. One respondent impersonating a politician, Show them how they should hate each other and then when the show is over we can hang out. And people are not aware of that. While religious figures maintained a positive view of others they also maintained their original roles and represented their religions, which many repeated all taught the same ethics. Outside of these positive, ethical messages religious figures became politicians. As politicians their ends similarly became ethnically motivated,
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political, negative, self-seeking and deceptive and therefore similarly deserving of skepticism. Discussing the war and religious issues among family and friends was often seen as unimportant or better avoided. Several respondents expressed frustration that others avoided such conversations but mostly in the context of larger public discussions, accepting that they did not talk about such issues much with their family and friends. The primary explanation being there was no need since all of their friends had experienced the same thing and agreed with each other, even across ethno-religious lines. For those that werent likeminded, it was felt that discussing such was counter or unproductive and often led to open conflict. Only one saw such conversations about religion as important opportunities to explain or defend their faith, So we have lots of discussions about that, because according to my religion I have to teach her the truth, because Islam is the truth. Of course I am not, I am respecting what she believes. But I would like to teach her what Islam teaches. Several respondents saw family and friends as an important source to learn and fulfill a curiosity about other peoples practices. What actually attracted us together were the beliefs Im mostly interested in rules. However, many saw the topic again as simply an uninteresting issue that drew distinctions between friends and family otherwise unnoticed. While there was little emphasis on beliefs and morals, practices were explained as being different. All mentioned that going to religious services was important to some degree, with many mentioning this was mostly for those interested or to gain interesting cultural experience. Several teachers referred to themselves as tourists or touring others churches. However, there was more emphasis on learning about others practices than beliefs. Different respondents related stories about how certain religious holidays brought their town together, proudly recounting participation from all religions. One teacher argued that what was needed for reconciliation was a yearly trip for students to each house of worship. When they hear that substantially speaking they preach the same more or less, their prejudice is diminished. But it must be first-hand experience. Firsthand experience was largely emphasized; though many respondents thought the
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experience was not necessary, one stating only being open to going was needed. Altogether, many more felt that the experience of anothers religious events was more important for learning about other groups and challenging previous stereotypes than reading books by authors of other religions, scripture or similar resources. Statements about empathetic perspective recognition were found throughout the interviews. The indicator used was statements about learning unfamiliar personal experiences and perspectives that differed from what was normally found in ones regular interactions. Depending on the context, one effective phrase used in questions was other peoples stories. The majority of respondents argued that the most important way to ameliorate conflict was active empathetic perspective recognition. You will lose a bunch of your enemies when they tell you their stories. Many respondents repeated, often at several points in the interview, that all sides were to blame and had stories where they were victims. As one respondent stated, it is important to just understand that everyone was in the same position You were a soldier, for example, and your life was in danger and you had to fight for something you didnt know, that was totally new. Its a good way also for quality reconciliation. There were two main spheres where respondents expressed the importance of learning individuals stories. First, several expressed the need for representatives to come to schools as a part of the curriculum. But what is much better, I think, Croat writers come in person with Muslim kids and they talk, just talk, or Serbs from Belgrade or Croatia, from Mostar to Tuzla. Then they can talk and they raise questions they can answer. Second, nearly all of the respondents said they believed that families were the largest source of learning about the war and that this was part of the problem. Not being familiar with what happened to some other people, they might come to view that some things actually didnt happen. Most individuals expressed the need in daily life to learn the stories of other individuals to offset the dominance of family experiences or catering news sources.

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Second theme: An Understanding of Differences in Beliefs and Practices

This section focuses on describing some of the methods used by respondents in constructing an understanding of differences of beliefs and practices, as discussed in the introduction of this chapter. This section will be divided into a discussion of 1) relationships and discussions with family and friends and attendance of religious and cultural events, 2) independent and formal learning about historical and religious issues and 3) respondents explicit understanding of differences and their confidence of such understandings. This analysis will provide a necessary aspect in understanding teachers FR. As discussed in the Literature Review, understandings of difference allows teachers to dismantle negative stereotypes, facilitate positive attitudes and dialog, help understand the actions and needs of students and may play a significant role in maintaining an accurate understanding of differences.

Exposure to family, friends and events of different ethno-religious groups provides a personal and regular source of learning about differences in beliefs and practices. If, as discussed in the Literature Review, isolated instances of contact with other groups do not lead to durable changes in teachers understanding because they revert back to the beliefs of their community, then a description of teachers regular exposure to such resources may be an indicator of their understanding of differences in beliefs and practices. Friends and family are central to this community. With the relatively high degree of intermarriage before the 1990s and the continued presence in both Zenica and Tuzla of a large Croat population among a Muslim majority, many respondents had family and close friends belonging to different ethnoreligious groups. None of the four Muslim respondents had non-Muslim parents and few noted any non-Muslim family members. Four of the six remaining respondents had mixed Croat and Serb parents. The remaining two having Croat parents. Those with mixed parents were more likely to describe their parents in political terms as communists or Yugoslavian. Few with Christian backgrounds had any Muslim relatives. However,
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of the four respondents that mentioned the background of their significant other, three were across Muslim-Christian lines (the last married a Ukrainian). All respondents expressed they had many friends belonging to other groups, though most noted they currently had few close Serb friends since many left during or after the war. Some remarked, perhaps sarcastically or rhetorically, that they had to think for a moment to remember the background of some friends as they rarely thought about it. While some felt noticeably uncomfortable at first discussing differences of ethnicity and religion among their friends, others noted it was an important aspect of their friendships. The simultaneous importance and unimportance of the background of ones friends can be seen with an anecdote about a confrontation with a respondent and his friends with other Croats - he himself being a Croat and his two friends Serb and Muslims. He said, you know, you are mine. You know, me and him, we are because we are Croats. I said to him You are not mine, you could be sometimes, maybe, but with this views no, but you could be. Jasmin and Zhelimir are mine, these two guys. While the background of his friends was a non-issue in the selection of who was part of his social family, it was explicitly something he was proud of, diversity being, he said, like a fortune for us. Family and friends are two central resources for most respondents for learning about religion and history, specifically life in Yugoslavia and the war in the 1990s. For those who grew up after the war, family is easily the most important resource for learning about Yugoslavia. When asked questions about the practice of religion or how different groups interacted almost all respondents without personal experience started by qualifying that they can only speak from what they have heard from family. Though many explanations afterwards described generalized pictures, most respondents relied heavily on, or minimally included, family anecdotes. Discussing the war in general was consistently deemed a sensitive topic so many respondents noted that discussions were reduced to personal anecdotes and shared experiences instead of the conflict in general. Concerning religion, almost all described their parents and family as not very religious, though many referred to some members that were, especially older members. However, in several cases, even if the respondents and/or parents were explicitly non-religious, they
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still chose to endorse a degree of religious education at church or school. Justifications for this were in terms of ethnic roots and culture, with belief in religious doctrines much less important and sometimes explicitly de-emphasized. Friends played a different role compared to the family. Though there were some exceptions, ethnicity and religion were most often issues that were avoided among friends, namely because issues were too sensitive or respondents reasoned their friends all believed or experienced the same thing concerning religion or what had happened during conflict. As in the anecdote with the two Croats who told the respondent that they were his, many were proud that such categories were non-issues among friends. One common discourse for when such issues did come up among friends, and family as well, was that of joking. One respondent argued that different students needed to be in the same classrooms so they could learn to joke about otherwise tense issues. The larger theme of being comfortable with friends was also evident in going to religious events, namely religious services and holiday events like Christmas or Eid ul Fitr. Regular religious services were much less attended, both for the respondents own professed faith and others services11. Only one respondent said she went to services regularly. Holidays were more widely attended and most experiences at churches or mosques centered on holidays, marriages or other rare special occasions. When asked about services not of their familys professed religion, most respondents related their first or most recent experiences as either part of a group decision or initiated by another friend. Often explicitly, the tension over friends and being comfortable was expressed between the Christian and Muslim worship practices. You have certain rules you have to obey, but I would go. But I would go with my friends out of curiosity. So, why not? But I am afraid I would embarrass myself because I dont know anything about that. They tend to be very strict. It was more natural for me to go to Orthodox Church because its more similar to my church. Further differences understood between Christianity and Islam are discussed below.

11

Events is used as a category for both calendar holidays and more regular weekly, religious services.

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In exploring teachers independent and formal learning of history and religion several topics were discussed. The majority of findings were found during discussions of respondents own education, their individual interests in history and religion and the reading of scripture. A description of respondents practices learning about differences gives an indirect picture of their understanding of differences, as discussed in this chapters introduction. Those respondents that attended secondary school during Titos Yugoslavia quickly drew distinctions between themselves and younger teachers concerning their own education. The former quickly stated that it was another world. They also learned a lot about their own Bosnian history, some about Serbia and Croatia but nothing about religion. For those that grew up during and after the war, however, it was more difficult for respondents to place their history relative to others, though they acknowledged the divergence. Several expressed some confusion at the editing of history textbooks, often giving hesitant and multiple explanations and details of the event. For example, one teacher stated the blacked out pieces of textbooks were merely deemed to be incorrect and to correct those little unimportant things, I dont get it because they dont have that much importance. Concerning the new generations choice between religious education and secular ethics, all the younger respondents who mentioned their choice had chosen religious education. While teachers played a large role in many respondents history education, none discussed religious figures in such ways. Respondents individual inquiry into historic and religious issues mostly took the form of friends, family and ethno-religious events. Otherwise, most respondents participated in some independent reading of historical or religious non-fiction. Close to half expressed that this was particularly important to them and that they spent a specific period researching such issues, mostly in investigating various religious options. Almost all teachers listed TV news and newspapers as one of their primary sources of information. The most important resource referenced for current events and religious issues was the internet. Many teachers explained that they regularly read a number of sources including, as all respondents knew English, American or British news sources. Almost all respondents had read parts of the Koran or Bible, though reading the entire
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book was seen as impractically difficult. Many chuckled as I asked The whole thing or only parts? Several, both Muslim and Christian, also discussed the strict rules surrounding the Koran to explain why they hadnt read much or any of it. Several Christian respondents related the Koran and Old Testament as practically the same book, in part due to the focus on rules. Often, and mostly referring to others scriptures, respondents explained they were familiar, but only through watching sections read on TV or at religious events.

A number of statements were made throughout the interview providing more direct insights on teachers understandings of difference in beliefs and practices. Teachers were asked what they believed the biggest difference, if any, existed between the three religions. Confidence in ones answers is also important in assessing these assertions. In daily life and with friends, respondents often remarked there is no difference, I feel that there is no difference. Those who did mention differences among friends emphasized them as practices only. She would not go to places where they sell alcohol, she wouldnt show her hair. Nothing else. Almost all statements about differences in practices or beliefs were discussed in religious terms. Once questions were more abstract and outside of discussions of friends, respondents listed a wider number of differences. Some still argued that there were in fact no differences. Most books express the same thing, they believe in God. If people interpret the books different and it is they who create these radical views But I really cannot say that there are some important differences. Most argued that differences existed, or were significant, only in practices and not doctrines. Its only practicing; they say all the same things. Differences in practices mostly were discussed in terms of Christianity in comparison to Islam, for instance: holidays, prayer five times a day, food restrictions and wearing veils. Islam was represented by several as more strict, though most who noted this qualified between

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Bosnian and Eastern Islam with the former being barely strict in comparison. Bosnian Muslims made it possible to be Muslim and drink alcohol at the same time So you have these elements that came here lately and theyre trying to impose their views. But if you take the traditional Bosnian views you dont have these kind of issues. In comparison, Catholicism and Orthodoxy were explicitly noted as interchangeable in their practices, although several paused to remark Orthodox services also segregate their congregation by sex like Muslims. Those who did discuss doctrinal issues also drew more distinctions between Christianity and Islam, mostly concerning the status of Jesus and Muhammad. However, several when asked again were able to list a number of more nuanced differences. Several Muslim respondents raised the issue of the trinity and saints while there was only Allah in Islam. For Christians, the role of women came up as significant for some. The only doctrinal issue between Orthodoxy and Catholicism was the Serbian Churchs status as autocephalous while Croat Catholics follow the Pope. Virtually all stressed multiple times that the ethics was each religions most important aspect and was the same for each. Giving more generalized descriptions of the differences in practices or beliefs was difficult for most12. Several remarked that they were not theologists or historians, though in the beginning of the interview and during the question itself on explicit differences I reassured them I was only interested perceptions and not that they got the answer correct. Most also noted that they were only familiar with their own religion and/or that all religions are mostly the same, before they began discussing differences. After these initial statements, many were fairly confident. However, several after a brief pause at the end qualified but thats personally my opinion. Only one respondent had spent significant academically oriented time studying religion.

12

Though a discussion of teachers confidence also fits well under the first theme to consider how selfcritical they are of their beliefs, the present organization was decided to give better context to their stated understanding of differences.

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Third theme: Perspectives on Inclusivity of Identity

In discussing teachers perspectives on inclusivity of identity a number of approaches were used. Statements came from throughout the interviews and conversations of explicit differences between religions noted above. In addition, teachers were presented with outlines of Chrislam and People of the Book (PotB)13, and asked if there were any contradictions in their ideas, what their impressions were of them and how they might be received in BiH. This section is divided into 1) teachers primordialist versus instrumentalist views and 2) perspectives on inclusivity of identity. This analysis will provide a necessary aspect in understanding teachers FR. As discussed in the Literature Review, positive perspectives on identity allow teachers to engage messages from group leaders, perceive the possibility of change, resist structural mechanisms that perpetuate divisions, reduce bias and orients groups toward common ends.

Do respondents tend towards a fluid conception of identity or a rigid, ingrained one? Answering this question is needed to understand how teachers view possibilities for change in group inclusivity. Teachers interviewed made a variety of statements referencing both primordialist and instrumentalist views of identity, although nearly all respondents leaned much more toward the latter. A large majority of respondents argued that differences between the ethno-religious groups were basically inherited but superficial and manipulated by politicians. Ethnicity was viewed more in primordialist terms than religion was, even though religion was seen as a defining cultural characteristic. In BiH, the two are intimately intertwined. The category Muslim officially became a national and ethnic category under Tito and gained its own corresponding language and ethnic identity, i.e. Bosnian and Bosniak, in the last decade. Catholic and Croat and Orthodox and Serb are also nearly
13

Discussed in the Literature Review

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interchangeable14. For respondents, defining cultural practices were simply their corresponding religious holidays and duties. However, this overlap was not perfectly congruent since religions could be understood beyond the ethnic categories. There are Muslims, Catholics and Orthodox who are not Bosniaks, Croats and Serbs and also different sects within those religions. Being Croat, for example, was largely seen as inherited from parents. However, this was complicated by inter-marriage. I literally have three tribes So I am a Buddhist, one respondent joked and later went on to say, I have three nations, three religions and atheism and everything in my blood cells. And my daughter, she is not Serb, Croat or Muslim because three grandfathers, they biologically and genetically belong to three nations. And, Well I call myself a melting pot because my father is a Croat and my mother is a Serb and my boyfriend is Bosniak, or Muslim So I really cant identify with any particular thing. For example, when we have this Christmas on the 25th... This is a little closer to my heart than on the 7th of January. Maybe this is something to start with? Half of respondents came from Catholic Croat-Orthodox Serb mixed marriages and/or had significant others of different backgrounds. A strict ethno-religious identity was necessarily compromised for these individuals or their children. Religion was viewed less in primordialist terms. For many, religion was something you inherited, My parents thought I needed to be brought up in this kind of family background, which was the Catholic background. It is also ones identity independent of practicing it, My family, they knew they were Muslims but they didnt practice their religion. The two oldest respondents also uniquely argued it was essential to focus on ones own inherited religion. It would be better to learn about their own religion. And then we can learn about other religions. And You should stick to your religion or atheism. You stick with your heart and soul. And that leads you to that universal principle so if you are Muslim, be a Muslim, be a good man. Further, there was simply no reason to convert since all religions taught the same ethics leading to
14

See Glossary, Appendix 1 for further details.

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universal principles. The younger generation held similar views, but were much more open to both new forms of identity, such as Chrislam, discussed more below, and changing their own perspectives on identity. Instead, having some grounded identity was often stated as being important. They also more readily identified reasons why individuals might convert, more often gave reasons for conversion related to personal beliefs and described more instances of conversion they knew of. The particulars of religion and ethnicity were, however, seen very explicitly as fluid and heavily influenced by nationalist and religious leaders. As mentioned in the discussion of the first theme, respondents referred to history being written by the winners. Creating contradicting interpretations of historic ethnic relationships and origins were acknowledged to be common practice among many communities defined by the three ethno-religious groups. So called deep seated hatred was represented as the corrupt manipulation of religious texts and historical narratives by politically motivated interpreters. If the people interpret the [religious] books different and it is they who create these radical views as they do in both cases. Politicians being the most visible and active offenders who are officially creating, serving stories and showing them [Bosnian citizens] how to hate each other. One respondent argued politicians using this rhetoric wanted to make their own country within this country, so obviously they all want to have their own identity They do try to separate themselves. Most respondents were explicit that politicians attempted to consolidate ethno-religious identities by contrasting and excluding, and often demonizing, others. Obviously their goal is to scare people to be skeptical about the other group. And another respondent, they constantly speak about differences and use them for their own benefit.

Inclusivity of identity is an important aspect of teachers FR as it influences how they mediate issues concerning the relationships between groups. Taking the frameworks of Danesh (2007) and Gaertner, et al (1993) described in the Literature Review, this section will describe the levels of inclusion respondents perceive. These will be discussed in order of, 1) re-categorized religious identities (RRI), 2) re-categorized civic

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identities (RCI) and 3) universal re-categorized identity (URI) and de-categorized perceptions of identity. RRIs focused on shared characteristics between religions and were discussed by talking about the syncretic religion Chrislam and the concept People of the Book (PotB). In describing Chrislam the focus was on 1) being neither Muslim nor Christian and 2) using both the Koran and Bible. For PotB the focus was on 1) remaining Christian or Muslim and 2) identifying more with commonalities than differences. Both were discussed in reference to their practice in countries such as Nigeria. The most common discourse throughout the interviews on RRI was that all religions teach the same ethics and only manipulative religious figures and politicians interpreted significant differences. Related was the split between respondents reporting differences in doctrine and those referencing practices only. During the discussion of Chrislam several expressed that the religions were contradictory and irreconcilable because of differences in doctrines, namely the status of Jesus. However, most decided Chrislam was possible or that they did not have the knowledge or authority to say it wasnt. Every religion says the same things. Be good to people, dont do this its bad, do this its nice. And if you take those similar or same things you get Chrislam There are people who would accept Chrislam. I know I would. Several younger respondents stated it would be especially attractive for children with mixed backgrounds. Most of respondents questions about Chrislam focused on which set of practices were followed. The response that it was a different combination depending on the particular church was easily accepted as a possibility. Two other points consistently appeared concerning differences between the religions and what could be their common focus. First was whether the three religions worshiped the same God. We only give God another names, but its the same God. Some, however, brought up the Christian idea of the trinity, I guess in Islam there is one God and everything, where as in others you have Jesus and the holy son, father and everything. Second, several respondents also brought up during the discussion of PotB
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that they did not like it because it excluded Hindus, atheists and others and a more inclusive concept was needed. RCI was discussed mostly during questions about the categories Yugoslavian or Bosnian. Respondents were asked 1) why someone might choose to identify as these, 2) if they knew people that did and 3) how such people are received in Bosnia. About half of respondents proudly said they personally preferred to identify as Bosnian. Out of those that did not, they expressed the obviousness of being citizens of BosniaHerzegovina and that it was only a geographic identity. Both groups also stressed the near futility of trying to conceal ones ethno-religious identity because of, for example, mandatory questions on forms or names which indicated ones background. In discussing those that thought of themselves as Yugoslavian respondents similarly split between those that understood most Yugoslavians as choosing the title for pragmatic and political reasons versus out of brotherhood and unity, communist Yugoslavias mantra. Respondents throughout the interviews made statements referring to a URI and de-categorization. Nearly half of respondents during the interviews made strong statements on the important of shared humanity. You know, first I am a human then I am a teacher then I am this and that and maybe on 8th or 9th place I am a Roman Catholic and Croat. First, I am human. And another, Most basic thing we have together in common. What? Were humans Respect for your neighbor, whatever he is. Because he is your neighbor, he is a human being. Gaertner, et al (1993) define de-categorization as making members more distinctive and decreasing attractiveness of former groups. Most respondents made comments about religion as a matter of personal choice and an individuals decision. The biggest difference, therefore, was not between two religious groups but a division that split all three religions in half. There were those that were good people and followed their religions ethically and those that were radicals and followed extremist leaders. It all depends on the people themselves. There are extremists who will support the person who spoke against the other religions. Two additionally identified this along an urban-rural divide. If all religions are the same then what importantly demarcates individuals is their own personal choice concerning ethics. Religious rituals are merely superficial. The important groups therefore are those
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individuals that are truly religious and ignore politicians, regardless of their ethnoreligious background, and those individuals that choose not to.

In the Literature Review four levels of inclusivity were defined. First, individuation of groups into Survival worldviews of me against the world and decategorization that saw individuals instead of members. Second, Identity worldviews or categorization, i.e. the status quo. Third, re-categorization unifying previous groups by 1) focusing on common characteristics for a salient new identity, i.e. PotB, 2) uniting common characteristics and abandoning old categories, i.e. Chrislam and 3) introducing new shared characteristics, i.e. Bosnian. These include both RRI and RCI. Fourth, the logical extent of Unity worldviews and re-categorization to URI, i.e. humanity. This framework divides an individuals perceptions on identity into discrete groups. However, though the findings above were presented as a description of the entire sample and not individuals, any particular individuals views on identity often made salient different levels of inclusivity at different points. Further study would be needed to determine the emphasis individuals put on each level. The initial findings do point to a largely re-categorized view of identity. Many individuals placed emphasis on personal identification with a RCI and RRI, specifically Chrislam and Bosnian. For several, PotB as a RRI was not inclusive enough, as it appeared to explicitly exclude those outside the Abrahamic faiths. While many noted the inheritability and importance of maintaining ones ethno-religious family background, this was often seen as superficial. One of the most common themes being the universal ethics all religions teach. Further, the universal category of humanity was strongly invoked by nearly half of respondents. This category was not introduced by the interviewer. Therefore, the lack of similar statements by others does not mean they did not similarly hold a URI.

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Beware of the Man with One Book

Throughout the interviews several inter-related themes were repeated. For issues of space, only some will be discussed. Further studies, detailed in the Discussion Chapter, will be need for a more comprehensive analysis of BiH teachers FR. First, is the importance placed on multiple perspectives. It is like the saying: beware of the man with one book. It is the absence of tolerance. Respondents were consistently conscious of the importance of learning from different sources. The quotation here refers to history books; however, it can also easily refer to the Koran or Bible. Being aware of other versions of history and religions are centrally important issues for respondents. When the focus was on the respondents own learning, however, it was not so much that the importance was diminished as other issues came into focus. Second, all religions teach the same ethics. Yes, there is difference between them and ignorance of this difference leads to conflict but religion is primarily a personal issue. Since religions are all the same and practices are the only real difference, this personal issue consists of following their common ethics. Because of this commonality, what is important to study is diversity over depth. This may explain the focus on importance of experiencing religious events and empathetic perspective recognition which give immediate, authoritative exposure to common religious messages and experiences of the war in the 1990s. Once you see that other ethno-religious groups teach the same ethics you can relate to them as you already share it. Third, is the need for being comfortable with family, friends and at events. This may be the result of religions perceived private nature and ethnic tension as a sensitive topic. Here, joking was repeated as an important means of discourse. If so this may also explain the negative reactions to instrumentalist politicians and religious figures that brought these private, sensitive issues into the public in such derisive ways. To remedy this, impersonal and authoritative historians and courts are relied on for objective and dispassionate facts. These historians, then, within the history and religious curriculums will unite the disparate messages of the men with one book.
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Lastly, the discrete framework used for identity inclusion places at opposite ends de- and re-categorization. For many respondents these processes were deeply intertwined. To belong to the URI of humanity, the logical extent of re-categorization, all you have to be to be eligible is human. As one respondent put it, We are all unique human beings. We are not equal, we are unique, nothing is equal. The logical extent of de-categorization for many led, therefore, to (or from) the logical extent of recategorization. De- and re-categorization become interchangeable as respondents focus on the personal choice that individuals make about the universal shared ethical messages of religion. Those not following this universal ethics are led by instrumentalist politicians. However, universal humanity and individuated personal choice remains for them to choose a more inclusive identity. All that is needed is a comfortable and authoritative exposure to this commonality.

This chapter has analyzed a selection of the field research findings using interview questions and indicators developed from the initial framework of the Literature Review and Methodology. Next, the findings are analyzed in the Discussion Chapter to suggest further research. Corresponding to the research questions, this should be done in addition to this initial exploratory study to further understand 1) the framework that has been developed to describe teachers FR and 2) the FR of BiH teachers.

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Discussion Chapter

The inter-related discourses outlined and findings presented in the FindingsAnalysis Chapter do not paint a complete picture of teachers frames of reference (FR) in BiH or what constitutes a complete framework. However, the findings presented are adequate to discuss and expand the framework of themes described in the Literature Review and the interview questions that were composed from them according to the Methodology. The present chapter discusses several topics for further research. 1) Recommendations for further research to understand BiH teachers. 2) A discussion of the interview structure and findings to recommend valid interview indictors and topics for future studies and 3) topics not discussed in the present study that may be useful for understanding teachers FR. Many of the specific topics discussed with teachers used in this study are topics specific to BiH. However, several topics, such as Chrislam, may be useful in other contexts. Further studies in different contexts should appropriately modify questions, concepts and indicators used here. This chapter will also discuss 4) questions for future study concerning inter-related characteristics of the present themes described in the Literature Review and 5) suggestions for a possible fourth theme.

As discussed in the Methodology Chapter the present study used Snowball sampling. As rigorous representative sampling was not the aim, future studies of BiH must consider several key populations not represented. The present study has also found several demographic comparisons that require further research. Not represented in this study were two key populations. First, only respondents from urban schools were interviewed. As discussed in the findings, several respondents drew a distinction between the beliefs and education of urban and rural citizens, with the latter represented as more susceptible to politicians. The present study, however, does
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not represent any respondents living or teaching in rural areas. Second, only teachers from Zenica and Tuzla were interviewed. Both cities are large regional centers in the Republic of BiH and consist of a majority Bosniak Muslim population with a large Croat Catholic minority. After the war most Serbs emigrated. However, both cities also continue to maintain a cosmopolitan and tolerant reputation. The early war reputation of Tuzla has been hailed as an oasis of peace that rejoiced defiantly in its multi-national composition (Glenny, 1996: 173). For a broader understanding of BiH teachers other regions, such as Croat dominated cantons and the Republic of Srbska, where the majority of Serbs live, must be included in the sample. No respondents were interview who had both Serb parents. The present study did not make any substantial comparisons between different demographics because of the small sample size, though several trends did appear to emerge. The two most notable were between generations and between Christians and Muslims. First, as discussed in the Methodology Chapter, there exists the often selfidentified group of those who lived through and remember the war in the 1990s and those that rely on second hand reports. Several possible differences that have initially emerged include, for example, differences in history and religious education and perspectives on the possibility of conversion and new religious identities.

A variety of different topics were discussed during interviews to indicate concepts described in the initial framework of the Literature Review. Some topics of discussion proved reliable in encouraging respondents to express their perspectives. Others proved unreliable or invalid as respondents interpreted them in a variety of ways or in a way that was consistently misinterpreted, respectively. It would be too much to detail each question that proved valid and reliable. Several particularly interesting and useful topics included Chrislam, Bosnian civic identity, explicit differences between the three religions and current educational and social issues. Approximately half of all discussions concerning a Re-categorized Religious Identity (RRI) were during responses to the concept Chrislam. The idea of
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Chrislam was understood by respondents and encouraged a variety of different responses. Since Chrislam was represented as a possibility others experimented with and not reality they had to confront and accept, respondents themselves often mentioned that after discussing this new concept they began exploring their own ideas in novel ways. Most therefore were eventually able to articulate a strong belief concerning it. Respondents, however, possessed a readier stock of opinions to express concerning the civic identity Bosnian. Most discussions concerning a Re-Categorized Civic Identity (RCI) were during discussions of Bosnian identity. The term Bosnian itself was often interpreted in a variety of ways so that the discussion of what it meant became an important topic of discussion itself. Lastly, abstract questions, such as asking respondents to explicitly list differences between the religions, and more contextualized discussions of present policies and respondents own social interactions contrasted well. As briefly discussed in the findings, during more contextualized discussions of differences among friends of other religions, for example, different points were raised compared to more abstracted discussions. This contrast provided a richer analysis of each question. Several questions and topics of discussion, however, did not prove very valid or reliable. For brevity, I will discuss two examples, the discussions around identity as prompted by People of the Book (PotB) and the European Union. The latter was not discussed in the findings. The discussion of PotB suffered likely from immediately following the discussion of Chrislam. The initial reasoning for this progression during interviews was that the difference between the concepts would be clearer if contrasted in parallel. However, many respondents at first treated them as virtually synonymous. Several also took PotB to represent a politically motivated manipulation of identity. This was discussed and corrected. This may have been due to introducing the concept in the context of Nigeria by discussing endorsement by politicians and religious figures. The second concept introduced for discussion was that of the European Union with the intent of discussing more inclusive notions of European civic identity. The phrasing of the question and its discussion in the first several interviews, however, was awkward and often interpreted as a question concerning politics, economics, public opinion or politicians views.

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In the Findings-Analysis Chapter a wide variety of trends and dialogues were discussed. All findings analyzed require further study. However, several important topics for further investigation already briefly discussed include how respondents understand identity in cases of inter-marriage and the inclusivity of worldviews other than the Abrahamic religions. References to inter-marriage and ethnicity were met widely with statements of admitted confusion at its ambiguity. During the interviews, the statements were acknowledged but not expanded on with further questioning. How intermarriage is involved with religion was not discussed either. Further discussion of these topics may also add to discussions of teachers primordialist and instrumentalist perspectives. RRI concerning non-Abrahamic religions were not discussed. They were implicitly included in the idea of humanity, but there was no further discussion of worldviews such as Buddhism, Atheism or other more inclusive or non-religious identities. One positive aspect of the PotB discussion being misinterpreted as a political instead of a personal perspective on identity was that it was more quickly attacked by some as unjust, highlighting how atheists and Hindus were excluded. Many topics, concepts or questions were not discussed during the interviews that may expand on future studies of BiH or teachers FR generally. Several topics for future studies of BiH teachers include the different language curriculums, discussions of perceived international discourses concerning conflict and ethnicity in BiH and respondents self-reported understanding of the historical ethnic relations and their origins. Several of these topics were not discussed due to lack of time. Others, specifically the latter, were concluded to be too sensitive to discuss in the present study. Emerging from several interviews was also a lack of understanding or confusion by younger respondents concerning the editing of text books. Further studies may include discussions of respondents understanding of these and other events and how they may affect their critical perspectives on the construction of history.

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Analysis of the findings suggests three questions for future study concerning inter-related characteristics of the three themes of the Literature Review. Further studies may research relationships between these aspects of teachers FR. First, does understanding of difference of beliefs and practices lead to a decategorized perspective of identity? As discussed in the Literature Review under the third theme, de-categorization may result from pluralizing otherness, which is a possible consequence of a developed understanding of difference. Because of the present studys small sample it cannot be concluded whether or not the indicators used to describe respondents understanding of difference, i.e. their exposure to sources of learning about difference, correlate with de-categorized perspectives on identity. Initial findings in the conclusion of the Findings-Analysis Chapter suggest they may. Most respondents have both a basic exposure to learning about other groups, especially through friends and events, and individuate or pluralize other groups. As discussed in the findings, respondents have multiple, inter-related perspectives on inclusivity that take advantage of both de- and re-categorization, especially their logical extremes. Further research should be done into whether a more developed understanding of difference influences a development towards these related extremes of de- and re-categorization. Second, does critical construction lead to a re-categorized perspective of identity? Danesh (2007) argues that critical thinking is necessary for forming more inclusive group identities. Daneshs framework however only includes one positive direction involving more inclusive identities while its de-categorized counterpart, Survival worldviews, represents a negative relationship between individuals and others, as discussed in the Literature Review. Therefore, does a critical construction of beliefs and perspectives influence re-categorizing or de-categorizing perspectives of identity? The latter is initially suggested in the question above, as the Findings-Analysis Chapter argued that the first two themes are intimately related. However, as is also argued in the FindingsAnalysis Chapter, de- and re-categorization are not mutually exclusive. Further research should be done on whether a critical construction helps develop a more re-categorized identity by focusing on commonalities or de-categorized identity focusing on individuation.
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Third, how does a critical construction of messages from leaders affect primordialist and instrumentalist beliefs about identity? Critical perspectives of leaders and their messages were taken in the Findings-Analysis Chapter as indicators of an instrumentalist perspective since instrumentalism argues leaders of identity-based groups shape characteristics of those groups, especially in contrast to out-groups. However, the findings discuss respondents having strong critical perspectives of politicians yet maintaining some primordialist views, especially inheriting religion. Further research should be done on teachers critical perspectives of leaders, namely politicians and religious figures, and how they influence and are related to different primordialist and instrumentalist views of ethnicity and religion.

Several questions during the interviews led to discussions of teachers and others roles and power to influence change as well as specific practices teachers engage in to exert their own power and agency. This has led to a suggestion for a possible fourth theme concerning teachers FR not described in the Literature Review that is substantially different enough from the other themes so as not to be included under them. Further research, mirroring the present studys research questions, will be needed to 1) explore the literature regarding the importance of describing teachers beliefs about roles, power, agency and actual practices in contexts of identity-based conflict and 2) develop reliable and valid interview questions used in field research to explore this framework. The present study briefly describes some initial research into this possible new theme in the Findings-Analysis Chapter. In the sample interview in the Appendix 2, further relevant questions can be viewed. These include 1) discussions of positive and negative messages by politicians and religious figures heard by respondents and 2) how different groups react to these messages. This was followed by discussions of 3) what roles the government, average citizens and teachers should play in response to negative messages. Each of these questions resulted in a variety of responses. In addition, 4) during discussions of social and educational policies respondents described teachers reactions and 5) specific practices within the classroom. One notable instance quoted in

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the previous chapter was a respondents description of teachers skipping over the war in the 1990s in history classes. Future studies may include these particular discussions as indicators of a possible fourth theme tentatively titled here as Perspectives on and Exercise of Roles, Agency and Power. A teachers FR that is used to mediate issues of identity-based conflict in the classroom prima facie includes their conscious understanding of their ability to mediate. Their understanding of others roles and power relative to their own and their actual practices exercising their agency would expand on this. Understanding these perspectives and practices would allow curriculum and teachers workshops to more adequately engage teachers, according to the aims of this study, by accounting for their perspectives on issues like the efficacy of reforms and training or teachers evasion of past reforms.

The sections of this chapter all expand on the initial framework described in the Literature Review and the interview discussions developed from it by using the findings presented in the Findings-Analysis Chapter. The framework initially developed has provided an effective structure for analyzing teachers frames of reference in contexts of identity-based conflict. However, to more fully expand on both this framework and a description of BiH teachers, it has been concluded that a variety of further research must be done. It is the aim of this study that the present and future research will facilitate an understanding of teachers to help create more effective education reforms in areas of identity-based conflict.

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Conclusion Chapter

Identity-based conflict may continue for as long as the human species does. This however does not mean we cannot better learn what sparks such conflict, how to best prevent it and then engage it once it starts. We are beginning to understand how education can play a positive role in such conflict as well as a negative one. This is because education both reflects and influences society and conflict. This dynamic is central for much of the conflict in Bosnia-Herzegovina. As our understanding of education and conflict grows, teachers are also beginning to be viewed as reflexive agents. Without understanding this vital component of the education system, reform efforts will not reach students as intended. Teachers mediate the curriculum according to their conscious and un-conscious frames of reference (FR). So if any effective reforms in curricula or teacher training are to be made it is necessary to understand what these frames of reference are. This study aims to contribute to reform efforts in education in areas affected by identity-based conflict by furthering research into the role that teachers play. To do this a framework for describing teachers FR was needed. To further this aim the present study asked 1) relying on the literature, what themes are important in developing a framework to describe teachers FR used in the mediation of contexts of identity-based conflict? And 2) what are teachers FR relevant in mediating issues of identity-based conflict in Bosnia-Herzegovina? These two questions are inter-related. This exploratory study started by reviewing the literature on identity-based conflict and found three themes that were argued as important to understanding teachers FR. They were 1) a critical construction of beliefs and perspectives, 2) an understanding of difference in beliefs and practices and 3) perspectives on inclusivity of identity. This framework was then used to develop interview questions and concepts to be used in field research in Tuzla and Zenica,
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Bosnia-Herzegovina with 10 secondary school teachers. A substantial amount of data was collected providing an important understanding of the FR these teachers use when mediating issues of identity-based conflict. These findings were then used to go back to the framework initially developed to expand on it. Questions for further research were asked to better understand Bosnia-Herzegovinian teachers frames of reference and the populations not studied in this initial exploration. The framework itself was also discussed and further research was suggest on the validity and reliability of concepts and indicators used, the inter-related aspects of the themes and a possible fourth theme. The Findings-Analysis Chapter provided a detailed and informative example of what a description of teachers frames of reference may look like. A number of interesting descriptions were made from these initial findings. It was found that BiH teachers have a deep appreciation for the importance of multiple perspectives, especially for personal experiences of others religious events and empathetic narratives of conflict and religious beliefs. Beware of the man with one book was a common lesson emphasized for those raising solitary religious and history books to the exclusion of others. Most of the teachers interviewed stated repeatedly that all religions taught the same ethics and other differences were superficial. It was this shared nature of religions with our shared humanity that led respondents to a Universal Re-Categorized Identity (URI) as Human, a process that complicated the framework developed in the Literature Review by involving both polar ends of de- and re-categorization. Those religious and political leaders that stated the opposite values were manipulative and the ones creating tensions and conflict. What was ultimately needed was for unbiased authorities to bring together these disparate books to show everyone their real common nature and cut the tense conflict that surrounded them. The Discussion Chapter took these findings and went back to the interview concepts and initial framework to suggest further research to expand them. Examples of valid and reliable concepts and indicators used in this study were Chrislam and Bosnian identity categories and discussions of both explicit differences between religions and differences noticed with family and friends of other religions. Discussions that were less useful were of People of the Book (PotB) and EU identity. A variety of further questions
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to understand Bosnia-Herzegovinian teachers were also asked as well as how each of the themes were inter-related. A fourth theme was also identified for further research, such as was done in this study, to explore what was tentatively titled teachers Perspectives on and Exercise of Roles, Agency and Power. This theme focuses on what teachers believe they should, can and do achieve and how others roles and power affects this. This study is an exploratory study and is meant to develop what may eventually become a much more rigorous framework to describe and analyze teachers perspectives that influence how they act in the classroom and influence the next generation. To completely describe this is likely impossible. No presumptions are made that the inner workings of any individual can be fully known. But such research will inform our efforts that involve teachers, acknowledge their worth and abilities as actors and, in turn, create more effective programs in contexts of conflict. By better understanding this last, most proximate lense that filters what actually reaches childrens ears and eyes we can begin to truly create lasting changes.

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Appendix 1
Glossary of Bosnia-Herzegovinian Terms Used in this Study

Bosniak Refers to the ethnic category corresponding with Muslims and is a derivative of Bosnia. Used as early as the late 19th century though did not gain prominence until after the War in the 1990s (see: War in the 1990s). Bosnian Refers in this paper to all citizens of Bosnia-Herzegovina. Often Bosnian is equated with Muslim or Bosniak. Some BiH citizens identify individually as Croatian or Serbian. Croat Refers to the ethnic category corresponding classically with Croatian nationalism and/or Catholicism. Throughout the paper Bosnian Croats are implied. Croatian Refers to nationals of the country of Croatia. Muslim Refers to the ethnic category also known as Bosniaks, also sometimes equated with Bosnian. During Josip Titos Yugoslavia (see: Yugoslavia) Muslims were eventually given ethnic and national status. Earlier they were encouraged to identify as Croat or Serb. Serb Refers to the ethnic category corresponding classically with Serbian nationalism and/or Serbian Orthodoxy. Throughout the paper Bosnian Serbs are implied. Serbian Refers to nationals of the country of Serbia.

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War in the 1990s, The

Refers to the Yugoslav Wars. In this paper I use this term as was used during the interviews. This was due to both local convention and sensitivity towards conflicting narratives over the name, specifically over its nature as a civil or international war. This war resulted in and from the dissolution of the states that formed Yugoslavia (see: Yugoslavia). Yugoslavia

The term means literally Land of the South Slavs. It has been used to refer to several countries in the regions history. This paper uses it in reference to Josip Titos Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia of the late 20th Century.

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Appendix 2
Example Interview Transcript

Interviewer (P): First, Ill just go over a couple of things about myself. Like I said, Im a Masters student, Im from the ***, I studied in England. Respondent (A): Mhm. P: Im not Bosnian myself, but I have been studying Bosnia for a bit. A: Mhm. P: What I am interested in is your perspective, A: Mhm. P: Your view of things. What you believe. So dont worry about being a hundred percent accurate just tell me what you think it is. A: Oh, OK. P: So I am interested in you more than what actually happened, you dont need to be a historian. So, there is obviously no right or wrong answers. A: Mhm. P: The study is descriptive, and not evaluative. So I wont be evaluating your position either. A: [Laughs] OK. P: So, ya just tell me how you generally understand things. If you dont want to answer any questions, you dont have to. A: Mhm. P: If you want to stop participating at any time just tell me. A: OK. P: There is obviously not penalty at all. If you have any questions about the study, just ask anytime. Now, in the middle, just ask whatever you want. You can email or call me, my email is on the form and you have my number already. If there is something you think of later, just send me a message. If you dont want me to use one of your answers, then just tell me and I wont use it. And if you want a copy of the final written up report, just ask for that as well.
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A: Ok, ok. No problem. P: Do you have any questions? A: No, shoot. P: Ok, how old are you? A: I am thirty one, in three days 32 [laughs]. P: How many years have you been teaching? A: It is my ninth year now. So for nine years. P: What town did you grow up in? A: Here, Tuzla. P: So you teach in Tuzla and you grew up in Tuzla? A: Yes. P: What is your ethnic-religious group. A: Roman Catholic. So I am Croat Roman Catholic. You know there is no Bosnian it is just geographically. Geographically I am Bosnian, I love Bosnia, it is the most important in the world for me. I studied at Croatia, but Bosnia is first place. P: Ok. A: But I am Croat, you know. P: What about your parents. A: The same. P; So did you grow up in Tuzla or Croatia? A: In Tuzla, I just studied in Croatia. P: What is the basic demographics of the town, the different groups that live here? A: OK, the major population is and has been Muslims. About, I think, 10 or 15% is Serbs but not anymore, after the war, and the last of that, about 10% are Croats, maybe even less. P: What about of your school? A: Well my school, my primary school is Solina, a little bit farther. P: Primary meaning where you teach at most? [We had talked before about the different schools he teaches at.]
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A: No my primary school that I went to. And my high school that I went to is the same school that I teach in. P: Oh ok, and what groups go to that? A: So the major, the most of the students at the school that I teach are Catholics, so Croats. But not, it is not a like 95%. It is 60 to 70%, how do you say, pure Croats. But a large number of the students is from those mixed marriages. P: Oh Ok. A: I dont know, how you say mixed marriages. But there is others of course. In my class, I how do you say, am the teacher of that class and am also responsible for the administrative and everything for that particular class. So I am the class teacher. P: Ok, I understand. A: So there are three Muslims and two Serbs, pure, and the rest is both Croats and mixed. That is the percentage. P: Oh ok, I get it. Thanks. So you said you also teach Latin language in some other schools. A: Yes. P: Is it kind of the same in those other schools? A: No, those other schools, the opposite. There most students are Muslims. P: Ok, so are they in Tuzla or? A: Yes in Tuzla. Two more schools. A chemistry school and some mixed school. P: Ok, great. So I have a number of different topics Id like to discuss and you can talk as much as you want about any of them. A: OK. P: So Im wondering about your school background and what you learned. I know that right now different schools have different history lessons. A: Mhm. P: So Im wondering about your education, specifically what were your history classes like? A: By the time I went to this school, when I attended this school, we had both programs. As well, so we had Bosnian history and Croatian history, as well the other national, how do you say, areas. Croatian language, I learned Croatian language. In geography we learned both national geographies: Croatian and Bosnian. So, uh, I think it was harder for my generation, for us, cuz we had double materials, everything double.
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P: Oh ok, thats interesting. Did you learn much about Serbian history? A: Serbian history. You know what was planned not that detailed. Not that detailed of the Serbian history. Only the amount of Serbian history that covers general history. Maybe a little more. P: Oh ok, I understand. So you mostly studied Croatian A: Croatian and Bosnian. And world history of course. P: Ok. So some people like to read a lot on history and of course some people dont. Im just wondering if you like to read any books, anything on history now? A: well, what is most interesting to me about history, and I do read reviews, some of the modern contemporary reviews that we get in school, you know? And I like most the topics about the lost period. The Croats see it this way and the Bosnians this way and the Serbs this way and Im not that young so I can remember most of the things that happened during the war. OK, I was here, not this side. But I think that I am realistic, so I do not support any of these theories. I am a Croat guy, but I live in Bosnia. You know. So I am interested in both sides and I am interested in truth. So I love to see um the reviews on that topics. P: Ya, so I didnt mean reading whole books, but articles A: No, no. Of course, of course. But not that I like am the one that studies history. P: Ok, ya. So is it important that people study different authors that write about history. A: Of course. You know the biggest problem here is that if I am a Croat, I will watch Croatian TV and Muslim that I will watch this one and Serbs this one. And you know, you listen to one side of the story, but that is not me. I love to watch Serbian TV and Serbian news from time to time. Serbian, Bosnian, Croatian. Today I watched Serbian news, tomorrow Bosnian. Yesterday CNN. But that is a problem, because most do not think that way. P: OK, I am also interested in the same thing about religion too. What were your religion classes like? A: Back in school? P: Ya for you. A: Umm although this is a Catholic school, we had a choice to attend either religion classes, you know, or ethics or history of the religions. So it was not obligatory to listen to attend the religion classes. P: Ya, I see. A: But I did attend the religion classes. But my personal opinion is that religion is the private side of life. I do not mix that a lot. In public life I am ***, professed teacher of
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Latin, Croatian. But in private I will go to church from time to time when I feel like going. P: Do you read, same kind of deal, books or reviews about religion? A: Ya, not only my religion, religions of the world. I love to read about religions of the Far East: Confucianism, Shintoism, Buddhism, Hinduism. The old religions because of the nature of my study, mythology of the Greeks of the Romans, Egyptians, Hebrews. P: Oh ok, Ive read a little of Greek and Hindu mythology, too. A: Ya, and I love it now. And with kids there are time they are exhausted and dont want to learn anything about grammar, so we put some kind of documentary about that topic. Mythology or something history and we spend some time watching it and discussing it. P: What about more specifically Catholicism and Islam now? A: Maybe not that much read, but I do watch everything that is happening. What do you mean? P: Basically, Im interested in how you learn and your perspective on what you do now. A: Globally or here, in Bosnia? P: Ya, in Bosnia. A: I dont know. I dont like the situation. It is so complex. You have come to Tuzla, and you have been lucky because of that. Why? I will explain. Because in Tuzla, we are, I dont know. We live together and it is not that important if you are Muhammad or *** or Paul or Stavo. It is not that important. Because Tuzla has always been I dont know, democratic. But there are some other cities, like Mostar. I had a colleague from Mostar, and when she first came to Tuzla she worked here for a year, not more. I guess she couldnt have made it more. But it was strange to her In Mostar you know you have a river, Muslims here and Croats there. You go to bakery shop and Croats go to this one and Muslims go to this one. They are divided in all aspects of life. P: Ok, I know a little about Mostar. A: Yes but not only Mostar. You have Zapce. They are, you know. I can ask for haeb a Bosnian word or kruk a Croatian word and no one will give a damn, they will give me what I ask. P: Here in Tuzla? A: Ya, here in Tuzla. Bu there is a situation that I ask for kruk in a Muslim bakery you wont get any bread. You might get some vulgar expression. But bread, no way. P: Ok I actually want to talk some about two schools under one roof but let me ask a couple more questions about this. When you read about different religions, do you read mostly what Catholics write or what Muslims write about Islam, for instance.
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A: OK, these actual topics, about bin Laden being killed and so on and so on, the first channel that I watch may be BBC or son on because of their popularity. But on the same day I have seen what they say about Al-Jazeera or the internet portals. Both sides. I cant see only one side of the story. There is a Latin saying audiatur et altera pars which means let the other side be heard. P: Oh wow, I really like that. Do you think you could write that down? A: Of course. That is one of my favorites. I dont know how you will pronounce it in American Latin [laughs]. [Then writes the phrase] P: OK, great. Kind of the same question: what do you think is the difference between when a Catholic person writes about Orthodoxy and when an Orthodox writes about Catholicism or same with Islam? A: When an Orthodox person writes about Orthodox religion, it can be subjective or emotionally connected. So I will always see what the Germans say about something, what the Russian say about something, what the Croats say about something. About the orthodox topic or something. So when I talk about Croats or a Serb talks about orthodox religion it is kind of emotional. So I always, I think anyone should check what the other side says. P: Ok, I understand. So have you ever had a chance to read the Bible? A: Not only read, but right now I also work at the university and I teach the subject that is called Church Slavonic Language and those old scripts, Lagothics and Cyrillics. And this was one of my favorite subjects in university, so not only that I read the Bible but I have deeply umm P: Ok, I see what you mean. What about the Koran? A: Only, and Im sorry for that, that I havent read most of that, but only some parts. And those parts that are covered with that history of religion. But of course I know that it is correspondent to Old Testament and so on and so on. Most of the topics I am familiar with but I havent read it. P: Do you think it is important for different groups, for Orthodox and Catholics to read the Koran and vice versa? A: Yes, yes of course. And to read it, I dont know, like it is um not emotionally connected but to get above it. The Bible, ok, it is a religious book, and it is elementary to all of the Christians. But I like to read it as literature, as mythology, as the most influenced book maybe of all times. P: So is this for both the Koran or A: Yes, yes. P: OK, great. Actually lets move on to the next section because I have a number of things that I want to kind of cover.
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A: OK. P: Like you said there is a large mix in Tuzla and I understand that some people are friends and even family members from different groups. A: Of course lots of that. P: Do you have any close friends who are Orthodox or Muslim? A: Yes. P: Ok, how long have you known them? A: From the childhood, always. As I know myself I know them. P: Ok, obviously different groups have different cultural and religious roots and I was wondering, with you and your friends, is there anything that stands out in what you believe, or generally practice. A: Differences... I dont know. There are differences between us, but actually we are friends and all the differences that we have, they are like like a fortune for us. Ill give you one example. This Easter, so what, a month ago? P: Ya. A: I was sitting with two of my friends, five of them. Among them, Jasmin a Muslim and --- whos Orthodox. And Ive known them all of my life. So we sat it was sunny day, we drank a beer and relaxed. And two guys came; they were drunk, but not that drunk they couldnt know what they were speaking. They were Croats. And they are now living in Croatia. I dont know them. They are from the same place but I never met them I dont know. But they have Croatian signs. P: Like the checkers? A: Yes. So, ok, they were a little bit boring but ok, they ask this and they ask that. So at one moment they said, ok I dont know how they knew I was a Croat, but *** could be any. Yes, it is more about that. The surname, but he didnt know my surname. He said You know, you are mine. You know me and him. We are, you know, because we are Croats. I said to him, we are not --- P: --- what does that mean? A: It means Christmas. A little god. You are not mine, you could be sometimes maybe. But with this views no, but you could be. Jasmin and Zhelymeer is mine. These two guys. And I think that, I really think that. I have known them my whole life. It is out of the question. So we stood up all and walked out of the place. We do not like that topics. We are kidding sometimes. We do kid. P: Do you talk with them about religion?

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A: Yes, of course. It is like a normal thing. Amongst friends. I dont know we are kidding about that. P: Kidding and making jokes about religion? A: Ya, but not offensive of course. Because we do not mean that. This is in Tuzla. It has always been that way. This is my personal opinion. There has always been those kind of extreme situations, you know, but we are somewhere in the middle of it. Most people think that way. You know first I am a human then I am a teacher then I am this and that and maybe on 8th or 9th place I am a Roman Catholic and Croat. First I am human. P: O so first youre human and maybe 9th you are Croat? A: Yes, ya. P: Ok, do you talk with them about the war much? A: Yes, it is, how do you say, sensitive topic. P: No I understand. I mean if you dont want to talk about it now A: Yes, yes it is sensitive but we can talk about it easily. We have an Orthodox friend, for example. And he wasnt there when it started because, I dont know, his father knew something was cooking. And they actually went away. But only for a month or so. So when they realized they have come back and been there all the rest of the war. So we talk about where he went and why, you know openly. P: What about other things, like why it started? A: Yes, yes. It doesnt matter. Because we both know, we all know, the circle of friends I am in, actually who started that here but no one has pure hands, no side. Some of people I know I cant talk about that, because I know how you put it my father almost got killed during the war. Anyway, I know that both sides, its war there are no rules. Maybe this side started it, but once it is started, no rules anymore. P: Ok, I see. Kind of the same thing about family. Do you have any family who are not Croat? A: Yes, but not blood related. P: Ya, even marriage. A: Ya, well my fathers brother, he married my favorite aunt [laughs]. She is a Serb for example. Their children is even though their father is a Croat they are serbs, because they declared themselves that way. P: So their parents are mixed but they say they are Serbs?

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A: yes. I love them very much and we agree about everything except for sport teams. Also, Muslims, my, one of my sisters. I mean one of my cousins, not sisters, she is great. We watch the games. We spend much time together and so on and so on. P: OK, so do you consider yourself to be religious? A: Not that much. I do believe, but like I earlier said, it is some kind of private thing to me. P: Ya I will be going over things. So I might repeat something. A: Ok, doesnt matter. So I will go to church, not regularly, but from time to time when I feel I should and have time. I like to go to church a little but you know I am religious. I respect my religion, I believe in it. I do respect other religions but, you know, civilizationally how do you put it I respect everyone. I really do. P: OK, is most of your family religious? A: Well it doesnt really matter. You know, one of my uncles is Ive got four of them, four brothers from my fathers side. Some of them are religious some of them, they are not Communists but you know they are more left. P: OK I understand what you mean. A: But we spend all day, we can argue about something but we still love each other and so on. P: OK, so you said you do to, um, Catholic mass sometimes. Have you ever been to an orthodox service? A: Yes, yes. P: What about a Muslims service? A: Yes. Well no I havent been, but I have.. I have been to some mosques, like this one here [points], and the one in Zagreb where I studied. But it is not a mosque in Zagreb, it is a little bit outside. P: Ok, I get it. Ok, same kind of thing with friends. I am just wondering what kinds of things, maybe, stood out or did you find most different when youve been to Orthodox or Muslim churches. A: OK, well we have the Orthodox Church right here. I have been there three times. One time is was a liturgical mass, or how do they call it, they stand a lot. It lasts more than the catholic mass. There is lots of singing. It was very interesting to me. Most of that singing was in old church Slavonic languages that I have learned and am now a little bit of teaching. You know, the Muslim those um how do they call it their liturgical P: Oh, I dont know the word.
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A: Anyway, their liturgical, I have seen it on television and I am familiar with that. P: Oh, so youve watched services on the television? A: Yes, yes I have seen it. The major differences they are separated. So that is kind of interesting. It has some meaning. P: Ok, I see. Im just wondering if there are other kinds of things that stand out. A: Ya, interesting thing in Catholic mass. From where I come a little bit outside of Tuzla, an older church. You know to me it doesnt matter. I am married and my wife and I we sit together, but the older grannies and grandpas, they sit separated. Right side are women and the left side are men. Only the older ones. Everyone sixty and above. It is also interesting because I havent noticed it, my wife told me. Grandpas are there, there. Ok go, you are on the wrong side of the church. P: Ya, Ive been to a couple churches too like that. And wondering with my girlfriend I dont know, some people are sitting together, but then the older people are not, what should we do? A: [laughs] P: Umm... OK great A: One more thing. I had an opportunity to attend a mixed mass. Orthodox and Catholic, in Zagreb. It was the most amazing thing that Ive seen. All together. P: When was this? A: About ten years ago. P: So after the war? A: Yes, yes, after the war. It happens, I dont know, once a year. P: O wow, that is still somewhat often. A: Yes, yes. You know one side of the altars are Catholic and this side is Orthodox and they alternatively say each others parts. And the eucharistia, you know, I loved it, I really loved it. I even stood in the wrong queue. P: The orthodox side? A: Ya, [laughs] the orthodox side. P: ya, thats interesting. Kind of similar to that, there are a few, I guess, different ways of being religious that I know arent practiced much here in Bosnia, but I know are practiced in some other places. And so if you havent heard of them dont worry, Ill just explain. Im not so much curious whether youve heard of them but what you think about that idea So first, have you ever heard of Chrislam?

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A: No. P: Ok, its popular in some places like Nigeria and Lebanon and some other places. It is relatively recent also. But it is the idea that you can be both Christian and Muslim. So some people in Lebanon, Nigeria, when they go to church slash mosque the priest slash imam uses both the Koran and the Bible. So there is not two separate pulpits. A: There is one temple it is one person? P: Ya one person. So if you ask someone who is Chrislamic Are you Muslim? they will say No I am Chrislamic. Are you Christian? No Im Chrislamic. A: So, in Algeria? P: Nigeria, thats one place. Its in a number of different countries. A: So what is the Chrislamic population? P: Oh, I dont know. A: Not much? P: Well it is small because it is new, but it is growing. So in Nigeria there are more and more churches. A: Oh, that is very, very interesting. P: Ya, so I am wondering do you think that someone can be both Christian and Muslim or are there too many differences that you cant be both. A: No, because the basis of all the religions is the good. You know? We all believe there is a god, or more gods, their all good. The ethics basis of all the religions are the same. You have to be nice, you have to respect everyone, you have to love people. You have to help each other, you know? That is enough for me. P: I see. What about in practice? A: Well, we have said earlier that the Koran and the Old Testament are practically the same book. But that could be a good fundament to start with. The practice? Not so much different, also. Ok, you dont want to eat pork; you dont have to eat pork. I know lots of Muslims that do eat pork. It doesnt mean anything. He is not better or worse person. P: I understand. A: Or vice versa. I shouldnt look at someone elses wife. I have eyes. I can look at her and say she has nice, wow she is pretty. [laughs]. But I shouldnt do it, according to the Bible, according to the Koran. P: I see. Do you think that, um, this idea that Chrislam, that Im not Muslim, Im not Christian, do think that kind of belief could work in Bosnia?
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A: No, I dont think that it could work because of the cultural history background. But it doesnt have to work. The normal people, my colleague, not ***, she is Orthodox, her husband is Muslim. A great friend of mine. Their kid, a little boy. I dont know what is he? I dont know. He is a normal person. It doesnt even matter if he is Orthodox, Islamic Chrislamic. I had a colleague in my class that was by her birth she was Muslim but she was adopted to her aunt who was married to a Orthodox person. So she declared herself, even baptized herself in this orthodox church and then went to catholic school. So she is an amalgam of all these three great religions. She is a great person a great teacher, English teacher, also. But not here, in some other school. P: O, wow. A: I know so much of those examples that we could sit here all day. P: Ok, [laughs], ya. Well here is a similar idea but a little bit different. So Chrislam you are both together at the same time. Have you heard of the Islamic term Ahl al-Kitab, People of the Book? A: Yes, we say even in our language, orientalism, chitab. P: O, so there is a similar Bosnian word for it? A: No, Old Bosnian. P: Oh, ok. A: Yes it is archaic, but everyone understands it. It is the same origin P: I see. For the People of the Book, though, the idea is that youre still Christian and Im still Muslim but were both people of the book. A: Yes, yes. P: So identifying not as Christian but this larger identity. A: Yes, yes. P: So, again, in some countries, like Nigeria, politicians and religious people are saying that being Christian or isnt really important. We are all people of the books, we worship the same God A: So it is like religion. P: Ya, so do you think that there are enough similarities that people can identity as or are too many the differences between the religions? A: Ya, the truth is the average person doesnt know much about either of that. My friend and I were playing some pool, relaxing. We love to do that. Some girls, they were attending some American university, but it not actually an American university, they have classes in Bosnia, you know.

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P: In the US? A: Yes No, no , here. It is called American university, they have those diplomas, but they are not even attending classes in English, you know. So those we were playing pool and the girls they were talking and I understood that they are Muslims but they are discussing something of the religious topics. And they were very loud and they started to get on our nerves because they had no idea. Literally I dont know, neither on the Christianity on the Islamic themes. P: Were they both Christians? A: No, no they were both Muslims. They were so loud that they didnt have any idea that we werent Muslims, which we werent, and I am telling this to you because they are academic citizens. They are attending university. They are supposed to be well into these topics, but they are not. What about all of those people that have not even attended high school? And this is average. The knowledge is a problem. The knowledge on these topics. Some people even consider themselves religious, but they know very little about their own religion. P: Ok. Just to check for Youve been to university for A: Yes, yes, I have an M.A. degree also. P: Oh ok. So switching a little from religious identity. Under Tito things were obviously a little different. I was wondering if you could give me a brief overview. For example could you tell me how religion was practiced in the former Yugoslavia? A: Yes, yes. I have an example also, maybe that is the best. My uncle he is a policeman, a police officer, he served and he was a communist in public life. But back as a child, you know back in the 80s, 85, I remember well, he was practicing religion also, privately. He went to those masses at graveyards, sometimes of the year at the church. Not regularly, but three or four times of the year, when there was worship. Not worship, but respecting the dead ones, you know. He was practicing religion just like he practices it today. He separated those two aspects of life. Public life he was police man. It was some kind of restricted. You should go in public with it. But all life Ive discussed this topic with him. He said even back there, he is now sixty five, seventy years old, even in the 70s when Tito was alive, no one could tell him you couldnt go to church or something. He never had problems. P: Ok, I see. Umm, how did different groups generally get along in Titos Yugoslavia? A: The same a now, you know we always had those Muslims friends. We visited them at Biram, uhh you know what Biram is? P: No. A: It is a religious feats day. P: In Catholicism?
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A: No in Islam. They come to us for Christmas. P: Is that for Ramadan? A: Yes, yes. We say Biram. P: Oh, ok. Like Eid. A: Yes. So we always visited each other and the orthodox as well. That is what I recall. We always as children and our fathers and our parents we play football and parties and you know, all together. There are still the pictures, the five of them. If you have five of them on the picture, 95% possibility that there are at least three different religions, you know. It was always mixed, always. It hasnt been this situation, only from the war on. It has always been that way. My grandfather taught me these stories. He worked at the mine yard. It was amusing to me these stories of him and his colleagues back then, after the Second World War. Him as his colleague Mohammed and all kinds of people. It was amusing to me, very much. P: Ok, I understand. Um so in the same way that a lot of people identify as Croat or Serb, some people, as I understand, didnt identify as a religious group or ethnic way, but instead as Yugoslavian. And now, for example, I have a friend who identifies as Bosnian. A: Mhm. P: And his background is Muslim, but he doesnt identify as Muslim, but Bosnian. I was wondering what you, um.. why more or less some people identify as Bosnian or Yugoslavian and not ethnic or religious ways? A: They are right, you know. I can say I am Chinese. P: Ya, but they think they actually are. A: Ya, you say what you believe in. I am not afraid of saying I am a Croat but it is not the most important thing to me. P: Ok, I am just curious as to why you think they would say I am. A: I remember my father declared himself as Yugoslav, Yugoslavian. Umm back in 80s. He knew he is a Catholic, he was baptized, he was But back then he didnt attend church much, now he doesnt attend it much. [Laughs]. P: Does he still identify as Yugoslavian? A: No, no. He is a Croat. Now, because back then it was he felt that umm... That, I dont know togetherness, how do you say it. People needed. Just like the American people, kind of like a melting pot, that was Yugoslavia. Literally it was United States Yugoslavia. The confederation, actually federation, of all kinds of nations. Ok, we were similar, most of them Slavic, but also Albanian people included, Greek people included,

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Hungarian and the other minorities. Not even all similar. I guess people feel I like personally the ethnic group Bosnian. I like Bosnian, but it is of course geographically. P: Ok, I understand what you mean. A: Ya, but in my heart, what category is that: in my heart. P: Ah, I see. So for some Bosnians, I know the government, they want to join the EU. Umm... do you think an identification as European would be very strong or could work in Bosnia? A: Ya, because it is in Europe, because we are not in Asia. P: Well I mean identifying A: .Yes, yes I understand the question. P: Ok. A: Um for a very long time we were under the Turks. P: The Ottoman Empire? A: Yes, but also one not that long time but very influential time we were under, how do you say it P: The Austro-Hungarian Empire? A: Yes, and it was very influential. It brought Europe here. This kind of Europe, Vienna Europe. The people have that in very special way, a very special way. Because we have, you know what beg is? P: Yes a small ruler, like a duke? A: Yes, yes. Some kind of a duke. So we have as our, as our thing, this European feeling and this other feeling, an oriental feeling. I would call it an.. I dont know.. a special kind of Europeanism. Bottom line, if you ask whether or not we belong to Europe, I would say we do belong, we do belong to Europe and we can contribute with this special kind of culture. It is a special mix. You cant find anywhere else that way. P: I understand what you mean. It is right between? A: Yes, we are a good people. You cant, I dont know P: Ok, do similar back to the Yugoslavian/Bosnian a little. Do you think that identifying as Bosnian Do you think that that would work in BiH to united people more? A: no, no. I said I would like it. I would give myself as a Bosnian. I would give up my Croatian passport and you know. I would but it is a Utopia because most of the Serbs wouldnt declare themselves as Bosnians. So it is a phenomenon. You have this person
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who is born in Bosnia but is a Serb, but actually maybe never been to Serbia, but you know that when the soccer national teams play they support Serbian teams. But that is natural to me, I support Croatian team. But in the case Bosnia and Croatia play together, I would like the Bosnian team to win. I wouldnt be too sad if the Croatia team won, but you know. But the most of people, Croats and Serbs, do not even like the Bosnia national team. And I think that is their will. If there were some kind of Bosnian nation that mostly Muslims would accept it, mostly. And some urban Serbs and you know Serbs and Croats from the big cities. I wanted to say one more thing but I forgot. P: Well if you remember you can say later. A: I hope so. P: Honestly, its good if you want to just talk and talk, so whenever you remember just interrupt. Ok, this is kind of a general question, so you dont have to be super specific. Again, just want stands out most or what is most interesting. What do you think are the biggest differences between Christianity and Islam? A: Biggest differences? I dont see. Well orthodoxy and Catholicism literally do not have that big of differences. When an orthodox woman wants to marry a catholic guy she is, they do it in a catholic church, cuz vice versa, they accept the others baptism. They are practically the same. It is also in the mind of people. But Muslim people they are a little bit different, but not that much. I dont see it as that much different. You Muslims they have their own feast days and I dont know why should it bother me? It is actually, actually some kind of a fortune to have all of that in one region. I love that. P: Ok. So I am interested in, um, how Bosniak and Islam and Croat and Catholicism basically map onto each other and I was wondering if there is anything that is culturally Croat that does not come from Catholicism or do most of the things that are culturally Croat, and same kind of thing with Serbs, come from religion? A: In Bosnia? P: Ya, in Bosnia. A: Ya, there are some mixed up things. We have some groups in the Middle of Bosnia, around Travnik I think well, I dont know specific. Some groups that have those older national clothing, you know? The womens national cloths are actually, they are Croats, but they were specific muslim, umm P: O ok. I was also wondering, so you have the ethnic and also the religious identity, are there any practices generally that dont come from religion or is that why they map on so? A: Oh, yes, yes. Religion is the main thing. It is, I dont know, it is the source of our differences and the source of our, you know, our practices. P: Ok. So I have heard that some people, not very widespread, but there have been some instances of conversion. You mentioned your one friend who
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A: Yes, yes. P: Obviously young in their life and some people later choose to convert. I was wondering what kinds of reasons someone might do that? A: Well some circumstances of life. You are surrounded by, for example, someone could be a Muslim but be surrounded by their new family, are Croats for example. And at one moment in his life would baptize himself. I have more examples of that. My cousin, I mean nephew, married this Muslim but he baptized him in catholic school, in Catholic Church. And their two children are also catholic. His father was Muslim but his mother was Catholic. And funny thing his father was Muslim but his mother was Orthodox, his fathers mother. So my cousin his is three in one. So these are circumstances. So he married a catholic and baptized himself as a catholic, as a grown up person. These could be, I dont know. There is a practical reason to do that, not anymore, but back in the 90s. Because if you were a Croat, if you had a Croatian passport you could travel all around the world. The Bosnian couldnt until the 2010, last year. It is practical reason but lots of people have baptized and then have these Croatian papers. It is one possible reason. I know it is not from inside, but it could be. P: Ok, one more topic. I would like to talk about more current policies. As I mentioned before I was wondering if you could me a little more about the two schools under one roof policy. I know it is mentioned in Mostar and a couple other places as well. A: I dont know it is, um, a colleague of mine went to Zebce and they have a catholic school there, it is not under one roof, but in the same place they have this other Muslim school. I suppose it is similar. Here we have mixed children, but over there it is almost without exception. Muslims go to Muslim school and Croats go to catholic school. P: Here? A: No in Zebce. It is 100 km away. And it the way, it is not like here. It is not good for me. There should be a choice, but you should have it works for us here. Some Muslims want a good education. Our school is known as good school. My students now doctors, lawyers. Even *** was mine, one of the best really. You know, we can people go to our school because we have a good education, not only because it is a catholic school. But when you have under one roof, where you have those two schools under one roof that is a problem. You cant go to a Muslim school if you are a Croat, you cant go. It is not like a choice it is division. Not good, not a good concept. P: You mean not go as in are not allowed or not able to A: No you are allowed but you will not be accepted as a Croat in a Muslim school and also not be accepted by the Croats as a Croat who attends muslim school. P: You mean in general or A: No in such schools where they have those politics. P: Do you think that it is better to teach Croats in the same schools or classes or
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A: Not necessarily. All of our classes are full of others you know others [laughs], like we are the first [laughs]. P: Ya other groups. A: But I never felt even back then that when I went to this school by the way we have Islamic religion. An Imam he comes and teaches Islamic religion to children who want these classes. P: Religious Education classes? A: Yes, yes. P: Do catholics go to the Islamic A: Mostly the Islamic go to these classes because they have the choice. You can go to either catholic or Islamic religion classes, how do you call it? P: Islamic classes? Just um ya A: Islamic religion classes. Or the third option is ethics, just general ethics. If you dont feel yourself either of those. P: Do you think that its important for kids to go to the same classes for other subjects A: Yes, and they, all of the other subjects they go together. I think that, I wanted to say that back in the 90s when I attended these schools we had some of the Muslim and Serbian and mixed kids and I dont think that anyone has felt inferior. I dont think that we have in my class we have two Muslims, but they dont hang with each other only. Actually they do not hang with each other at all. They are mixed up. He hangs out with other kids, other groups. And the two Serbs are not like this [links fingers] but they hang out all together. P: I understand what you mean. A: They are not, you know what would be the point if they were separated. Its not that way. But you come to the schools and have a big cross, you know, Jesus Christ, but it doesnt both anyone that I see. There is still muslims that want to go to our school because it is a good school, a clean school it smells nice [laughs]. Pictures, we have some flowers. [laughs]. And relatively a good education. When you see other schools in Tuzla they vary. Oh, these are my beautiful students [introductions and two female students and respondent discuss students questions in Bosnian for a few minutes]. We have this party tomorrow. You know, the prom party. P: Ya [laughs]. A: Ok, so where were we? P: So, I would like to ask you about the different curriculums. The Croats have different curriculums in history and
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A: Mmm, language, the mother tongues. P: Ya, published in Zagreb. A: Not necessarily. P: Yes, yes, some. A: Not all, just the national. And they are not very different, they are 30% different. You know it is like, here we are kind of minority and we want to preserve our culture. We learn Croatian, but and Croatian history. But it is not big deal. But most of the subjects are still common to all, like the Croatian language, that is not much different. P: Ok. So you said 30% different. Is that for the national subjects? A: For the national subjects yes, only for the national subjects. P: So 30% of the national subjects are A: Yes, yes. We learn general history, world history, you know? And one part of it is national history. That national part is different. There is an accent on Croatian history but we also learn Bosnian history. P: Ok. But sometimes they have, uh, presented different perspectives A: The recent P: Ya the recent events as well. A: Yes. P: So what about hose specifically? A: You know how, how does it work, in history it is a matter of fourth class, the last one, I think, as I recall, we didnt get to it, maybe intentionally. [laughs] P: OK. A: So maybe we get to, and a little bit further, but not to the 90s or so. Maybe intentionally probably intentionally. [laughs]. And Im ok with that. It has to pass sometime to consider these things. P: Ok. Do you think it is important for each of the groups to, like you said, preserve their own cultural version as a minority or have a common curriculum. I know the OSCE wants to have a more similar curriculum. Do you think that Bosnia should keep it as it is or move more towards that? A: I would like to have similar curriculums. P: For the national subjects?

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A: Yes, but also I think that it is not a any normal person would say that it is not some kind of obstruction if I learn Croatian literature because if I have the opportunity to do it and I want to do it, as I studied Croatian language and I like it as I study linguistics, and I like some Croatian authors. And if someone wants to learn specific Serbian literature he should be able to. He should have the choice. He should be able to have the choice. How you say it we dont have to be competitive about it. So I dont know. I dont think it is a bad idea to have all those kinds of subjects those national areas. P: Ok. So as I said before, it is important to have the A: Yes we are not all the same, it is important because we all live here together, but why should we all have the these 5% that we are different from each other, why should we erase that? It is ok. P: Do you think it is important to also learn that other 5%? A: Of course, it is like when you are born you know it because you are grown up with it, it is a normal thing. I have always known these Muslim things and cultural rituals. I have always; Ive been born with it. I am a Croat but am familiar with them. Not that I have to learn any specifically. P: Ok. Some people suggest one idea, that changing the curriculum Muslims and Serbs could write parts of the Croatian curriculum, for example. What do you think of this idea? A: Ok, in my class you have some Muslims and some Serbs, but they still learn Croatian language and history. P: No, I mean, well, there is the Croatian history curriculum and some people say that one chapter in the history curriculum should be written by a Serb and one chapter written by a Muslim giving those perspectives. A: That would be great [laughs]. That would be the key of the solution. Yes of course. Most of the differences are how to put it most of the reasons for the war is for Croats write history as he wants and that is by itself the reason for an argument or something. In the situation you describe where Croats write part of the history book, but some chapters should be reviewed at least or written by a Serb or Muslim that would be much, much better. That would be a solution actually. P: O ok. Do you think that it is ahh... well, the present situation where each learns history by Croats and Serbs read history by Serbs. What effect do you think this present policy has on students? A: Students I dont know. The younger population they are not much into politics. Some of them are but mostly not. They want to go to party, they want to play some soccer. It doesnt matter to them. That population. They are not much influenced by politics. It does irritate them. They are aware of that but not, I dont know, not politics ahh! Lets go listen to some music.

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P: Ok, I understand. So you said before that people learn a lot through their family and learn a lot at religious services, not just school. So I am curious about the role that imams play in education as well. A: Mhm. P: So I know there are lots of different imams and priests and some of them preach messages of about other groups A: Mhm, yes. P: Sometimes negatively, sometimes positively. Im wondering about your experiences with this. What youre heard in church or what youre heard other pastors and priests and imams A: Yes, yes, I may have heard some priests talking a bit of negatively on the topics of others. But it cant influence me in that way. Zero. P: What have you heard other people say? A: It is not that serious things, you know. They say the Koran is actually the Old Testament, but actually just a bad copy of it. It is a little bit offensive. I dont share that opinion. I have heard it but I do not actually think that... of any good of priests that preach that. You know all of them should preach to love each other and respect each other I dont know. P: Ok. What about politicians who A: Ahh! P: That say negative or positive things? A: They almost always say negative things. I cant think of at least one politician. And I know lots of them, like actually know, like go to coffee. And they have different preoccupations, like different groups also. But also I am not active politically because of the reason, I do not want to umm if I say I am one of the parties, and we have many. In American you have two, you can imagine how much problems we have. It is like politicians they all lie. They all lie. They have, if not personal interests, then interests of not so wide a group... You know national parties they want only the rights or privileges for their own group. There are some liberals that want, supposedly, for all, justice for all, but it is not that actually. It is well just not that effect. And the word is, I think, administration. Administration here has 70 or more percent of the national budget and the average of the world is under 30%. That is why I hate politicians, you know? Not that we can drink some coffee or something, but they only want to be for them to have big salaries. P: How do other people react to, well you described how you react to politicians and religious figures, but how do other respond?

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A: Religious figures, they are respected. Mostly respected. But politicians, not. They are hated, just really hated. I know some politicians who help lots of people, but for example Croats help Croats. If one party is won the majority of some elections they will set up a government of their people, even if they are not minister of... minister of health is actually a traffic engineer or the opposite, minister of traffic is a medical doctor. Just because they have to put that particular man on the government. At every particular level: the canton, the city, the federal or middle or the state. For example the Muslim party won the election it has to be Muslim, but they give one other place to some other. Hey we gave them so were good. That is what bothers people mostly. The education minister is anyone who doesnt do much with education. For example the minister of education now is famous with sports or athletics. She is ok, but she never worked at school really. She doesnt know the real problems. So how can she be the boss of the whole I dont know. Thats frustrating and I get upset talking about it [laughs]. P: Is there a role that ok sorry, ya well go through this a little bit quickly. Is there a role, do you think, that citizens should play when religious figures or politicians have these negative messages about the other? A: You mean to react some way? P: Ya. A: There is some reactions but mostly people do nothing because an individual person cannot do anything by himself. P: Ok. What about teachers? Is there a role teachers should play? A: Teachers ah yes. I consider my work as a mission. That is also why I am not politically active. I want to be a teacher of all the kids. I love them all I teach them all. It is not only Latin, there is this other side of education. We teach them grammar and sentences and everything, but also I I want them to be good people, good humans, to help each other, to be aware of the environment. It is not hard to me. There is a group of students and I dont know there is some empty bottle on the ground and it is not hard to me to get it up and, I dont know, put it in the trash and ay no words. They will see and they will learn stuff. They see there is no their humanitarian the theatre the other night there was this act and there was contributions. I went there with my students and I want them to see me put the money in the box for the I dont know some girls operation. If they see me doing that I hope they will do the same. P: Ok, I understand. So moving on to the last little section that I have. I want to talk a little about the war in the 90s. A: Yes. P: You already mentioned some things and I was wondering where most people learn about the war now? A: Where?
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P: Ya what sources? A: Well television the most. Because people do not read much generally and it is still very warm topic...how do you say hot topic. Except the youngest population, the rest recall it, remember it. It was not that long, only 10 15 years now. So it is not much time. So most of them, like I said, we have been here and been occupated and had no food. It is still very, very live, in our minds and we learn to live with it. P: Do people talk about it much with each other? A: Ya, every second the words in war. Well ya not every conversation about the war is serious, because people have learned to talk about the war through jokes. We joke about war also. Doesnt mean it doesnt affect us still. My father almost lost his life during the war, but it doesnt mean he cant joke about it still. [laughs]. The guy came and he shoot me in my legs and then I beg him to leave me and that I have children and everything and then he almost shoot me in the head you know. He jokes about it and stuff. Not only him, not only well you get the point. P: Ya, I understand. So do people generally, well like I said before Im curious how different groups talk about it with each other. Do they? A: with each other? P: With different groups? A: Im not sure I understand the question. P: Well um different groups, Croat and Muslim and A: Oh, yes, yes. Well it is still hot and I think that it could be well with my friends I can discuss it openly and everything. But others, they are not always good intentions because not everyone. Well I do not hate all the Serbs because my father was wounded by the serbs. Like the guy who shot him. Why? I dont know. The circumstances, it was the war. I have friends who are Serbs that didnt shoot him. But not everyone thinks that way. There are people who, I cant partly understand them, who lost their parents or relative and cant and they cant forgive all for example a Serb killed my father and I hate all of them. And they spread the hate. It is not good but there is still very much of those examples. P: Ok, great. Well I think that is actually about it. You said you have to go right now, dont you? A: Yes in 5 minutes about. I have another class. P: Ok. Well is there anything youd like to ask me? A: No actually weve had some words. And I hope I helped. P: Ya definitely it was great. [recorder turned off]
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Appendix 3
CUREC 1a Form

University of Oxford CENTRAL UNIVERSITY RESEARCH ETHICS COMMITTEE (CUREC) CUREC/1A Checklist for the Social Sciences and Humanities
The University of Oxford places a high value on the knowledge, expertise, and integrity of its members and their ability to conduct research to high standards of scholarship and ethics. The research ethics clearance procedures have been established to ensure that the University is meeting its obligations as a responsible institution. They start from the presumption that all members of the University will take their responsibilities and obligations seriously and will ensure that their research on human subjects is conducted according to the established principles and good practice in their fields and in accordance, where appropriate, with legal requirements. Since the requirements of research ethics review will vary from field to field and from project to project, the University accepts that different guidelines and procedures will be appropriate. Please check the CUREC website to ensure that you have the correct form for your project. This form does not cover research governance, satisfactory methodology, or the health and safety of employees and students. As principal investigator, it is your responsibility to ensure that requirements in these areas are met. Please carry out a risk assessment of the project, in consultation with all researchers involved, using the checklist and CURECs other documentation. The use of an asterisk in this form indicates a phrase defined in the glossary. The glossary and further information on the Universitys research ethics procedures are available from the CUREC website: www.admin.ox.ac.uk/curec This form is designed largely for research that falls within the Divisions of Social Sciences and Humanities and which does not involve a high-level of risk to the subjects. Elite interviews, field work and oral history are included in the CUREC process. Please take a moment to read through it and if you have any questions or doubts as to whether it is the appropriate form, please review Section A or consult the CUREC website. Note on anonymised data: If you are using previously collected anonymised data about people which neither you nor anyone else involved in your study can trace back to the individuals who provided them (e.g. census data, administrative data, secondary analysis), you do not need to obtain ethical approval for your study. Please refer to the definition of *personal data in the glossary and FAQ no. 6 for further guidance. Note on audit: If you are conducting research on behalf of or at the request of a service provider that matches the definition of *audit in the glossary, you do not need to obtain ethical approval for your study.

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SECTION A Yes 1) Are you using research methodologies commonly used in biomedical or behavioural laboratory sciences? 2) Is there a significant risk that the research will induce anxiety, stress or other harmful psychological states in participants that might persist beyond the duration of any test or interview in which they are participating? 3) Will the research involve human participants recruited by means of their status as present or past NHS patients or their relatives or carers or present or past NHS staff? 4) Does the research involve *human participants aged 16 and over who do not have *capacity to consent for themselves? See the Mental Capacity Act 2005 5) Is the study to be funded by the US National Institutes of Health or another US federal funding agency? Office use only: IDREC Ref. No. __________________ Date of confirmation that checklist accepted on behalf of IDREC: // // No X X

X X X

If you answered yes, please stop work on this checklist and for questions 1 and 2, complete CUREC/1 instead (available from www.admin.ox.ac.uk/curec); for questions 3 and 4, submit your proposal to the appropriate NHS ethics committee (see www.nres.npsa.nhs.uk and www.admin.ox.ac.uk/rso/clinical for further information); for question 5, or if you answered 'yes' to questions 1, 2 or 4 and your research will take place outside the EU, submit your proposal to OXTREC, which uses separate documentation (www.tropicalmedicine.ox.ac.uk/oxtrec). If you have answered no to all questions in Section A, please complete Sections B-E. This form and any supporting materials should be typewritten. SECTION B *Principal investigator/ supervisor/student researcher (title and name): Name of supervisor (STUDENT RESEARCH PROJECTS ONLY): Department or institute: Address for correspondence (if different): Email and phone contact: Paul.chiari@gmail.com, 07980 992 912 UK Cell Number Paul Chiariello, MSc Student Researcher

David Johnson Education Department, University of Oxford

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Title of research project:

An Exploratory Study of Teachers as Mediators of Ethnic Conflict in Bosnia i Herzegovina.

Brief description of research methods and goals plus description of the nature of participants (including the criteria for inclusion/exclusion, method of recruitment), explanation of how professional guidelines and/or CUREC protocol(s) will be applied (if relevant) and expected use to which the results/data will be put. Please describe how you will obtain informed consent. Approx 400 words. The aim of this exploratory descriptive study will be to understand public school teachers perspectives and beliefs that are relevant to their mediation of ethnic conflict. The research questions of the study will be What are Public school teachers in Bosnia i Herzegovinas beliefs which influence their mediation of ethnic conflict? A series of approximately 5-6 semi-structured interviews will be done with each participant for approximately 2 to 3 hours total. A series of short interviews will be done in order to 1) create an initial rapport with participants and 2) because of the anticipated length of time it may take to complete the list of interview questions. The exploratory study will hope to use this initial research to propose further research for those interested in topics such as peace education. The participants will be teachers from public schools in throughout Bosnia i Herzegovina, but most likely focused in the capital of Sarajevo canton (district). All interviews will be done in English. To ensure adequate fluency, participants likely will be English teachers. Access to teachers will facilitated by 3 Bosnian contacts, two of which have worked previously as teachers. Selection will be done using networking and snowballing sampling methods. The Initial three contacts will suggest teachers they have contacted and may be willing to participate. In turn, other teachers will be contacted until enough teachers to fulfill sampling requirements have been reached. Teachers who are placed in contact with the researcher will be given a brief outline of the projects design and their responsibilities and will answer questions over email, phone or Skype. Participant information and written informed consent forms will be provided to all teachers who participate. Further verbal explananation will also be discussed with interview participants at the beginning of each interview session. Transcripts will be anonymized and interview recordings will be deleted shortly after transcription. Names of interview and questionnaire participants, as well as schools, and other identifying personal characteristics will be changed. All data will be stored and backed up in a password protected computer, which only the researcher will have access to.

List actual or probable location(s) where project will be conducted, if known: Anticipated duration of project:

The research will take place in Bosnia i Herzegovina.

__1__ months

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Anticipated start date: Anticipated end date: Name and status (e.g. 3 year undergraduate; post-doctoral research assistant) of others taking part in the project: Please indicate what training on research ethics the researchers involved with this study have received, e.g. the title of the online or in-person course, and date completed (online training available at www.admin.ox.ac.uk/rso/integrity/# Training): SECTION C
rd

May June

/ 5 / 2011 / 5 / 2011

-Oxford University, Fundamentals in Educational Research with David Mills, Ethical Issues Seminar, Nov. 3, 2010. -Epigeum, Weblearn, Ethics 2: Working with Human Subjects, online course certification, Feb. 27, 2011. -Epigeum, Weblearn, Ethics 1: Good Research Practice, online course certification, Mar. 20, 2011.

Methods to be used in the study (tick as many as apply: this information will help the committee understand the nature of your research and may be used for audit). Please tick Interview Questionnaire Analysis of existing records Participant performs verbal/paper and pencil/computer based task Measurement/recording of motor behaviour Audio recording of participant Video recording or phtotography of participant Physiological recording from participant Participant observation Covert observation Systematic observation Observation of specific organisational practices X X

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Other (please specify)

SECTION D Have you read one or more of the following professional guidelines and do you undertake to use the principles listed there as a guide for your own work? Please note that this is not intended to be an exhaustive list. Links to the guidelines listed below are included on the CUREC website. Please tick British Society of Criminology: Code of Ethics for Researchers in the Field of Criminology [britsoccrim.org/ethical.htm] British Educational Research Association Ethical Guidelines for Educational Research [www.bera.ac.uk/publications/guidelines/] Academy of Managements Professional Code of Ethics [www.aomonline.org] Association of American Geographers Statement on Professional Ethics [www.aag.org/Info/ethics.htm] Oral History Society of the UK Ethical Guidelines [www.oralhistory.org.uk/ethics/index.php] American Political Science Association (APSA) Guide to Professional Ethics in Political Science (Section H) [www.apsanet.org/content_9350.cfm] British Psychological Society Code of Ethics and Conduct [www.bps.org.uk/thesociety/code-of-conduct/code-of-conduct_home.cfm] Ethics Guidelines of the Association of Social Anthropologists of the UK and Commonwealth [www.theasa.org/ethics/guidelines.htm] Social Research Association: Ethical Guidelines [www.the-sra.org.uk/ethical.htm] Statement of Principles of Ethical Research Practice from the Socio-Legal Studies Association [www.slsa.ac.uk] Statement of Ethical Practice for the British Sociological Association [www.britsoc.co.uk/equality/Statement+Ethical+Practice.htm] Other professional guidelines (please specify): X X

SECTION E Please put a tick in the yes/no column as appropriate to indicate your response. 1) Will you obtain informed consent according to good practice in your discipline before participation? Yes X No

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2) Will you ensure that *personal data collected directly from participants or via a *third party is held and processed in accordance with the provisions of the Data Protection Act? 3) Does the research involve as participants *people whose ability to give free and informed consent is in question? (This includes those under 18 and vulnerable adults.) 4) As a consequence of taking part in the research, will participants be at serious risk of rendering themselves liable to criminal prosecution (e.g. by providing information on drug abuse or child abuse)? 5) Does the research involve the *deception of participants, as part of the investigation/experiment?

Yes X Yes

No

No X

Yes

No X

Yes

No X

If any of your answers above are in a shaded box, please indicate whether those aspects of your project are fully covered by the following. 6) Research protocol(s) which has/ve received IDREC/CUREC approval? If yes, please give protocol number(s): 7) Professional guidelines that you will be following, as noted under Section D? Yes X No

Yes X

No

If any of your answers in Section E are in a shaded box and are not covered by a protocol or by professional guidelines, please complete CUREC/2, available to download from the CUREC website. Then submit both this form (you need not complete section F) and the CUREC/2 to the Social Sciences and Humanities IDREC. If all your answers in Section E are in the unshaded boxes or your answers in shaded boxes are covered by a protocol or professional guidelines, complete Section F and submit this form and any accompanying documents to the Social Sciences and Humanities IDREC (see notes and address below). SECTION F Complete this section only if you do not need to submit form CUREC/2. I understand my responsibilities as principal researcher/supervisor/student researcher as outlined in the CUREC glossary and guidance on the CUREC website. I declare that the answers above accurately describe my research as presently designed and that I will submit a new checklist should the design of my research change in a way which would alter any of the above responses so as to require completion of CUREC/2 (involving full scrutiny by an IDREC). I will inform the relevant IDREC if I cease to be the principal researcher on this project and supply the name and contact details of my successor if appropriate. Signed by principal researcher/supervisor/student researcher:Paul Chiariello Date:April 20, 2011

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Print name (block capitals)PAUL CHIARIELLO Signed by supervisor:(CCd in email)(for student projects) Date: Print name (block capitals)DAVID JOHNSON I understand the questions and answers that have been entered above describing the research, and I will ensure that my practice in this research complies with these answers, subject to any modifications made by the principal researcher properly authorised by the CUREC system. Signed by associate/other researcher: . Print name (block capitals) Date I have read the research project application named above. On the basis of the information available to me, I: (i) consider the principal researcher/supervisor/student researcher to be aware of her/his ethical responsibilities in regard to this research; (ii) consider that any ethical issues raised have been satisfactorily resolved or are covered by relevant professional guidelines and/or CUREC approved protocols, and that it is appropriate for the research to proceed without further formal ethical scrutiny at this stage (noting the principal researchers obligation to report should the design of the research change in a way which would alter any of the above responses so as to require completion of a CUREC/2 full application); (iii) am satisfied that the proposed project has been/will be subject to appropriate *peer review and is likely to contribute something useful to existing knowledge and/or to the education and training of the researcher(s) and that it is in the *public interest. (iv) [FOR DEPARTMENTS/FACULTIES WITH A DEPARTMENTAL RESEARCH ETHICS COMMITTEE (DREC) OR EQUIVALENT BODY - PLEASE DELETE IF NOT APPLICABLE] confirm that this checklist (and associated research outline) has been reviewed by the Departments Research Ethics Committee (DREC)/equivalent body, and attach the associated report from that body.

Signed:.. (Head of department or nominee e.g Chair of DREC, Director of Graduate Studies for postgraduate student projects) Print name (block capitals) Date:

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Please send an electronic copy and a signed paper copy of this completed checklist, together with any supporting documentation, to the following addresses, keeping a copy for yourself: Secretary of the Social Sciences and Humanities IDREC University of Oxford Social Sciences Division Hayes House, George Street Oxford, OX1 2BQ Email: ethics@socsci.ox.ac.uk

Forms may be sent by email (without signature), where both the note of submission from the researcher and the note of endorsement from the supervisor/Head of Department are sent from a University of Oxford email address. IDRECs and/or CUREC will review a sample of completed checklists and may ask for further details of any project. FINAL CHECK To prevent delay please check each of the following before submitting the application. Have you completed Sections A-E? Have you defined all technical terms and abbreviations used? Have you included any supporting documentation, including as appropriate questionnaires and participant information, consent forms/form or note of procedure for recording oral consent, advertisements and surveys to be used? Are all pages (including appendices and attachments) numbered? Are all relevant declarations in Section F complete and any necessary authorisations obtained (by email or by signing the form)? I have read the research project application named above. On the basis of the information available to me, I: (i) consider the principal researcher/supervisor/student researcher to be aware of her/his ethical responsibilities in regard to this research; (ii) consider that any ethical issues raised have been satisfactorily resolved or are covered by relevant professional guidelines and/or CUREC approved protocols, and that it is appropriate for the research to proceed without further formal ethical scrutiny at this stage (noting the principal researchers obligation to report should the design of the research change in a way which would alter any of the above responses so as to require completion of a CUREC/2 full application); (iii) am satisfied that the proposed project has been/will be subject to appropriate *peer review and is likely to contribute something useful to existing knowledge and/or to the education and training of the researcher(s) and that it is in the *public interest. (iv) [FOR DEPARTMENTS/FACULTIES WITH A DEPARTMENTAL RESEARCH ETHICS COMMITTEE (DREC) OR EQUIVALENT BODY - PLEASE DELETE IF NOT APPLICABLE] confirm that this checklist (and associated research outline) has been reviewed by the Departments Research Ethics Committee (DREC)/equivalent body, and attach the associated report from that body.

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Signed:***.. (Head of department or nominee e.g Chair of DREC, Director of Graduate Studies for postgraduate student projects) Print name (block capitals)*** Date:*** Please send an electronic copy and a signed paper copy of this completed checklist, together with any supporting documentation, to the following addresses, keeping a copy for yourself: Secretary of the Social Sciences and Humanities IDREC University of Oxford Social Sciences Division Hayes House, George Street Oxford, OX1 2BQ Email: ethics@socsci.ox.ac.uk

Forms may be sent by email (without signature), where both the note of submission from the researcher and the note of endorsement from the supervisor/Head of Department are sent from a University of Oxford email address. IDRECs and/or CUREC will review a sample of completed checklists and may ask for further details of any project. FINAL CHECK To prevent delay please check each of the following before submitting the application. Have you completed Sections A-E? Have you defined all technical terms and abbreviations used? Have you included any supporting documentation, including as appropriate questionnaires and participant information, consent forms/form or note of procedure for recording oral consent, advertisements and surveys to be used? Are all pages (including appendices and attachments) numbered? Are all relevant declarations in Section F complete and any necessary authorisations obtained (by email or by signing the form)?

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Appendix 4
CUREC Application Approval Email

from Education Research Officeresearch.office@education.ox.ac.uk to paul chiariello <paul.chiari@gmail.com> cc "david.johnson@education.ox.ac.uk" <david.johnson@education.ox.ac.uk> date Fri, May 6, 2011 at 5:23 AM subject CUREC Application Approval mailed-by education.ox.ac.uk

hide details May 6

6/0 5/2011

Dear Paul Chiariello,

Application Approval Title: An Exploratory Study of Teachers as Mediators of Ethnic Conflict in Bosnia i Herzegovina.

The above application has been considered on behalf of the Departmental Research Ethics Committee (DREC) in accordance with the procedures laid down by the University for ethical approval of all research involving human participants. I am pleased to inform you that, on the basis of the information provided to DREC, the proposed research has been judged as meeting appropriate ethical standards, and accordingly approval has been granted. Should there be any subsequent changes to the project, which raise ethical issues not covered in the original application, you should submit details to DREC for consideration. Good luck with your research study.

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Yours sincerely,

Justina Kurkova Research Office Assistant

Research Office Department of Education University of Oxford 15 Norham Gardens Oxford OX2 6PY Email: research.office@education.ox.ac.uk Web: http://www.education.ox.ac.uk/

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Appendix 5
Consent Form

Consent Form

Hello, my name is Paul Chiariello. I am a Masters student at the University of Oxford in the Education Department. If you need to contact me please call me in Bosnia I Herzegovina before June 5th at ________________. After that, please email me at paul.chiari@gmail.com or send mail to 105 Banbury Road Oxford, UK.

The title of this study is An Exploratory Study of Teachers as Mediators of Identitybased conflict in Bosnia I Herzegovina. Research shows teachers are expected to play a number of roles in schools and the community, including teaching, and do not receive enough training to help fulfill these roles. One area that teachers have played a central role is as mediators of violence in schools, bullying and as mediators of religious and ethnic conflict.

Please put an X in the box if you agree with the following:

I have read the Participant Information form. I have had the chance to ask question about the study and have gotten answers to my questions. I understand that I can stop the study by telling the researcher and not answer questions and there will be no penalty. I understand that the study has been reviewed and given clearance by the University of Oxford Central University Research Ethics Committee. I understand who has access to the data from my interview, how it will be stored and what will happen after the study to it.
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I understand the study will be written as a student thesis and how the data will be published and stored. If I have a problem or question I know who to ask. I agree to be part of this study.

Participant ____________________. signature

_______________________ ____________ name date

Researcher ____________________. signature

_______________________ ____________ name date

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Appendix 6
Participant Information Form

Participant Information Form - Interviews

Hello, my name is Paul Chiariello. I am a Masters student at the University of Oxford Department of Education. If you need to contact me please call me at _____________. After I leave Bosnia I Herzegovina on June 5th, please email me at paul.chiari@gmail.com or send mail to 105 Banbury Road Oxford, UK.

The title of this study is An Exploratory Study of Teachers as Mediators of Identitybased conflict in Bosnia i Herzegovina. Research shows teachers are expected to play a number of roles in schools and the community, including teaching, and do not receive enough training to help fulfill these roles. One area that teachers have played a central role is as mediators of violence in schools, bullying and as mediators of religious and ethnic conflict.

We are interested in this study to learn more about teachers in Bosnia I Herzegovina, like you. If you decide to participate in this study you will sit for one or two interviews which will be about 30 minutes to an hour each. The interviews can be held in the same or different weeks, depending on when you and I can meet. However, all of the interviews need to be finished in the three week before June. The interviews will take place where you are able to meet and are comfortable. During the interview I will ask questions about you and what you believe. You can answer in whatever way that you want to and are comfortable.

If you have any questions now or during the study, please ask me. If you decide you want to be in the study but later you want to stop, you can. Just tell me that you dont want to continue and want to stop. At any time you can say that you do not want to answer a question. There is no penalty for not answering a question or stopping.

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This study has been reviewed and received clearance from an ethics committee at the University of Oxford Central University Research Ethics Committee. Only I will have access to the data about the teachers that is made during the study. The answers to questions will be put on a password protected computer. All teachers names and other personal information will be changed to keep their identity secret. The interviews will be recorded, but at the end of the study the recording will be deleted.

This study is a student thesis at the University of Oxford. The University is committed to research and spreading knowledge for the benefit of society, and because of this will be publishing the final paper in an online archive. This archive includes student theses that were successful. The reason it is online is to provide easy access for other researchers to learn from. If you agree to be part of the study and it is successful, the research will be written as a thesis and submitted online and in print to the University of Oxford archive. The thesis will be published with universal access, which means the data that is gathered in the interview and printed in the thesis, but not your identity, will be available over the internet.

There will be no payment for those that are interviewed for the study. To our knowledge, there will not be any risks of being part of the study. If the discussion during the interview becomes too hard or upsetting for you to talk about, then you can stop at any time. If there is anything you do not want to talk about, you wont have to and another different question will be asked.

If there are any problems or questions please contact me at the number or email at the top. If you still have more questions or there is still a problem, please contact the Research Ethics Committee at the University of Oxford (ethics@socsci.ox.ac.uk; +44 (0)1865 614871; Social Sciences & Humanities Inter-Divisional Research Ethics Committee, Oxford University, Hayes House, 75 George Street, Oxford, OX1 2BQ, UK). Thank you very much.

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