THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MUSIC

MAPPING THE SOUNDSCAPE: RHYTHM AND FORMAL STRUCTURE IN ELECTRONIC DANCE MUSIC

By ROBERT KELLER

A Thesis submitted to the School of Music in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Music

Degree Awarded: Spring Semester, 2004

The members of the committee approve the thesis of Robert Kellers defended on November 3rd 2003.

___________________________ Jane Piper Clendinning Professor Directing Thesis

____________________________ Evan Jones Committee member

____________________________ Matthew Shaftel Committee member

____________________________ Michael B. Bakan Committee member

The Office of Graduate Studies has verified and approved the above named committee members.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Examples.................................................................................................................V Abstract............................................................................................................................VII INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................1 1.THE SOUNDSCAPE.......................................................................................................2 The Entrance Line...................................................................................................2 The Venue...............................................................................................................3 Drum and Bass/Jungle............................................................................................3 Trip-Hop.................................................................................................................6 Intelligent................................................................................................................7 The Dance Floor......................................................................................................9 The DJ...................................................................................................................11 The Minds Eye......................................................................................................12 2. RHYTHM AND METER IN EDM...............................................................................14 Getting Started.......................................................................................................14 A Generative Approach.........................................................................................16 Grouping Structure................................................................................................18 Lerdahl and Jackendoff in the Case of The Deviant Tactus................................................................................................21 Grouping and Meter...............................................................................................24 Cyclic Thinking ....................................................................................................25

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Out of Phase Cycles in...........................................................................................26 In Phase Cycles in..................................................................................................28 Pulse Streams in.....................................................................................................30 3. MAPPING THE SCOUNDSCAPE...............................................................................35 Finding the Form in EDM.....................................................................................36 An Intelligent Approach........................................................................................37 Continuous Variations...........................................................................................37 Plaids Lament.......................................................................................................49 Goldies Monothematic Sonata.............................................................................58 4. CONCLUSION.............................................................................................................64 Closing Time.........................................................................................................64 Complexity Through Technology..........................................................................64 Linking Technology and Repetition......................................................................65 Music Changing Through Repetition....................................................................66 EDM as a Logical Outgrowth of Minimal Music.................................................67 Continuity and Discontinuity................................................................................68 Technology vs. Humans........................................................................................69 EDM as a Compromise.........................................................................................70 Tomorrow..............................................................................................................72 BIBLIOGRPAPHY...........................................................................................................74 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH.............................................................................................76

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LIST OF EXAMPLES

1.1 1.2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 3.1 3.2 3.3a 3.3b 3.4 3.5 3.6

Ram Trilogys Mindscan [Ed Rush and Optical remix] remixed by Diesel Boy (approximately three minutes in).......................................5 Ram Trilogys Mindscan [Ed Rush and Optical remix] remixed by Diesel Boy (approximately three minutes in).....................................10 Lerdahl and Jackendoffs illustration of a stereotypical grouping structure..................................................................................................19 Kaos, Karl K., and Sirens Rush (remixed by DJ Dara) with grouping brackets...........................................................................................20 DJ Shadows Meets His Maker (at approximately 0:45)...................................27 J. Majiks Solarize (remixed by Diesel Boy).........................................................29 Pulse streams in DJ Shadows Meets His Maker (at approximately 0:45)..........................................................................................32 Pulse streams in J. Majiks Solarize......................................................................33 Greens illustration of Stravinskys ostinato in Symphony of Psalms, Third Movement.................................................................38 Opening sixteen measures of Squarepushers Journey to Reedham...............................................................................................40 Greens graphing of Bachs Passacaglia...............................................................41 Graphing of Squarepushers Journey to Reedham.................................................41 Squarepushers Journey to Reedham, Variations 1-3............................................43 Squarepushers Journey to Reedham, Melody......................................................45 Squarepushers Journey to Reedham, Melody A and............................................47

3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11

Plaids New Home, opening twenty-five measures...............................................50 Plaids New Home, Bass 1.....................................................................................51 Plaids New Home, Bass 1 and Melody 1..............................................................52 Plaids New Home, Melody 2................................................................................53 Plaids New Home, Bass 1 and Melody 3..............................................................53

3.12a Plaids New Home, Bass 2.....................................................................................54 3.12b Plaids New Home, Melody 4................................................................................54 3.12c Plaids New Home, Bass 1 and Melody 4..............................................................54 3.12d Plaids New Home, Melody 1 and Melody 4.........................................................55 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16 Plaids New Home, Bass 3 and Melody 5..............................................................55 Plaids New Home, Bass 1 and Melody 6..............................................................56 Plaids New Home, Bass 4 and Melody 7..............................................................56 Graphing of Plaids New Home.............................................................................57

3.17a Goldies Ill Be There For You, Melody, Interpretation 1.......................................................................................................58 3.17b Goldies Ill Be There For You, Melody, Interpretation 2.......................................................................................................59 3.18 3.19 Goldies Ill Be There For You, Melody at the fifth..............................................60 Graphing of Goldies Ill Be There For You..........................................................61

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ABSTRACT

Electronic Dance Music (EDM), a musical genre left relatively unexplored in music theory offers music theorists numerous exciting opportunities for analytical inquiry. This paper focuses on the rhythms and formal structures encountered in three distinct sub-genres of EDM: Drum and Bass/Jungle, Trip-Hop, and Intelligent. Works by Diesel Boy, DJ Dara, DJ Shadow, Goldie, Plaid, and Squarepusher are considered throughout. Rhythms are analyzed using Fred Lerdahl and Ray Jackendoffs writings on listener intuition, grouping structure, meter, and tactus, Gretchen Horlachers writings on cycles and hierarchical structures, and John Roeders writings on pulse streams. Also considered are ideas put forth in the writings of Harald Krebs and more recently, Mark Butler. The paper combines all of the above approaches in an attempt to analyze not only the metrically consonant structures that pervade most of EDM, but also the metrically dissonant structures such as those created through the use of displacement dissonance and the layering of out of phase strata. The rhythmic structures of EDM expand outward to create large-scale form. Traditional forms such as Passacaglia and even Sonata form are sometimes evoked in this music. While the intentions of the composers on producing these forms is doubtful, analyzing the works as such gives us a unique perspective on what is happening in the music. Tracing the form produced throughout entire tracks of EDM shows us how these forms are still being adapted today.

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INTRODUCTION

Music theorists in the past ten years have shown a rising interest in popular music. With numerous societies and forums dedicated solely to this topic and increasing numbers of papers presented on the topic, it seems that any musical genre of today is fair game for analytical survey. Yet, there are still many that remain unaware of the genre of Electronic Dance Music (EDM), which remains relatively unexplored despite its rich potential for analytical study. EDM is encountered almost everywhere. Be it on the radio, in television ads, or in the background of the big chase scene in a movie, it surrounds us whether or not we even realize it. While these previous instances are often commercialized for public appeal, EDM is most commonly encountered at arduously planned events called raves. These events bring EDM enthusiasts together by the hundreds and sometimes even thousands. As a fan of EDM, I have long since been intrigued by the ability of the music to engage masses of people for hours (and even days) on end. The music itself seems to create an energy that most fans of EDM agree can actually be felt. What is it about this music that creates such an energy? Why is it so engaging? Questions like these are what initially attracted me to the analytical study of this genre. As EDM is rarely centered on melody and/or harmony like many other musical genres, rhythm served as the starting point for my survey. In this thesis, I will be using several existing theories of musical rhythm in conjunction with one another in an attempt to describe the rhythms and forms of this music. A detailed analysis of rhythmic structure demonstrates that rhythm can work on higher levels to help give form to a composition. As will be demonstrated, composers of EDM often appear to emulate traditional forms such as continuous variation and even sonata form.

CHAPTER 1 THE SOUNDSCAPE

Repetition is of primary importance in the analysis of the rhythms and forms encountered in electronic dance music. Repetition of motivic ideas, whether in ostinato figures, motor rhythms, or other compositional techniques found across the many musical genres of our past and present, is by no means a new concept. Today however, in an age where it seems fewer performers and listeners prefer the execution of marked repeats, it seems repetition is sometimes frowned upon. Electronic dance music, among the genres based on incessant repetition, is thus often viewed as being dull and uninspired. Listeners unfamiliar with the genre are often quick to mistake this dependence on repetition for lack of complexity. Much of electronic dance music, however, is saturated with complexities if one knows how to listen for them. 1

The Entrance Line In an attempt to acquaint those unfamiliar with the genre of EDM and the rave scene, this survey begins with a quick account of what one would expect to find at an EDM event. As such, we begin in the middle of a large conglomeration of very curiously dressed individuals:2 the entrance line to the biggest hypothetical rave of the year. While the entrance line to some raves may reach mammoth proportions, something tells the dancers even at the end that it will be worth the wait. Though only at entrance line, whether the event is inside, outside, or both, it is common to hear the blasting music from the event. This, just a taste of what is to come after the wait in line makes many of the rave-goers around us jittery with anticipation. Even though these dancers have not yet gained entry into the event (and may not if the crowd is too large), they are filled with a certain energy that pulsates throughout their bodies.
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This same impression of simplicity based on the repetition of rhythmic patterns also occurs in Balinese and Afican music. One must be actively engaged, as we shall see, to fully appreciate the music. 2 Ravers are notorious for wearing more colors than even the most avid crayon collector is aware of. The brighter the color, the more reflective the material, or the more outrageous the outfit in general, the better.

When listening to electronic dance music, the listener may become aware of a fascinating paradox. Though the music is based on the repetition of only a few patterns, it can still be very engaging of ones perceptions. In other words, the music seems to be constantly moving forward while actually standing still.3 Though some listeners may become uninterested by the stagnant use of the repetitions of these few patterns, other more attentive listeners may take notice of the several interesting metrical phenomena that occur within the organization of the patterns and their repetitions.

The Venue After braving the entrance line and entering the rave, we feel as if we have just crossed over into a different world. We are bombarded with intensely loud music, bright flashing lights, psychedelic projection screens, lasers, and smoke machines. For the time we are in the rave, it is difficult to conceive of the world outside of it. Whether in a legitimate dance club, an abandoned warehouse or supermarket, on the beach, or wherever, the venue that a rave takes place in or on can often add or detract from the overall experience. Many raves are held in venues that consist of multiple rooms, each with a different type of dance music. Because of this, dancers can move around the venue freely in search of the room that most closely matches their musical tastes. The rave to which we have just been admitted has three rooms playing three distinct sub-genres of EDM. They are: Drum and Bass, Trip-Hop, and Intelligent. The following sections introduce the basics of each of these sub-genres.

Drum and Bass/Jungle Drum and Bass started in the early 1990s and was originally called Jungle.4 Prendergast writes: If 1960s rock led to treble-heavy, guitar-focused music, 1980s

Though it should be noted that not all ravers take part in this tradition, those that do make it a mesmerizing sight for all. 3 Paradoxes such as this have intrigued theorists studying genres of other music. Noteworthy is Gretchen Horlacher whose writings on cycles will be discussed later. 4 The terms Jungle and Drum and Bass are more or less interchangeable. There are some that try to distinguish between the two, and others that say the term Drum and Bass replaced Jungle, and yet others that say they are the same thing. It is not my intent to attempt to describe such a distinction. The reader is advised that these two terms are taken as synonymous in this thesis.

House was all about beat and rhythm. Nineteen-nineties Jungle stripped the dressings back until the popular term Drum and Bass became the moniker for a music entirely made up of electronically morphed drum and bass sounds.5 While this quotation does describe the general sound of the sub-genre, it is not entirely accurate. Originally, Jungle was made from combining two or more breakbeats on turntables. Reynolds defines a breakbeat as the percussion-only section of a funk or disco track, the peak moment at which dancers cut loose and do their most impressive steps.6 Early Jungle music was made from speeding up the breakbeat sections of popular funk and soul artists like James Brown and the Winstons. Gradually it became more technologically advanced and electronically oriented. The process of combining breakbeats, or breaks as they are commonly called, often creates a dense polyphony. As Example 1.1 illustrates, composers of EDM combine several independent layers of sound to create a rhythmic web. In this music, as with much of Baroque polyphony, none of these layers can truly be said to be of more import than the others. Rather, layers work with and against each other while retaining their individuality and equality. Differing from Baroque polyphony of course is EDMs abandonment of the traditional use of harmony, melody, and tonality, which is replaced here by rhythm. While this music is composed and/or arranged to be danced to, it is interesting to see exactly how difficult it actually was to dance to this music originally. Reynolds writes: "While jungle, like most pop music, is in 4/4 time, it lacks the stomping , metronomic four-to-the-floor kick drum that runs through techno, house, and disco. Funk rhythms [were deliberately simplified] to make it easier for the white dancers; the 'jungalistic hardcore' that emerged in 1992 reversed this process, and for many ravers it was simply too funky to dance to."7 Reynolds later describes the morphing character of this music as well as the often frantic dancers desperately attempting to keep up with it on the dance floor:

5 6

Prendergast 2000, p.448. Reynolds 1998, p.252. 7 ibid, p.253.

Example 1.1: Ram Trilogys Mindscan [Ed Rush and Optical remix] remixed by Diesel Boy (at approximately 3:00).

While this music is composed and/or arranged to be danced to, it is interesting to see exactly how difficult it actually was to dance to this music originally. Reynolds writes: "While jungle, like most pop music, is in 4/4 time, it lacks the stomping , metronomic four-to-the-floor kick drum that runs through techno, house, and disco. Funk rhythms [were deliberately simplified] to make it easier for the white dancers; the 'jungalistic hardcore' that emerged in 1992 reversed this process, and for many ravers it was simply too funky to dance to."8 Reynolds later describes the morphing character of this music as well as the often frantic dancers desperately attempting to keep up with it on the dance floor:

Reynolds 1998, p.253.

Dance moves spread through the crowd like superfast viruses. I was instantly drawn entrained in a new kind of dancing tics and spasms, twitches and jerks, the agitation of bodies broken down into separate components, then reintegrated at the level of the dance floor as a whole. Each subindividual part (a limb, a hand cocked like a pistol) was a cog in a collective desiring machine, interlocking with the sound systems bass throbs and sequencer riffs. Unity and self expression fused in a force field of pulsating, undulating euphoria.9 Unlike sixties psychedelic rock, which was head music, jungles disorientation is as much physical as mental. Triggering different muscular reflexes, jungles multitiered polyrhythms are body-baffling and discombobulating unless you fixate on and follow one strand of the groove. Lagging behind technology, the human body simply cant do full justice to the complex of rhythms. The ideal jungle dancer would be a cross between a virtuoso drummer (someone able to keep separate time with different limbs), a body-popping breakdancer, and a contortionist.10

Despite jungle's overt funkiness, it gradually gained the popularity it attains today. Once the underground's best kept secret, drum 'n' bass has crept into mainstream consciousness. A sub-genre that traditionally held second-class status in the rave music scene, the style also known as jungle now seems ubiquitous.11 Some popular names in this sub-genre include Diesel Boy, DJ Dara, and Goldie.

Trip-Hop Trip-hop, another sub-genre of electronic dance music also got its start in the early 1990s. Unlike Jungle, this music is more toned down and less demanding on the listener. Prendergast describes the music as follows:

Reynolds 1998, p.5. ibid., p.254. 11 Taken from www.djdieselboy.com

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Originating in Bristol, Trip-Hop was a slow, reflective blend of Rap/HipHop, Dub Reggae, Rock, Slo-Mo Soul and film soundtrack. Its key was a brittle production sound which openly brandished the scratched-record sources of its samples. It relished the slow breakbeat, the strangely oscillating loop and inhabited a twilight world of late-night stoned reverie.12 While Trip-Hop is a hybrid form of Hip-Hop, it is an entirely different world from what American Hip-Hop is today. Reynolds makes this distinction as he writes:

[Trip-Hop] is a spacey, down-tempo form of hip-hop that's mostly abstract and instrumental. It's a handy tag for a style that emerged in the early nineties: hip-hop with the rap and the rage removed. While not exclusively UK-based, trip-hop nonetheless remains totally out of step with current American rap, where rhyming skills and charismatic personalities rule.13 DJ Shadow, Portishead, and the Sneaker Pimps are a few of the names associated with this sub-genre of electronic dance music.

Intelligent Around the mid-1990s, Jungle was starting to catch on with the public or at least the parts of Jungle that were most were easily commercialized. This commercialization lead to a movement away from public appeal. Reynolds writes:

All this infuriated the self-consciously experimental contingent of the drum and bass community labels such as Moving Shadow, Reinforced, and Good Looking, artists such as Goldie, Omni Trio, Foul Play, 4 Hero, and LTJ Bukem. Together, these artists had forged a sound I dubbed ambient jungle because of the way it combined frenetic beats with a soothing overlay of multitextured atmospherics. Within the scene, vaguer and ultimately more problematic modifiers for drum and bass deep and intelligent emerged to designate the new style.14

12 13

Prendergast 2000, p.438. Reynolds 1998, p.319. 14 ibid., p.335.

He continues that: Ambient jungle was partly the result of an emerging generation gap within breakbeat. While younger producers still oriented their music towards DJs and dancers, the older hardcore artists were now starting to make music that worked better at home than on the dance floor, as album tracks rather than material for the DJs relentless cut n mix. As the intelligent drum and bass style took shape, its purveyors increasingly defined themselves against the popularist fare that ruled the dance floor.15

While Intelligent Dance Music (IDM) is often intended more for home listening than dancing, it is still encountered at raves. However, the extreme difficulty and sometimes utter impossibility of dancing to it give it many opponents. Detractors of this sub-genre offer descriptions like: The breakbeats are so sped up they sound like Woody Woodpecker on PCP16 or perhaps more descriptive:

What the Squarepusher-like [intelligent] artists have responded to and exaggerated ad absurdum is only one aspect of jungle: the musics complexity. Theyve ignored the feelings the music induces and the subcultural struggles that the sound and the scene embody. As a result, no matter how superficially startling the form-and-norm bending mischief sounds, [intelligent] feels pale and purposeless compared with music created by the jungle fundamentalists. So while I marvel at the arttechnocrats efforts, I often feel curiously unmoved by them, physically or emotionally. Fascinated but uninvolved...17 From these quotations, while bringing up some good points, Reynolds gives off the impression that he strongly favors the jungle fundamentalists he writes of. The truth is that Intelligent music is not intended to produce the same effect as Jungle. A parallel comparison to the music above would be criticizing the music of Brahms because it does not feel like Wagner. Intelligent music is the art music of EDM.

15 16

Reynolds 1998, p.336. ibid., p 360. 17 Ibid., p 374.

Perhaps a better description comes from Hughes when he writes: [The music] got our attention with its merciless onslaught of hyperedited, hyperdetailed, and just plain hyper audio. Percussive taps and skritches skitter across the soundfield drum n bass style one moment, then swirl and coalesce into catatonic plains of static textures. Its a bizarre and challenging experience, but one that rewards the listener by revealing more detail with each spin.18 Some names of more popular producers in this genre include Squarepusher, Aphex twin, and Plaid.

The Dance Floor Even with all the lights and special effects of the venue, the dance floors are still usually the center of attention. Here, dancers physically interact with the music. A careful observer may gain some insight about the music just by watching the dancers. As we enter the Drum and Bass room, we hear Diesel Boys remix of Ram Trilogys Mindscan (Notated in Example 1.1) pumping through the sound system and are struck by the fact that some dancers are dancing at faster rates than others. The multiple, equal layers of recurring rhythmical patterns in EDM create conflicting cues as certain patterns last longer than others before repeating. Example 1.1 demonstrates this as the pattern in the first layer, marked Mel. 1, lasts for sixteen beats, the layers marked Mel. 2, Bass, and Toms 2, last eight beats, and the lower layer for the percussion lasts four beats. The layer marked Toms 1 is an interesting case because it technically lasts for eight beats before repeating due to the eighth notes notated on D4 of that staff. However, with all of the other layers repeating simultaneously, most listeners would never hear those notes. Thus, they would hear the repeating pattern as four beats. As no layer is primary, the listeners can experiment with different interpretations of what they are hearing. As listeners do this, what they perceive as the beat will shift.19 To clarify, when someone dances to EDM (or any other music) they are marking time. In order to do this, they typically have some reference in the music. As certain

Hughes 2001, p.44. Butlers papers (2001 and 2003) analyze the rhythmic surfaces of EDM pieces with reference to the shifting of beats. Also relavent is Jocelyn Neals writing (1999) on how the shifting of beats pretains to country music.
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patterns in EDM are longer than others, dancers are forced to favor certain layers over others. As such, Example 1.1 is notated how a dancer favoring a faster pulse would interpret this piece. Here, the dancer is drawn in by the speedy percussion part found in the lowest system. As such, the dancer would most likely interpret that pattern as lasting four quarter notes and hear the other patterns relative to that as the example shows. However, if the same dancer were to base his/her interpretation on the bass part, he/she would probably hear that as four quarters. This would result in the initial four beat layer being felt as two quarters and the initial sixteen beat layer being felt as eight quarters. The music would be notated as Example 1.2 and this dancer would now be dancing half as fast.20

Example 1.2: Ram Trilogys Mindscan [Ed Rush and Optical remix] remixed by Diesel Boy (at approximately 3:00).

This imposition of a subjective beat creates another parallel between the musical textures associated with EDM and African music.

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Dancers are free to favor either of these interpretations as well as others. If listeners were to base their interpretations on the system marked Mel 1., they would probably hear the repeating pattern as four quarters. This would make the original four beat layers from Example 1.1 felt as one quarter and the original eight beat layers as two quarters. While repeating patterns influence the dancers interpretations at larger levels, these choices also occur on a smaller level as the listener is confronted with several rates of motion at the same time. If, for example, hearing constant thirty-second-notes, sixteenth-notes, eighth-notes, and quarter-notes at the same time, as the music is not in notation, the listeners are free to interpret what they are hearing. This interpretation would be based upon whatever rate they perceive as the primary rate of motion or tactus at that particular time.21 The deliberate choices of listener intuition are evidenced at EDM events on the dance floor by the dancers themselves. For some of the dancers, the night (or morning, as it may be) is still young. These dancers are more likely to interpret the music as what I have notated in Example 1.1. These dancers would be dancing twice as fast as those more exhausted dancers who choose to interpret the music as in Example 1.2. Of course, with music that is highly repetitive, there is nothing stopping either of these groups of dancers from changing their perspective at any given moment to favor an even faster or slower pulse. These physical interactions visually demonstrate the choices of perception made by the dancers. Simply put, electronic dance music engages our perceptions of rhythmic organization.

The DJ Armed with two or more turntables and a barrage of records from genres both within and outside the realms of EDM, the DJ (disc jockey) is the one responsible for creating and maintaining the dancer energy levels. DJs commonly layer two or more

Peter Martens paper (2003) presents a similar discussion of discrepancies encountered between listeners attempting to choose the proper tactus in pieces of traditional tonal music.

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records simultaneously to create a new combination known as a mix.22 Mixes can often be quite complex as each record by itself may contain several rates of motion. Of course, EDM is not the only genre where this technique can be encountered. Thomas Clifton uses Beethovens Piano Sonata op. 111, mvt. II as his example and writes:

At the beginning of the fifth variation [measures 131-134], it is not difficult to perceive four rates of motion, which Apel names perfect prolation (thirty-second-note triplets), perfect tempus (sixteenth-note triplets, perfect modus (the division of the measure by dotted eighth notes), and imperfect maximodus (the duple phrasing of time itself). Now, it will not do to say that, as a matter of fact, these levels are only multiples and divisions of one common meter. As reductionism, this tends to lead away from contemplating the complexity of the event, or rather, the events, for what we perceive as phenomena are four distinct events: multiplicities, not multiples; separations, not divisions; proportions, not meter; and above all, a clarity achieved precisely by the complexity inherent in these different spatial and temporal levels.23

Cliftons cautioning of overlooking the complexity in Beethovens work is a prime key to remember when analyzing electronic dance music. Although EDM may seem immediately simple, the layering of multiple rates of motion creates musical interest, but only for those listeners mindful enough to notice.

The Minds Eye In the words of Carl Schachter, meter is a problem.24 There has often been disagreement among top scholars on basic elements of meter, such as how it is created and how it is sustained. Other more complicated questions also arise including whether

Sure to create interest is that DJs at raves feed off of the crowds energy. How the crowd is responding to the DJs mix may prompt him/her to emphasize faster or slower levels in their mix. Although dancers and listeners are free to make many choices in how they interact with the music, often these choices are influenced by the DJ who is deliberately attempting to move the dancers. While this is true, this paper sets out to describe pre-recorded tracks of EDM. 23 Clifton 1983, p. 127-28. 24 Schachter 1987, p. 1.

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the notated meter of the piece is the actual meter and whether hypermeter is a worthwhile analytical pursuit. Meter in electronic dance music is definitely subject to these same questions and more. Although EDM is composed for dance and can almost always be felt in a duple meter, there is no truly correct meter because a definitive pulse cannot be gauged. Butler writes that although almost all EDM can be transcribed in 4/4 (or, less commonly 2/4), the ways in which the music is layered, in combination with its persistent repetition of rhythmic patterns over long spans of time, encourages the listener to attend to the periodicities of individual layers rather than focusing on how those layers deviate from a single underlying structure.25 26 The listening experience of EDM is highly personal. In this quotation, Butler is echoing Clifton. Just as Clifton warned against the reductionism inherent in hearing the multiple rates of motion in the Beethoven piano sonata as multiples and divisions of the same meter, Butler states that listeners of EDM are encouraged to the hear the multifarious layers of motion and their stagnant reiterations in terms of themselves individually as opposed to their aggregate interactions in the forming of one meter. This chapter has served to highlight several key elements to be discussed in detail in the pages that follow. Repetition of smaller rhythmic patterns, larger grouping structures such as cycles (to be discussed), and even repeated listenings of entire tracks often change the ways we hear music. This reiterative function, especially in repetitive music like EDM, can shape our entire experience of the music and even of time itself.

Butler 2001, [paragraph 27]. Here, the rhythmic structure of EDM creates a striking parallel with the colotomic structure of Balinese gong cycles.
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CHAPTER 2: RHYTHM AND METER IN EDM

Getting Started Mark Butler addresses metrical conflicts encountered in electronic dance music using Harald Krebs models of metrical consonance and dissonance.27 28 These ideas were developed from other concepts found in writings by Yeston29 as well as Lerdahl and Jackendoff.30 It is interesting to see that these concepts, originally crafted to fit tonal music, lend themselves fairly well to EDM and to the overall discussion of rhythm and meter within this genre. Indeed much of EDM is metrically consonant, but examples of metrical dissonance, particularly displacement dissonance as Butler shows, can also be found at the beginnings of many EDM pieces. Some problems arise when using Krebs model for displacement dissonance. Krebs forces an analyst to differentiate metrical layers from anti-metrical layers. Due to the equality of the repeating strata, this judgment cannot unerringly be made. The pulse that one listener perceives as primary may not be the same for everyone else. If the primary pulse is impossible to gauge when all layers emphasize other layers, how then is it possible for this determination to be made in more complicated examples when layers are out of phase? Indeed, as is often the case, several layers align and reinforce each other, but if no one layer is meant to be primary, how then can any layer truly be said to be anti-metrical? As such, Butler takes his examples from the beginning of pieces where he says that they are pre-metrical. He first shows the dissonance displacement between the first layer and the second, and then between the second and first writing that the listener is free to choose (actually encouraged to choose) which layer is metrical and which is antimetrical. It is in this sense that the listener is free to turn the beat around.

27 28

Butler 2001. Krebs 1999, 1997 and 1987. 29 Yeston 1976. 30 Lerdahl and Jackendoff 1983.

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Though Butlers writings have served well to broaden our perceptions of certain metrical issues encountered in EDM, I feel that his ideas can be extended further. There is no doubt that displacement dissonances can be heard as Butler illustrates, but is this what the dancers are really experiencing as they are out on the dance floor trying to find the right pulse to dance to? After all, even in the vast majority of metrically consonant EDM pieces, dancers are still dancing to different pulses within the mix. And finally, what about the dissonances created by out of phase strata as they fade into and out of phase? Whether strata are in-phase, out of phase, consonant, or dissonant as the music unfolds over time, conflicting listener intuitions are produced. This chapter takes a processive approach to further understand rhythm and meter in EDM. Horlacher writes:

This kind of approach emphasizes the evolution of meter, and underscores our active engagement with the flow of time: our involvement extends beyond marking timepoints as strong and weak to include emerging qualitative characterizations of timespans Our concern is not directed solely toward the maintenance of equal timespans, but rather on how events shape those spans, both as we come upon the events and as we subsequently reinterpret them31... The point is that the act of counting is not something that happens to us, but rather something in which we actively engage, and where we are continuously making choices.32 Rather than declaring certain strata as more pertinent to a given meter than others, it seems more reasonable to regard all strata as equal without regard to meter. Butler would seem to agree as he writes:

electronic dance music encourages us to hear it in a variety of ways. As we have seen, this multiplicity functions on many different levels. Individual patterns are often intrinsically ambiguous. Furthermore, they frequently remain so even when used in combination: when there is no definitive metrical layer, the distinction between metrical and antimetrical layers may not be apparent. Even when all elements of meter are in place, reinterpretations can turn the beat around, showing the listener that the metrical structure was not quite what it seemed to be. And finally, the
31 32

Horlacher 2001, [paragraph] 1.4. ibid., [paragraph] 2.10.

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persistent repetition of both asymmetrical and even patterns encourages multiple perspectives on rhythmic and metrical structure, thereby undermining any sense that there is a singular structure underlying the music.33 As EDM is created to engage our perceptions, there is no one clear-cut way to analyze it. Differing ideas, concepts, and viewpoints can be used in conjunction with one another to generate a number of ways to better understand what is happening within the music.

A Generative Approach Lerdahl and Jackendoffs approaches to grouping and meter can be applied to EDM. Their writings on music are based on studies in linguistics and psychology. Their theories are also especially relevant to this topic because of their concern for listener intuitions. Listener intuitions, as they pertain to musical analysis, are taken into account in this theory through the generation of a number of Well Formedness and Preference Rules. 34 Following these rules for analysis will help to predict the grouping and metrical structure an experienced listener would prefer. One of the main complaints against this theory is that it does not always produce a definitive analysis. The authors defend themselves as they write:

The reason that the rules fail to produce a definitive analysis is that we have not completely characterized what happens when two preference rules come into conflict. Sometimes the outcome is a vague or ambiguous intuition; sometimes one rule overrides the other, resulting in an unambiguous judgment anyway Our main concerns in this study are identifying the factors relevant to establishing musical intuition and learning how these factors interact to produce the richness of musical perception. To present a complex set of computations involving numerical values of rule applications would have burdened our exposition with too much detail not involving strictly musical or psychological issues.35
Butler 2001, [paragraph] 37. Lerdahl and Jackendoff 1983, see p.37-38 for Grouping Well Formedness Rules; p.43-52 for Grouping Preference Rules; p.69-72 for Metrical Well Formedness Rules; p.75-90 for Metrical Preference Rules. 35 ibid., p. 54.
34 33

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The absence of a definitive analysis is an asset to analyzing electronic dance music. Because of this, it is possible to view all resulting musical interpretations without preference. Also, we can see how each interpretation is created and why each is unique. While this theory allows us to be flexible in order to consider listener intuitions on grouping structure, it is not the same with meter. Lerdahl and Jackendoff choose to take a more traditional stance on meter that will later lead to problems in analyzing EDM. Roeder states:

these interpretations of the formal function of rhythm conceive of meter as exclusive that is, only one meter may be present in any timespan and hierarchizing that is, all timepoints are assigned strong or weak status within a regular grouping of beats. This conception is shared by many theorists, notably by Lerdahl and Jackendoff in their WellFormedness and Preference Rules, which reflect the metrically regular, homophonic foregrounds of tonal music. But this concept of meter greatly simplifies the fundamentally polyphonic character of this music.36 Although Roeder was obviously not writing about electronic dance music in this passage, it still holds true. EDM is and should be considered polyphonic, which would suggest the inapplicability of Lerdahl and Jackendoffs ideas as their theory is based on homophonic music. Also of interest is the fact that this quotation came from one of Roeders writings on pulse stream analysis. Pulse stream analysis (as will be discussed later) was a theory put forth by Roeder as a means to analyze a metrically irregular musical surface. While EDM is most times far from metrically irregular, the music contains conflicting cues that can obscure ones perception of meter. It is interesting to see that while Lerdahl and Jackendoffs approach to musical analysis is not definite concerning grouping structure and even the choice of a meter, it is when it comes to the creation of meter. There is nonetheless much to be gained from Lerdahl and Jackendoffs writings. Much of EDM fits perfectly with their conceptions of grouping structure and the conflicts that result from using this theory outside the genre of its original intent give us the clues needed to find other theories that are better suited to describe such music.
36

Roeder 1994, p.232.

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Although it has already been made clear that Lerdahl and Jackendoffs approach to meter --an exclusive one-- leaves something to be desired in polyphonic music such as EDM, this approach does yield some engaging discoveries. No one can deny the parallel between these theorists views on hierarchical grouping structure to EDMs layering of patterns. Certainly no discussion of rhythm in this music would be complete without at least some reference to Lerdahl and Jackendoffs ideas on grouping structure.

Grouping Structure As defined by the authors: A hierarchical structure, in the sense used in this theory, is an organization composed of discrete elements or regions related in such a way that one element or region subsumes or contains other elements or regions. A subsumed or contained element or region can be said to be subordinate to the element or region that subsumes or contains it; the latter can be said to dominate, or be superdominate to, the former.37 Hierarchical structures such as the ones described above can be found in much of tonal music as well as in almost any piece of electronic dance music. The entire basis of this genre is to combine different layers of varying lengths together to form a new and interesting whole. While the resulting structure may appear to be hierarchical in the sense that certain regions subsume others, no one region can really be said to dominate another. The main reason for this, of course, is the musics polyphonic character, which presents a problem. As Lerdahl and Jackendoff openly admit: At the present stage of development of the theory, we are treating all music as essentially homophonic; that is, we assume that a single grouping analysis suffices for all voices of the piece. For the more contrapuntal varieties of tonal music, where this condition does not obtain, our theory is inadequate. We consider an extension of the theory to account for polyphonic music to be of great importance.38 They later describe music where absolutely no conflicts would be encountered to their Well Formedness and Preference Rules: Such an example would have strongly marked group boundaries; the major group boundaries would be more strongly marked
37 38

Lerdahl and Jackendoff 1983, p.13. ibid., p.37.

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than the minor ones; and the piece would be totally symmetrical, would have only binary subdivisions of groups, and would display considerable parallelism among groups. The theory predicts that the grouping of such a passage would be totally obvious.39 Below is the example Lerdahl and Jackendoff chose to use to demonstrate this stereotypical grouping structure.40

Example 2.1: Lerdahl and Jackendoffs illustration of a stereotypical grouping structure. The example is of an anonymous fifteenth-century French instrumental piece titled Dit le Bourguignon.

While EDM is polyphonic, it certainly seems to fit the mold for what the writers call a stereotypical grouping structure. Example 2.2 shows how this same bracketing process also works in EDM.

39 40

Lerdahl and Jackendoff 1983, p.65. Taken from Lerdahl and Jackendoff 1983, p.66.

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Example 2.2: Kaos, Karl K., and Sirens Rush remixed by DJ Dara (at approximately 0:32).

How is one to account for this paradox? The grouping structure of EDM according to Lerdahl and Jackendoff is obvious, but at the same time, listeners will hear different yet equal interpretations. One possible answer is that while EDM is polyphonic, it is based on repetition. The total repetition of phrases is of course the strongest form of parallelism41 and parallelism is a large part of grouping structure.42 The authors continue that the importance of parallelism in musical structure cannot be overestimated. The more parallelism one can detect, the more internally coherent an analysis becomes, and the less independent information must be processed and retained in hearing or remembering a piece.43 While grouping structures can be shown with brackets underneath the score producing the most internally coherent analysis as Lerdahl and Jackendoff demonstrate, the relentlessly repeating nature of electronic dance music tends to encourage experimentation with the strength of the different levels of the groups. In other words, while groups may appear obvious with brackets underneath the score, they fail to show how the listeners intuitions of grouping structure may change over time. While these

41 42

Lerdahl and Jackendoff 1983, p.67. ibid., See Grouping Preference Rule 6, p.51. 43 ibid., p.52.

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structures are regular, they give off conflicting cues causing listeners to hear things a little differently. The musics immediately apparent simplicity results inevitably in its intricacy.

Lerdahl and Jackendoff in the Case of the Deviant Tactus Imagine, if you would, we are back at our rave from the previous chapter. After gaining admittance and checking out the venue, we become aware of a sight both peculiar and unanticipated. Though we failed to notice through the hustle and bustle of the entrance line or in the pandemonium of the moments thereafter, Lerdahl and Jackendoff are here and despite their inconspicuous arrival, are currently partying it up on the dance floor. Although the music is too loud to hear their words, it appears as though they are acting out the discussion in the previous chapter concerning the proper rate of dance to the music notated in Example 1.1. Lerdahl, clutching an energy drink in his right hand, picks up a faster pulse than Jackendoff who is clutching his head with his left. As they dance and debate they take notice of the wealth of dancers around them that support both rates as well as other rates both faster and slower. Concluding that their arguments are inconclusive, they resolve their differences and lose themselves in the music once again dancing however they see fit. What is the problem here? What in the music could possess Lerdahl to dance twice as fast or faster than Jackendoff? The answer to this is vague listener intuitions produced from non-conflicting yet ambiguous cues in the music. The combination of multiple levels of equal and independent sound material result in an indeterminable primary level of metrical hierarchy or tactus. According to Lerdahl and Jackendoff, metrical intuitions about music clearly include at least one specially designated metrical level, which we are calling the tactus. This is the level of beats that is conducted and with which one most naturally coordinates foot-tapping and dance steps. When one wonders whether to feel a piece in 4 or in 2, the issue is which metrical level is the tactus.44 Even in the Western tonal music that the authors set out to describe there is often confusion over exactly which level is the tactus. And if the tactus is truly meant to be

21

recognized as the one that most naturally corresponds to dance steps, there is a serious problem with reference to this and EDM. This problem does not dissipate when the authors attempt to explain the preference mechanism made for choosing the tactus. They write:

Although we cannot provide a full account of how the tactus is chosen, certain influences are fairly clear. The first is absolute speed: the tactus is invariably between about 40 and 160 beats per minute, and often close to the traditional Renaissance tactus of 70. (The relationship of this rate to the human pulse has often been noted, though an explanation of why there should be such a relation between physiological and psychological rates is far less obvious than one might first think.) Second, the tactus cannot be too far away from the smallest metrical level: a succession of notes of short duration is generally an indication of a relatively fast tactus, unless the subdivisions are introduced gradually, as often happens in slow movements or variation movements [this will become important later when we discuss form]. On the other hand, the tactus is usually not faster than the prevailing note values.45 As we have learned, drum and bass music contains successions of notes that range from very fast to very slow. This allows the tactus to be at many levels simultaneously depending on how one wants to hear the piece. Also, prevailing note values are heard not only at the measure level, but also at larger levels as the pulses felt from pattern repetition. As such, everything in between and including constant thirty-second notes to tied whole-notes may be sounding simultaneously. While the tactus is said to sometimes be at more than one level in Western tonal music, it certainly seems this confusion is significantly intensified in EDM. Tonal Western music, although having some similarities, is obviously a world apart from EDM. Dance steps have certainly changed over time. Many pieces in the electronic dance music repertoire, especially those in the sub-genre of Drum and Bass, are composed to make dancers step at rates often in excess of 200 beats per minute. Needless to say, not everyone could maintain that rate of motion indefinitely and so movement at 100 beats per minute may also be witnessed. This, however, is just the beat
44 45

Lerdahl and Jackendoff 1983, p.71. ibid., p.73.

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level. The repetitions of layers moving at these high rates of motion may make dancers react to the repetitions of groups rather than that of beats causing dancers to move as slowly as 50 to 25 beats per minute all to the same piece. Another interesting aspect of the above quotation is the mention of the relationship between the tactus and human pulse. This is particularly relevant due to the undeniable prevalence of drugs in the rave scene. While there are many EDM enthusiasts that go to raves solely to enjoy the music, there are those that ingest a variety of drugs to alter their perceptions. Anything from alcohol and marijuana to energy drinks and overthe-counter ephedra or caffeine-based products to ecstasy and LSD and more may be encountered at raves. Any of these substances can alter the human pulse rate and change perceptions. There is no doubt that these substances helped influence the style of EDM. Ecstasys prevalence in rave music is hard to play down. Reynolds writes:

over the years, rave music has gradually evolved into a self-conscious science of intensifying MDMAs46 sensations. House and techno producers have developed a drug-determined repertoire of effects, textures, and riffs that are expressly designed to trigger the tingly rushes that traverse the Ecstatic body. Processes like EQ-ing, phasing, panning, and filtering are used to tweak the frequencies, harmonics, and stereo imaging of different sounds, making them leap out of the mix with an eerie three-dimensionality or glisten with a hallucinatory vividness.47 So, where is the tactus? Perhaps an answer to this can be found in another quote from Lerdahl and Jackendoff:

The tactus is the central and most prominent of the metrical levels, and is regular throughout. The levels immediately smaller and immediately larger than the tactus likewise tend to be regular and aurally prominent. As the structure extends to extremely small and large levels, metrical intuition tends to fade out. Irregularity and extrametricality are tolerated at small levels; levels larger than one or two measures are often somewhat irregular, if present at all.48

46 47

MDMA is the abbreviated form of Methylene Dioxymethamphetamine otherwise known as Ecstasy. Reynolds 1998, p.85. 48 Lerdahl 1983, p.74.

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Electronic dance music is more prone to have tactus level confusion than other musical genres due to its regularity and repetition of layers. Metrical intuitions do not fade out at smaller or larger levels because larger levels are emphasized by smaller levels and vice versa. This technique causes the line between grouping and metrical structure to become blurred and ambiguous allowing dancers the freedom to dance to whatever tactus they want to whenever they want to.

Grouping and Meter Lerdahl and Jackendoff write, the perception of grouping is one of the more important variables the performer can manipulate in projecting a particular conception of the piece.49 This passage may seem irrelevant because there are usually no performers in EDM, at least in the traditional sense, to project their conceptions onto this music. The performers in the case of EDM are the listeners and the dancers - - these performers have an interactive role in the music. Analyzing grouping and metrical structure independently will not account for the differences in listener intuition in EDM. In fact, I believe that it is the blurring of this distinction, that between grouping and meter, that is a primary factor in creating musical interest within this genre. Of course this concept contradicts Lerdahl and Jackendoffs viewpoint that they are to remain separate. The authors write that grouping structure consists of units organized hierarchically; metrical structure consists of beats organized hierarchically. Two points in particular need to be emphasized: groups do not receive metrical accent, and beats not possess any inherent grouping.50 The problem with this statement is that groups, or layers in this case, because of their highly repetitious nature, do receive metrical accent when they repeat. It is important to remember that Lerdahl and Jackendoffs ideas were written to analyze specific genres of music that are Western, tonal, and homophonic. EDM is composed all over the world, almost never has any functional harmony, and is polyphonic. While many of their ideas can help illuminate the intricacies of this music, some of them need to be reexamined to more effectively work with this genre.
49

Lerdahl and Jackendoff 1983, p.63.

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Layers, or groups, repeat causing accents of varying degrees depending on which layer/s are repeating. Weaker accents are produced from the reiterations of layers with shorter groups. This is interesting because these are the layers that dancers would feel most comfortable for dancing. However, particularly strong accents are heard when multiple layers, both long and short, repeat simultaneously, each emphasizing the other marking the end of a cycle. It would seem that these stronger accents would create the beats necessary to create a sturdy meter. After all, as Lerdahl and Jackendoff state it is the interaction of different levels of beats (or regular alternation of strong and weak beats at a given level) that produces the sensation of meter.51 However, these particular accents often occur on such a higher level that many listeners and dancers would never hear them. While this is true, as will be discussed later, the accents of these large repeats, or cycles, play a vital role in the creation of large-scale form in EDM thus making them of considerable importance as well. As visual evidence of this, dancers can sometimes be seen dancing at these larger levels.

Cyclic Thinking Types of analysis that examine a musical surface at higher levels seem particularly relevant to this genre of music. Gretchen Horlacher discusses one such method of analysis in her article on cycles in the music of Stravinsky. Here, she uses cycles to illuminate the formal aspects and musical interest that can be generated by the repetition of only a few short ostinati. She writes:

How does Stravinsky build a large structure from motivic material that is completely or nearly unchanging? How are formal divisions established? Do the repetitions begin and end arbitrarily? In sum, how do the repetitions fit into the larger framework of the piece? The questions are as pressing from the listeners point of view [as the analysts]. Much of the excitement of a Stravinskyian phrase derives from the driving character of its repetitions, and from an expectation for change which this character creates. This viewpoint emphasizes the stasis of the phrase. But beyond this experience, is there not also a kinetic experience, a sense of being

50 51

Lerdahl and Jackendoff 1983, p.26. ibid., p.68.

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within or between phrases, and of having reached the completion of a phrase? How is the listeners interest sustained over such spans?52 Though Horlacher is questioning Stravinskys use of ostinati in his music, these same questions can be applied to many pieces of electronic dance music as they are also based on repeating ostinati. Horlachers writings on cycles are of interest to us in our analytical survey of EDM. She writes: While each stratum defines a single level of repetition, together the strata determine a second [or higher] level of repetition.53 This hierarchical organization shapes how we experience music whether it is Stravinsky or Squarepusher. While much of her writing on cycles can (and will later) be applied more efficiently towards the formal aspects of analysis, several points can be made first on a smaller level concerning the rhythmic aspects.

Out of Phase Cycles in EDM Horlacher defines a cycle as [the moment] when out of phase strata come into phase. The immediate objection to using cycles as an analytical tool in our investigation would be the simple fact that the strata used in most EDM pieces are in phase. While it is true that much of EDM is made up of in phase strata, it is a stretch to say that pieces made from out of phase strata are non-existent in the repertoire. Having thought long and hard about conflicting listener intuitions and tactus issues in the Drum and Bass room, we begin to feel a little exhausted and decide its time for a change. We take one last glance at Lerdahl and Jackendoff dancing and head over to the Trip-Hop room. As we enter, we hear DJ Shadow spinning his track Meets His Maker. Example 2.3 illustrates the repeating ostinati that we hear.
54

52 53

Horlacher 1992, p.171. ibid. 54 Horlacher 1992, p.174.

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Example 2.3: DJ Shadows Meets His Maker (at approximately 0:45).

As we listen, we immediately become aware that this piece is composed of out of phase strata. As these strata go into and out of phase, we realize that the concept of cycles can be applied as an aid to better understand what we are hearing. Essentially, most of the piece is made up of four repeating ostinati: Layer A, a guitar part with heavy reverb lasting twelve beats, Layer B, a percussion layer consisting of tom-toms lasting eight beats, and layer C, the main drum part that repeats every four beats. While layers B and C are definitely felt in duple time, layer A is clearly defined in triple time. Though layers A and C would lead us to believe that there is a twelve beat cycle, layer B, with its eight beat duration, necessitates the existence of a twenty-four beat cycle (twenty-four being the greatest common multiple). Horlacher notes that, A

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cycle describes a formal process taking place between two or more strata. It does not form the basis of meter in a passage.55 As Horlacher writes, a key component of the cyclic process is the variety of simultaneities produced by the interaction of the strata.56 Example 2.2 demonstrates that while the music is based on repetition, it is more complex than it may at first seem. Though the percussion layers are in phase with each other and the keyboard parts can be heard as helping to emphasize any of the layers, the guitar layer and the percussion layers are clearly not in phase with each other. The pairing of a triple time melody with a duple time rhythmic accompaniment forces these layers to repeatedly go in and out of phase. For example, the snare drum always strikes on beats two and four in layer C. However, it alternates striking on beat two with one and three in layer A. Even more interesting is the pairing of layer B with layer A. Within the twenty-four beat cycle, layer B sounds three times, each time in a different verticality with layer A. First, it goes from beat three to one, then from beat two to three, and finally from beat one to two. From there the cycle repeats and layer B once again sounds from beats three to one. Cycles help us to recognize and better appreciate the hidden complexities of repetition.

In Phase Cycles in EDM Though we have defined a cycle as when out of phase layers come into phase, other less structurally important cycles occur within the larger cycle. Points of arrival are felt from the repetitions of both the smaller and larger cycles. This is one of the devices that creates musical interest in EDM. Of course, in much of EDM, this effect is achieved with using only in phase strata. Can the formal divisions produced by out of phase strata coming into phase also not be contrived to some degree solely with in phase strata? Are cycles not heard when the strata are nested evenly such as in Example 1.1? Finally, is there not the same sort of kinetic energy or sense of being within or between a phrase found in out of phase cycles with cycles that are in phase?

55 56

Horlacher 1992. Ibid., p.177.

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These questions are of extreme significance to EDM, a music mostly composed of in phase strata. It should be noted again that while much of the advantage of using cycles analytically is in formal structure, the cycles must first work together on the rhythmic level to produce this form. Because of this, cycles on different levels interact with one another and compete for prominence causing listener intuitions to shift. Cycles also help keep track of all concurrent layers, their appearances, and their disappearances.

Example 2.4: J. Majiks Solarize remixed by Diesel Boy (at approximately 1:40).

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In this example we see multiple layers of music. While the upper percussion layer and melody two emphasize a repeating four-beat pattern, the lower percussion layer and the Bass layer emphasize a repeating eight-beat pattern, and Melody one with its slight deviation in measure eight emphasizes a repeating sixteen beat pattern. A cycle is heard at the end of Melody one. When all layers of music are in phase, that is to say when layers of larger duration repeat in such a way to emphasize the repetition of layers of shorter duration (as shown by Example 2.4), the music takes on a sort of hypermetrical organization.57 Accents that are produced by the repetition of layers with shorter duration have even more impetus when they are articulated by the repetition of the layers with larger duration. As the listener becomes aware of the accents produced by the repeating cycles and cycles within cycles, they will become aware of a steady flow of accents, or pulses, that helps bring musical interest and order to the piece. It is here where the ideas of Lerdahl, Jackendoff, Horlacher and Roeder can be combined to give a more complete picture of the rhythms and forms to be encountered in EDM.

Pulse Streams in EDM John Roeders pulse stream model has several advantages in dealing with the metrical conflicts found in EDM.

Essentially the theory represents rhythmic polyphony as two or more concurrent pulse streams created by regularly recurring accents. These pulse streams are considered to be distinct continuities, not levels or groupings of each other, so this approach does not involve meter in the exclusive and hierarchical senses defined by the other theorists just mentioned [Lerdahl, Jackendoff, Krebs]. Rather, it analyzes an irregular surface as the sum of several concurrent regular continuities.58

As electronic dance music is polyphonic, it deserves to be analyzed as such. Pulse stream analysis allows the analyst to deal with each layer of pulse separately but equally.
57 58

This hypermetrical organization is identical to that of gamelan gong cycles. Roeder 1994, p.232.

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Another advantage of pulse streams is that the analysis takes place without regard to the meter. Because of this, judgment calls do not have to be made about metrical and anti-metrical layers. Streams of pulse occur without regard to meter or strong and weak beats explored by other theorists, notably Lerdahl and Jackendoff.59 Perhaps the greatest benefit of pulse stream analysis is that it is more true to the music. Electronic dance music is composed for people to interact with it. Pulse stream notation using graphic representation gives us a way to actually see the interactions of layers in the music and give us a better understanding of the ways they interact. Using pulse stream notation to illustrate the interaction of pulses will also highlight both the local repetitions of pulses created by pattern repetition and the large-scale groups of pulses that help to produce form. Pulse stream notation can be used in conjunction with certain concepts of grouping and metrical structure by Lerdahl and Jackendoff and cycles to graphically represent all of the perceivable pulses within a given timespan. At the larger pulse levels, it is also possible to show how these pulses influence and create form. Obviously, the concept of pulse streams here is tailored to fit the analysis of electronic dance music. Most of EDM is composed of an extremely regular hierarchical surface. This type of structure is the polar opposite of the ones that Roeder sets out to describe. However, because of the conflicting cues inherent in these structures and their affects on listener intuition, pulse stream notation serves as an ideal way to illustrate all of the various pulses with which the dancers can interact. As Roeder writes, In music that deemphasizes traditional harmonic or linear processes these pulse streams may integrate the accents of local rhythmic figures synergistically into compelling large-scale continuities. The nature and the interaction of these continuities the synchronization of pulse streams and rhythmic motives relative to each other create rhythmic form in music.60 Pulse streams operate in this exact manner in EDM. While the creation of steady pulses creates rhythmic form in the music, the grouping of these pulses together help to produce large-scale form.

59 60

Lerdahl and Jackendoff 1983. Roeder 1994, p.233.

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Also, if out of phase cycles can be part of separate hypermetric structures, then they are pulse streams that create hypermetric dissonance. The key question is whether the cycles are on separate "streams" or are part of a nested hierarchy of hypermetric structures. Example 2.5 is a reproduction of the music from Example 2.3 with a pulse stream analysis under it. Here, the music consists of pulses that are out of phase.

Example 2.5: Pulse streams in DJ Shadows Meets His Maker (at approximately 0:45).

As we can see in the example, the music is made from separate strata that go in and out of phase with each other. The pulse streams map the pulses produced by pattern repetition. It is the interaction of these pulses that creates a very audible cycle after twenty-four beats (which also produces a steady stream of pulse). This cycle, made up of a smaller cycle between the first and third systems of pulses, is repeated numerous times throughout the piece. It should be also be noted that a quarter note pulse is created by the bass and snare drums and that an eighth note pulse is created by the hi-hat and guitar part.

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Just as cycles can be used to analyze the structure of out of phase and in phase strata, so can pulse streams. Again, the concept of pulse streams is to map out independent streams of pulse without regard to meter. While the traditional usage of pulse stream analysis is to analyze a metrically irregular surface, the theory also serves well to illustrate the metrically regular but conflicting musical surface of electronic dance music. Below is Example 2.6, a reproduction of Example 1.2 with pulse streams under it.

Example 2.6: Ram Trilogys Mindscan [Ed Rush and Optical remix] remixed by Diesel Boy (at approximately 3:00).

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While the pulses reflect a clear metrical hierarchy, they are still independent from each other. Once again, the quarter and eighth note pulse are not shown here though one can easily trace them. Visually, this example seems obvious, but it is a different case on the dance floor. Breaking with the traditional use of pulse stream analysis, we are able to combine the ideas of other theorists into a visual representation of audible pulses. This combination of ideas allows us to analyze the rhythmic and metrical structures found in EDM. Noteworthy is the idea of using interacting pulse streams as an aid in the analysis of displacement dissonances. Rather than declaring certain strata metrical and antimetrical as Krebs would, as there is no real meter, we can analyze them as separate pulses. The interacting pulses produced by cycles, groups, or any other device are what makes electronic dance music interesting. Keeping track of these pulses, especially at the cycle level lead to insight on how the piece was composed. This concept will be looked into further in the next chapter.

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CHAPTER 3 MAPPING THE SOUNDSCAPE

Part of the problem with the analysis of electronic dance music is simply that the music does not exist in notation. This is also probably a major contributing factor to the musics unfamiliarity in the music theory realm. Also, as much of EDM is based on the repetition of a few patterns, transcriptions give off the illusion of simplicity. Two major points for consideration here are: 1) as we have seen, the repetitions of these patterns encourage multiple perspectives that lead to the discovery of hidden complexities not reflected by transcription and 2) as the music is composed electronically, producers spend a great amount of time creating an arsenal of unique sounds and effects to use in their work transcriptions fall short of being able to acceptably notate and describe these timbres. Another downfall of the transcription process is that the transcriptions are often difficult to create and sometimes even harder to read. This is because EDM producers are not writing in notation. They are either playing a sound live on a keyboard (or other instrument) or clicking on a box in a computer program that tells the computer to produce a sound in the appropriate location. Though most EDM producers lack a formal music education, they seem to have an evolved sense of rhythm. There are more shortcomings. Due to the large number of echoes, reverbs, delays, distortions and other effects that can be applied to the music, it becomes very difficult to hear individual lines with certainty. Finally, some may feel that the process of transcription would actually destroy pieces of electronic dance music as they impose the transcribers inuitions on them. While there are some serious shortcomings when transcribing EDM pieces, there are also many benefits. If one is willing to accept the fact that a transcription is just one out of many perspectives on a piece, while the timbres of musical layers cannot be accurately notated, the notes that make up the layers can be notated with some certainty. Though transcription is limited, we can notate the layers and examine how they work separately and together to form a whole. It is only through the process of transcription that we can hope to unlock all the mysteries of this music. 35

Finding the Form in EDM Finding the form in EDM is not something that most EDM enthusiasts would think of doing. This said, much understanding can be gained through the formal analysis of these works. Though clear structural forms can be shown in this genre of music (admittedly not in every piece), one must slightly alter the perceptions of how form is created. Green writes:

It is common for a speaker to make a statement and repeat it at once, either exactly or in different words. This device emphasizes, or clarifies, the original statement but does not cause the argument to progress. Similarly, in music a phrase may be sounded, then immediately repeated, either exactly or with some variation. The repetition does not contribute to the growth of the musical form, but exists, if repeated exactly, for emphasis. It exists as a means of elaboration or clarification if repeated in a variation the composer is saying, In other words. Identification of the larger unit depends upon the distinction between varied and similar phrases. A series of phrases, each one of which is no more than a repetition, varied or exact, of the other, remains a series of repeated phrases. They do not form a larger unit.61 EDM presents a counter-example to this statement. In music that is so deeply rooted in repetition, any deviation from the repetition is heard strongly. For example, after hearing a rhythmic/melodic motive repeated countless times, the replacement of that rhythmic/melodic motive with a new one seems rather striking. Similarly striking would be hearing that new motive repeated only to hear it followed by a return of the original motive. Distinct groupings or sections can frequently be formed by labeling sections based on nothing more than a single repeated motive. Though the motive by itself is small, its repetition creates pitch centricity. Labeling groups of repetitions as sections can help us to view a larger structure with greater ease. Formal structure in EDM may not be immediately discernable. If not listening for large-scale form specifically, it is easy to only hear local repetitions of simple patterns. However, larger-scale repetitions can and often do take place giving a formal scheme to many pieces within this genre. Traditional forms based on repetition such as Passacaglia
61

Green1993, p.52

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and even Sonata form are sometimes used by EDM producers. It is interesting that these forms are invoked in a genre so far outside where they are expected to be encountered.

An Intelligent Approach As we have seen in both Trip-Hop and Jungle, the repetition of motivic ideas, especially rhythmic ones, is nothing new. However, the employment of repetition is often greatly altered in Intelligent dance music (IDM). Intelligent music is composed more often to be listened to rather than to be danced to. Drumbeats are irregular, dissonant with other layers, and constantly developing. Many fans of this genre often hear the music and refer to it as a form of musical chaos. However, it is past this complexity that one begins to understand it as an organized and unified structure. Although one might not expect it, especially those deeply rooted in popular music only, the genre of Intelligent music is loaded with structures, forms, and compositional techniques found in traditional tonal music. Indeed, the similarities between Bach and Squarepusher may not be immediately discernable, however, upon closer examination, one would have to try hard to refute them. In almost all popular music that utilizes percussion, the percussionists job is to provide the beat which the rest of the musicians follow. Confusion occurs in the music of Squarepusher and other Intelligent composers because the percussion is often acting more like a solo instrument. If we hear the percussion as a solo instrument, there must then be something acting as a ground for it to solo over. Although the percussion parts in Squarepusher pieces are frequently ever-changing, often times other musical elements are not. In some cases, these repeated figures, or ostinati, occur almost non-stop throughout an entire piece. Continuous Variations Continuous variations can be composed using either a ground-bass or ostinato harmonies. Of the ground-bass type, Green says its construction is based around a fairly short melody, usually a single phrase length and frequently in the lowest voice, which is repeated a number of times. The recurring melody supports other voices that supply the

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changing fabric above it by added melodic counterpoints, motivic figuration, chordal harmonies, or any other means the imagination of the composer has devised.62 Squarepushers track titled Journey to Reedham serves as an excellent demonstration of variation form in Intelligent music. With a continuously developing voice and a sturdy ostinato figure, it would scarcely be a stretch to label the piece as a Passacaglia. Although the track does contain minor inconsistencies with this label, these inconsistencies are not enough to have any major effect on the overall form. The first thing one should consider when analyzing a variation form is the ground that it is based on. Upon first listening, hearing the extremely short two-bar ostinato as a ground may seem rather striking. Most continuous variations are based on a four to eight bar theme.63 The length of this theme seems more comparable to that of the figure in the ostinato section of Stravinskys Symphony of Psalms as illustrated by Example 3.1.64

Example 3.1: Greens illustration of Stravinskys ostinato in Symphony of Pslams, Third movement.

62 63

Green 1993, p.122. Gauldin 1997, p.276. 64 Taken from Green 1993, p.125.

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Green states that the ostinato figure is too short to serve as a bass for a series of variations superimposed over it, as a regular ground bass does. Therefore it cannot act as the structural basis for a composition. Rather, it occurs as a technical procedure for certain sections within a composition of another form.65 Although, in general, a short ostinato may prove to be better suited for sections of compositions rather than the basis of entire compositions, Squarepushers theme is repeated throughout and is quite obviously the structural basis for the piece. Its brevity, however, does become an issue as we consider how the variations are composed. Disregarding a sample of a muffled voice, the piece begins with four statements of a two-bar ostinato. After these initial statements, a second four-bar ostinato is introduced and repeated twice with the theme over it. This apparently simple introduction, seen in Example 3.2, is actually more complex than it first seems.

65

Green 1993, p.125.

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Example 3.2: Opening sixteen measure of Squarepushers Journey to Reedham.

After hearing what is perceived as a two-bar ostinato repeated a number of times, the listener becomes accustomed to it and locks onto the idea of a repeating two-bar phrase. With the first and third bars containing mostly the same notes, even the four-bar ostinato is composed from a two plus two bar construction. But, while these bars are similar to the subject both in rhythm and texture, the registral changes in the second and fourth bars help to contrast the two. Listening to the two ostinati together, the listener now perceives a repeated four-bar phrase with a nested two-bar phrase. What will become audible to the listener only through thorough investigation is the possibility that the length of the repeating ground is actually eight bars long with nested two and four-bar phrases. Although, as we will see, a few problems will arise from this interpretation, it is supported by the original eight bars of the first ostinato followed by the eight bars of the first and second ostinati together, as well as several other structurally important events to come. Events in the music create an eight-measure cycle around which the piece is composed. Paradoxically, the structure of the piece defines the repetition of the subject, which in turn defines the structure of the piece. Once it is understood that the subject of this variation form is eight bars, not four or two, it is much easier to grasp. Now that the repeating theme has been discovered, the listener may notice how certain variations seem to group together with others to form a larger unit. Green states that, In a piece with a short theme varied a great number of times it is extremely important () to utilize shape to gather the variations into groups which can give a

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unified impression to the movement as a whole.66 Greens graphing of Bachs Passacaglia organizes its twenty variations into three distinct groups. Interestingly enough this graph, illustrated in Example 3.3a67, which is representative of many Passacaglias, is also more or less representative of Squarepushers, Journey to Reedham shown in Example 3.3b. These distinct groupings aid the coherence of the piece by dividing it up into groups. It is the understanding of the groups and sub-groups that allows the listener to understand the piece as a whole.

Example 3.3a: Greens graphing of Bachs Passacaglia.

Example 3.3b: Graph of Squarepushers Journey to Reedham.

66 67

Green 1993, p.123. Taken from Green 1993, p.124.

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Let us now closely investigate the structure of part one. Measures one through eight serve to set up and introduce the theme that will be repeated. Since the second ostinato is repeated almost as much as the first, measures nine through sixteen are not to be viewed as variation one. It is not until measure seventeen that the variations begin with the entrance of the percussion. Example 3.3b shows that part one (despite one inconsistency that will be discussed in detail later) can be broken down into three sub-groupings each consisting of three variations. These sub-groupings work together globally to form the larger unit by building off one another to increase complexity while functioning separately locally as they have different short-term goals. The first sub-grouping consists of variations one through three. These variations can be grouped together because of their common goal, namely to increase in complexity using only the percussion voices. Although the other sub-groupings grow in complexity, they do so using the introduction of other melodic voices in conjunction with the percussion.

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Example 3.4: Squarepushers Journey to Reedham, Variations 1-3.

Variation one, the first of ten in part one, is the most straightforward of the piece. As can be seen in Example 3.4, it is composed with a four plus four bar construction. The first four bars are almost all quarter notes (disregarding the high-hat) with a bass drum on beats one, three, and four and a snare drum emphasizing beat two. The next four bars develop what was just heard with shorter rhythmic values and more activity. The eighth measure marks the end of variation one and the beginning of variation two by way of an elided cadence. This is achieved through the use of sixteenth-note triplets. Since this rhythmic value has not been used yet, it helps the listener hear that something new is happening. Sixteenth-note triplets give off a pulse of eighth-notes, which is also enforced by the snare drum in various guises from measure twenty-four through twenty-six. The

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eighth-note pulse is twice as fast as the original quarter note pulse of the first variation, which also helps us to distinguish the new variation from the old. As there is no melody or harmony in the percussion part, it is difficult to say exactly where one variation ends and the other begins, however, there is enough evidence to show that there is a division somewhere within this measure. It is common to witness a similar device used in Baroque passacaglias. There, to help the piece remain continuous, the variations often did not close harmonically in the same place where the theme restarted. Here, as there is no harmony, the use of rhythmic overlap is used to retain the continuous flow. The main distinction between the first and second variations, is the use of short bursts of thirty-second-notes in the snare drum. Groupings of this rhythmic value, which we have not heard before, are used as the motive of this variation. Although the percussion part has been growing in complexity, there is no real division until measure thirty-two. Just as it was earlier, it is difficult to pinpoint the exact point of the elision between variation two and three. However, it is still interesting to examine how this cadence is set up. The beginning of the cadence is actually marked by the snare drum fading out while playing steady sixteenth-notes. As the drum fades, it pulls the listener in just as a dominant chord would in an authentic cadence. Right after the drum almost fades out completely, it comes back with a short loud drum roll followed by an eighth-note triplet in the bass drum and cymbal. The downbeat of measure thirty-two seems like it would be a perfect place for this cadence to end, but as it is an elided cadence for a part focusing on neither melody or harmony, it is impossible to say with certainty whether or not this is the right place. Regardless, evidence supports the fact that there is an elided cadence in this bar that helps the variations end and begin without stopping the movement of the piece. The third variation, only four bars long, is the first contradiction to the eight-bar theme. This variation is distinguished from the other two variations preceding it by its growing use of thirty-second-notes in all the percussion voices. The fact that this variation is four bars long and the others are eight does not mean that it ends abruptly. As was mentioned before, the eight bar subject can also be viewed as being made up by a

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repeated four bar phrase. Because of this, the already subtle difference between the variations, and their growing complexity, unless the listener is counting measures he/she would probably never realize the shortness of this variation. It ends very obviously at measure twenty-one with the complete exit of the percussion part. Although the variation lasting four bars instead of eight might not be jarring, the stopping of the percussion part is as this the first time it has stopped since it started. This marks clearly the beginning of the second sub-grouping (consisting of variations four through six).

Example 3.5: Squarepushers Trip to Reedham, Melody A

These variations form a group because they work together to produce a sort of ternary form. Variation four begins with Melody A, shown in Example 3.5, which exits at variation five only to return at variation six thus giving it a distinct ABA feel. It is this melodic voice that preserves the pieces continuity at variation four by drawing the listeners attention away from the dropout of the percussion. It is also the presence of this melodic voice that helps to soften the effects of the percussions reentrance a measure later in that variation. This reentrance, softened or not, has several interesting perceptual and cognitive consequences. As was seen from both graphs in Example 3.3a and b, the purpose of part one is to introduce the theme and develop it by adding increasingly complex rhythmic and textural activity above it. In the Squarepusher graph however, there is one small flaw near the beginning of part one, which represents a break in which the growing activity temporarily seems to cease. This break upon first glance may be seen as contradicting the goal of the

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group, however upon further study, we see it can more accurately be viewed as strengthening it. The opening measures of part one start with initial statements of the subject and countersubject. Taken by themselves, these steady sixteenth notes are not enough for the listener to positively identify the primary level of metrical hierarchy. It is not until the introduction of the percussion at measure seventeen that one comprehends the metrical hierarchy more clearly. A quarter note pulse is stated very plainly. The piece uses the percussion as its primary means to increase both rhythmic and textural complexity. It is constantly developing from its starting point to measure thirtyseven, where, the percussion just seems to stop and abandon its function of development. When the percussion returns four measures later at measure forty-one, it is reintroduced with a high-hat sound moving at a steady eighth-note pulse followed by the most complex percussion part that we have heard thus far. Most listeners would agree that the initial quarter note pulse set up by the percussion is the pulse of the piece. However, as the percussion part develops, some listeners (especially after multiple listenings) may shift their focus to the eighth-note pulse that can be clearly heard at measure forty-one. It is at this measure where listeners could also shift their perception and hear a metrical modulation where the quarter note now moves twice as fast. The cessation of the percussion, followed by the introduction of a faster pulse and increased rhythmic activity, can thus be viewed as resetting and replacing the slower pulse with a faster one. With this in mind, the break in the percussion part at measure thirty-seven, although at first appearing to weaken the form of part one, can also be seen as strengthening it by doubling the rate of the quarter note. For the sake of ease, this analysis will continue to retain the original quarter note pulse set up at the beginning. It is important to note that however listeners hear the piece does not change the fact that ambiguity still exists. Our original repeating eight measure subject, which could already be viewed as being constructed from nested two and four bar subjects, can now also be viewed as being sixteen measures, constructed from nested four and eight measure subjects. This new layer of complexity also helps us to distinguish the first sub-grouping from the second. In variations four through six, the percussion part has grown so

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elaborate that it defies standard notation. Rhythmic values, as they are computer generated, have become so fast that they resemble scratching or rumbling noises. In effect, the percussion has become more of a textural device but the exit and entrances of the melodic motive still enforce the eight bar theme. The third sub-grouping (consisting of variations seven through nine) starts with the introduction of yet another melodic voice, Melody B, which sounds like violins. For all three of these variations, this melody as well as Melody A from the second subgrouping are heard continuously (shown in Example 3.6). As the drums are now a textural device, these variations have no real divisions other than what one imposes on them.

Example 3.6: Squarepushers Trip to Reedham, Melody A and B.

By now, many listeners, subconsciously or consciously, may have locked onto the enforcement of the repeating eight-measure ground. And some really experienced listeners may even hear the sub-groupings of three variations. If this is the case, then this section makes perfect sense as it can be understood as a sub-grouping behaving just like the previous two did. If the listeners have not picked up on the eight measure variations and/or sub-groupings, this section still makes compositional sense as it adds a new layer of complexity (melody B). As the percussion has grown so complex, and there is now the presence of four simultaneous independent repeating voices, this section (especially after considering what proceeds it) can be viewed as the climactic end of part one.

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There is a clear delineation between the first part and the second. The most prominent factor contributing to this distinction is the exit of the melodies that characterized the end of part one. The percussion part at the beginning of part two is also less active than it was at the end of part one. This part is characterized by the ground, which is now heard more clearly because of the subtraction of voices, and rumbling bass noises. The sample of a muffled voice that started the piece also is audible in this section if one listens closely. Once again, there are no clear boundaries between variations in this section. If we continue to hear the variations lasting eight bars, than this part has two variations. Another factor contributing to the possible confusion of variations is that there is a slight irregularity in the ground that, due to its prior literal reiteration, draws attention to it instead of the percussion. This small alteration jumps out at the listener but the ground is restored and the focus returns once again to the percussion part which continues to grow in complexity throughout this part. Part two seems to act as an interlude between parts one and three. The function of part three is then to fade out the complexity introduced by part one in order to end the piece. Though individual variations may not be intelligible, there is again an enunciated differentiation between the end and the beginning of parts two and three. The downbeat of part three is marked by the return of Melody A and Melody B. These two melodies in conjunction with the percussion part now at full intensity recall the end of part one. The two melodies repeat for sixteen bars at which point the percussion drops out to leave the melodies exposed over the subject. This combination is repeated for thirtytwo bars during which the countersubject fades away. At the very end of the piece the two melodies stop and leave the subject by itself to slowly diminish in volume away to nothing. This effect is interesting. Due to the mechanical nature of the subject, incessant sixteenth notes generated with computer precision, although it fades out to nothing it seems to outlast us. One gets a sense that even though the piece ends, the subject still continues past our perception. The title of the piece, Journey to Reedham, is recalled. The mechanical subject with its persistence is reminiscent of the sounds one hears taking a trip on a train. Perhaps this piece can be viewed as a musical reflection of a trip where the

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traveler looks out the window and eventually drifts off to sleep gradually loosing track of his surroundings and the noises of the train. Many times, form in EDM pieces is unclear. After all, the focus of the music is usually on making people dance rather than on creating a structurally coherent composition. Journey to Reedham by Squarepusher exhibits remarkable similarities to variation form. This is not the only piece where Jenkinson uses this technique. Another example can be found in his track Last Ram Dispute.

Plaids Lament Imposing form onto a piece gives theorists a means to demonstrate a pieces qualities both in terms of the form and out if the piece is not a perfect fit. Plaids track, New Home, bears a striking resemblance to the Passacaglia though there are considerable arguments against this label. While this is true, analyzing the piece as such results in a clearer understanding of how the piece is organized. Example 3.7, a transcription of the first twenty-five measures found below, illustrates the opening of the piece.

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Example 3.7: Plaids New Home, Opening twenty-five measures.

System D begins the piece with an eerie string sound producing a perfect fifth, very reminiscent of Gregorian chant, and proceeds immediately in measure two to a bell

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sound repeating a two measure pattern. In measure five, system C introduces Melody 1, a synthesizer sound that begins one sixteenth rest after beat four. A displacement dissonance occurs between the two sounding textures that resolves at measure ten through the deletion of beat four in measure nine. In system D at measure ten, the pattern changes to Bass 1 and the timbre changes from bells to a synthesizer sound. These two patterns repeat twice together. At measure fourteen, system B introduces Melody 2 on top of Bass 1 and Melody 1. Melody two repeats twice; once with Melody 1 and once without. At measure eighteen, system A introduces Melody 3 which repeats four times with Bass 1. If this piece is a Passacaglia, the subject is not completely clear. Since the bell part from the beginning only lasts for five measures and never returns, it can be considered as an introduction. Melody 1 appears early in the piece, repeats a number of times, and seems to be related to Melody 2 and 3. While this is true, the first entrance of Melody 1 is unclear due to the displacement dissonance. It is not until measure ten with the introduction of Bass 1 that Melody 1 becomes clear. In a sense, Bass 1 clarifies Melody 1. As such, because of this clarification along with the three beat measure that precedes it, Bass 1 stands out. Though this voice has not been sounded alone, we shall call Bass 1 the subject because of its use throughout the piece in its various guises. Though Melody 1 appears before Bass 1, it is unstable. It is not until Bass 1 appears that we understand Melody 1. The conflict between these two figures will be a factor later in the analysis. For now, let us more closely examine Bass 1 found in Example 3.8.

Example 3.8: Plaids New Home, Bass 1.

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Circled in this example are the notes that create the ancient lament figure. This figure serves as the ground-bass in many Passacaglias. Here, it extends from D# to F#. It does this by way of the top voice except for the two registral displacements at the B and F#. Though these displacements may originally be hard to hear, they are enforced by other voices to help make them more clear. At times during this composition, the Bass 1 pattern may not be present. However, the lament figure, a large structural component of Bass 1, always is. As such, some element of Bass 1 is always perceptible. Example 3.9 illustrates how Melody 1 is composed from the same material as Bass 1.

Example 3.9: Plaids New Home, Bass 1 and Melody 1.

Here we see Melody 1 as an example of the technique used by Plaid. As Melody 1 contains the lament figure, even if the Bass 1 pattern were not present it would still be preserved. In other words, Melody 1 would consequently act as the subject and variation simultaneously. Now that we have discovered the lament figure, we can view Melody 2 as having a special function. Bass 1 exhibits the lament figure moving from D# to F#. In example 3.10 the circled notes indicate that Melody 2 serves to extend the lament figure starting from B and going down to D#.

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Example 3.10: Plaids New Home, Melody 2.

Hearing melody 2 in conjunction with Bass 1 certainly makes the lament figure clearer. With this many glimpses of the lament figure, one might be tempted to see it as the subject of the piece. This almost works as we shall see but ends up falling short. Example 3.11 shows us that while all of the melodies thus far have had the lament figure in them, that not all of them do.

Example 3.11: Plaids New Home, Bass 1 and Melody 3.

Though Melody 3 has elements of a descending melody, it is not enough to truly evoke the lament figure. Rather, we can see that this melody comes from Bass 1. The preceding examples have taken us through the music notated by Example 3.7. A lot has happened in a short amount of time. Listeners may not realize just from listening that the piece is based on Bass 1, but, they are sure to pick up on the descending elements in the melodies that make up the lament figure which in turn make up Bass 1.

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At measure twenty-six, the percussion part starts, marking the beginning of a new section.68 Just as we have become accustomed to Bass 1 as the subject, we get what apparently seems to be our first contradiction to it: four measures of nothing but drums and Bass 2 (seen in Example 3.12a) which does not seem to be based on Bass 1. Fortunately, Melody 4, seen in Example 3.12b, then joins Bass 2 to resolve the conflict. Melody 4 acts as the subject and variation simultaneously. Melody 4, while created from Bass 1, bares a clear resemblance to Melody 1 seen in Example 3.12c and d.

Example 3.12a: Plaids New Home, Bass 2

Example 3.12b: Plaids New Home, Melody 4.

Example 3.12c: Plaids New Home, Bass 1 and Melody 4.

The percussion part is not notated in any of the examples in this section due to the fact that it is not used as a relevant form-defining voice.

68

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Example 3.12d: Plaids New Home, Melody 1 and Melody 4.

Melody 4 and Bass 2 repeat four times before they are replaced by Bass 3 and Melody 5. As can be seen in Example 3.13, this section serves as a simplifying variation to what we have just heard. The lament figure is plainly obvious in this melody and the bass also helps it to stand out by producing parallel octaves.

Example 3.13: Plaids New Home, Bass 3 and Melody 5.

While seemingly simple, this is actually the climax of the piece. As this figure repeats, different voices add harmonies above Melody 5 to help to intensify this section that repeats six times. Any listener who has not heard the lament figure up to this point certainly will here. Multiple listenings of this track will help the lament figure to stand out earlier. At that point, Bass 1 and Melody 3 (in conjunction with another bass pattern that reinforces them) return marking the beginning of the third and final part. As this

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pattern repeats eight times it grows in volume. This produces the effect that something big is going to happen. The listener is drawn in but is deceived by the very tame entrance of Melody 6 accompanied by Bass 1 seen below in Example 3.14.

Example 3.14: Plaids New Home, Bass 1 and Melody 6.

This figure repeats four times before we get the big event that was set up by the previous section but not before being deceived once more. There is a two beat rest between the music in Example 3.14 and 3.15 which throws the listener off as we have been moving in four beat measures. Example 3.15 illustrates this pieces finale. It is marked by Melody 7 and Bass 4, neither of which relate to the subject.

Example 3.15: Plaids New Home, Bass 4 and Melody 7.

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It is common to encounter Passacaglias that have endings that are not composed around the ground-bass. This technique was used to create an exciting closing to the piece. This piece makes use of this technique to effectively close the piece with material not previously heard. While not everyone may choose to view this piece as a Passacaglia, one cannot deny the degree of similarity exhibited in this piece to the form. Example 3.16 shows a diagram of the shape of the piece as a whole. Also visible in the example are the voices present during the piece. Variations tend to last eight measures with exception of two that last six and four .

Example 3.16: Graphing of Plaids New Home

This piece seems to bear yet another resemblance to a continuous variation form. Gauldin writes in some continuous movements, several variations are grouped together to create a greater sense of unity. One common formal design resulting from these groupings is the so-called double rise, in which a gradual acceleration of rhythmic motion

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and increase in textural density occur twice.69 While the gradual acceleration of rhythmic motion does not happen in this manner, the increase in textural density certainly does.

Goldies Monthematic Sonata Goldies piece Ill be There for You is an example of how much of the effect of electronic dance music can be lost in transcription. Here, Goldie employs a number of sounds such as shimmering chimes, buzzes, screaming children, and other noises that cannot be portrayed through transcription. As the piece itself is rather sparse at times to begin with, the transcription makes it look unexciting. The piece starts off with a shimmering chime sound. After this figure repeats a number of times, one realizes that another layer is gradually becoming audible. It is an eight measure melody sounded with a synthesizer sound. Because of its gradual entrance and the way it is composed, it is difficult to tell exactly where the beginning of this melody is. Most listeners would probably experience the music illustrated by Example 3.17a.

Example 3.17a: Goldies Ill Be There For You, Melody interpretation 1.

69

Gauldin 1996, 277.

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Example 3.17b: Goldies Ill Be There For You, Melody interpretation 2.

Example 3.17a seems like a more likely interpretation than Example 3.17b. The melody begins with an A# on the downbeat of the first measure making it the focal point of the phrase. Also, because of the prominence of A# (it is the only pitch in the melody that repeats more than twice in a row), a centricity is created around this pitch. This interpretation is easier to hear than Example 3.17b where the phrase begins with a pick up from the measure before (the last note in the last measure). While A# still sounds like the goal pitch, the phrase begins on D#. Though most listeners would prefer the interpretation in Example 3.17a to b, the latter is what is actually happening. This becomes apparent only after closer analysis of the piece. Another interesting point about this melody is its construction. The technique used to create this phrase also generates some possible confusion. If we reexamine Example 3.17b we can see that the eight measure phrase is made up of a four plus four measure construction. The first four measures are almost exactly the same as the last four except the last four are displaced by the distance of an eighth rest. The last measure deletes this eighth rest so that the phrase will repeat. This may throw certain listeners off as they might expect notes to sound when they do not. Fortunately, emphasis in this piece is on the repetition of this eight measure melody. It repeats enough times during the course of the work that most listeners will be able to grasp it by the end of the piece. This is another interesting point that will be discussed later.

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This phrase repeats with nothing but drum accompaniment for over a minute. It is not until this point where we hear something new. Example 3.18 portrays the new melody that replaces the original one.

Example 3.18: Goldies Ill Be There For You, Melody at the fifth.

This melody appears to be very close to the original. In fact, the only difference between the two melodies is that this new one is transposed a fifth higher. In a sense, the piece has modulated to its dominant marking a new section. This section, characterized by the same drum pattern from before but different melody, repeats for approximately twenty-five seconds at which point the drums drop out to leave only the melody sounding by itself for another twenty-eight seconds. At this point, we once again become aware of another voice that has just been made audible (upon multiple listenings it is possible to hear this voice added as much as eight seconds before). The melody being added is the original one. These two melodies, sounding a perfect fifth apart repeat together for approximately seventeen seconds at which point they are joined by the percussion for another thirteen seconds. Also audible are two new sounds. In the background we hear a sample of a woman in a hi-pitched voice saying Aaaaaaay! followed by a sample of a boy screaming. After hearing the same melody repeated for almost three minutes (as itself, at the interval of a fifth, and both simultaneously) its disappearance marks a major event in the piece. We are now in a new section. For the next two-and-a half minutes we hear the drum pattern and other noises from before but recombined (or remixed) in a different

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way. The section starts off with the drum pattern and the samples of the woman and the screaming boy. Approximately forty-six seconds later, the only sounding voice is the bass drum from the drum pattern with a few other sound effects (also encountered earlier in the music). This very barren part of the piece is reminiscent of when the drums dropped out and left only the melody sounding. After about twenty-three seconds of just bass drum and sparse accompaniment, the snare drum reenters. In this section the drum part has been taken apart and slowly reassembled to its original form. At this point, the shimmering chime sound that started the piece returns. This sound along with the drums repeat for about thirty seconds at which point we again become aware of another voice gradually becoming audible. It is the original melody coming back. There is a very large feeling of return here. After about thirty-nine seconds of this the drum line drops out with exception of the bass drum which drops out to after another twenty-two seconds leaving the shimmering chimes and the melody to end the piece by themselves with an additional twenty-seven seconds of repetition. Although it may come as a surprise, we have just uncovered what seems to be a monothematic sonata (complete with modulation to V) in an electronic dance music piece. Goldie has given us another example of a pre-existing form being employed in EDM. A graph to help illustrate what the piece looks like is produced below in Example 3.19.

Example 3.19: Graphing of Glodies Ill Be There For You.

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The chimes serve as the introduction to the piece and gradually fade away for the entrance of the melody. This melody represents theme one. In a monothematic sonata, the same theme is used twice but modulates to a new key area the second time. This modulation occurs at the beginning of what is marked as theme two in Example 3.17. The closing theme of a sonata is supposed to reinforce the new key. While the function of this section is slightly modified for this piece, it still acts like a closing theme. Rather than emphasize the second key area, the melody and the melody at the fifth are sounded simultaneously. Though seeming to support both key areas, this section sounds like a closing section because it completes all the possibilities for the two melodies. In other words, after hearing the melody, the melody at the fifth, and then both of those combined, one anticipates that something new must happen. This anticipation leads to something both new and old: the development section. Some may be inclined to say that this section does not really possess the attributes of a development. The same material is repeated from before, just with the deletion and then addition of certain parts. While this argument can be made, a recent article on recontextualization by Dora A. Hanninen may show otherwise. She writes that Recontextualization indicates a (listeners perception of) phenomenal transformation of repetition (of some thing a musical idea as I shall soon define it) induced by a change in musical context. It is a strange king of repetition better, an estranged repetition, in which repetition doesnt sound (primarily) like repetition.70 In this article a monothematic sonata by Haydn is analyzed. The author shows how each time the theme is heard, even though it is the same theme, it is different because it is recontextualized. The same can be said of the development section of this piece. While it is composed of previously listened to patterns, they are now placed in a different context creating an (almost) entirely new experience. Goldies use of a retransition section is also interesting. He uses the pieces introduction to signal the return of the theme. As the theme becomes audible from nothing, the listener slips into the recapitulation without even knowing it. This is a very effective device for a smooth transition between sections.

70

Hanninen 2003, p. 61. (Parentheses are the authors).

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The recapitulation is straightforward as the original theme returns expectedly in its original key. It is interesting that because the themes of this sonata are made up of one short melody, the sense of tension and resolve between key areas is felt very strongly more so than even in many other Classical sonatas.

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CHAPTER 4: CONCLUSION

Closing Time It is now morning and we are noticing that more and more people are leaving. Our rave is coming to an end. As closing time draws near, we exit the venue and proceed toward our car. The ride home is quiet though our ears are still reeling from the onslaught of intensely loud music. Our minds and bodies are suffering from a particular unmistakable form of exhaustion that only comes from a mild dose of sleep deprivation coupled with excessive dancing. Times like these are often introspective. Half asleep, we reflect upon what we have learned tonight and how it came to be. As we stare out the window of our moving car we take notice of an intriguing parallel between EDM and the world around us. Though our car is moving at a constant rate, we observe many rhythms from different things around us. For example, the rhythm of the passing street lamps, or the rhythm of the reflectors on the road, or the rhythm of the cracks in the road. This experience is not unlike that of listening to EDM where we are confronted with several simultaneous rhythms. While we can say we are riding in a car or listening to a track of EDM, such a statement would vastly downplay the complexity of the experience.

Complexity Through Technology Electronic dance music, while thriving on repetition, is often quite intricate. One of the reasons for the complexity of this music is because of technology. Composers of EDM are limited only by the speed of their processor(s) and amount of memory possessed by their computer(s). There are no physical limitations to confront like in most other music with live musicians and no concerns whether or not the composer will ever be able to actually hear his work. EDM composers, as with other electronic composers, can hear their music produced perfectly whenever they want from the convenience of their own home or studio computers.

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Also, with todays technology, there are both software and hardware (filters, samplers, gates, compressors, and expanders to name a few) available that allow for an infinite number of sound possibilities to be generated from one source. For example, a sample of a human voice can be manipulated into anything from a keyboard sound to a percussion sound in seconds. It is interesting that while all of this technology is available to and used by EDM composers to produce sound, most DJs still use turntables to mix the music live.71 In fact, the techniques used by many DJs to manipulate the sounds of their records are very similar, if not entirely the same, to early electronic composers who manipulated tape. Kramer writes: The invention of the tape recorder made sonorities not only reproducible but also alterable. The resulting recording and splicing techniques allowed recorded sounds to be fragmented, combined, and distorted among other possibilities.72 A large quantity of mass-produced EDM compact discs are digital recordings of DJs remixing their records on turntables. While EDM is produced through cutting edge technology, it also draws upon older technology.

Linking Technology and Repetition The link between technology and repetition in music, though not always immediately apparent, cannot be overlooked. Technological advances in the field of recording have had far-reaching consequences on all facets of music including composition.

At the same time that music began to be recorded, composers began drastically to reduce the redundancy in their works. The intensity in much early twentieth-century music comes from the lack of repetition It seems as if composers realized subconsciously that their music would be recorded and thus available to listeners for repeated hearings. As R. Murray Schafer has remarked, The recapitulation is on the disc. Music in the early decades of this century became considerably more complicated

Digital DJs do exist although they are rarer and often frowned upon. Some intelligent artists when they perform live play their music through their computers and remix it live, like Plaid, or add in live accompaniment, like Squarepusher. 72 Kramer 1988, p.66.

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than it had ever been before Gestures have been composed that are so compressed as to be fully apprehended only after several listenings.73 While the process of recording seems to have changed certain composers approaches to composition, it has also had an effect on the perception of music. Though some composers eliminated redundancy and repetition in their works, others reacted oppositely and fashioned their compositions solely on repetition.

Music Changing Through Repetition One of the advantages of music that is highly repetitive is quite simply that one can hear a passage several times with only one listening. In other words, because EDM is composed of short repeating patterns, listening to an entire track once means listening to these repeating patterns several times. The idea of our perception of a piece or passage changing after multiple listenings is actually quite intriguing.74 In an interesting discussion in his book, The Rhythms of Tonal Music, Joel Lester mentions the impossibility of experiencing any aspect of life to its fullest as it happens, since the import of that experience cannot be perceived as it happens and relates that to music by adding only as we become more familiar with the pieces can we learn to relish the subtle factors that add life throughout the whole metrical hierarchy.75 After multiple listenings of a piece, our perception of it and/or its parts will frequently change. This notion is especially relevant to EDM because it is composed of several independent layers of repeating patterns. Frequently, these repeating patterns will have differing durations before they repeat. Because of the presence of these multiple layers of patterns and their stagnant repetition, the listener may be compelled to experiment with different interpretations of these layers concerning their relative strength to one another. Butler states that the absence of a definite interpretation encourages the listener to experiment with the different interpretations. In repetitive music such as EDM,

Kramer 1988, p.69. Again, the parallel between EDM and other Western music cultures such as African and Balinese must be acknowledged here. This idea is also of course felt strongly in Minimal music as well. 75 Lester 1986, p.103.
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this ambiguity often plays a crucial role in the creation of musical interest.76 While Butler writes that it is the ambiguity between interpretations that creates musical interest in EDM, it is important to remember that without repetition this ambiguity could never exist. While Lester discusses the affects of repeated listenings on an entire piece, Butler relates the same concept of altering interpretations over time on a more local level. This is because of the characteristic repetitions intrinsic in EDM. In other words, hearing a section repeated a number of times within a track helps the listener to experiment with all of the possible interpretations on a local level, while listening to the entire track again may help to show how these sections group together to form a whole. EDM is of course not to the genre to explore the effects of repetition in music.

EDM as a Logical Outgrowth of Minimal Music Steve Reichs phase pieces are examples of compositions based on repetition. Originally, these pieces were produced from two tape loops consisting of the same melodic pattern simultaneously. Gradually the two loops would go out of phase until they eventually returned back to unison. Reichs later phase pieces, although they could also be performed using only tape loops, were meant to be performed with live musicians. These musicians were imitating machines in what Reich calls a musical process. A musical process is set up and left to be carried out on its own. While electronic dance music is by no means representative of this type of process, certain similarities do exist between the two. Reich writes: While performing and listening to gradual musical processes, one can participate in a particular liberating and impersonal kind of ritual. Focusing in on the musical process makes possible that shift of attention away from he and she and you and me outward toward it.77 This liberating shift of attention can be experienced at any rave. Many dancers lose themselves to the music for hours on the dance floor. This type of liberation, however, is far from impersonal. Individual dancers let their minds drift to the music in a highly personal way. Reich would seem to agree as he
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Butler 2001, [paragraph] 15. Reich 2002, p.36.

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contradicts himself by writing, All music to some degree invites people to bring their own emotional life to it. My early pieces do that in an extreme form, but paradoxically they do so through a very rigid process, and its precisely the impersonality of the process that invites this very engaged psychological reaction.78 In this quotation, it is the process that is impersonal rather than the ritual of shifting attention.

Continuity and Discontinuity Developments in technology also birthed new conceptions of time itself. Kramer writes:

As technologies and, concomitantly, new aesthetic extremes developed during this century, newer degrees and types of discontinuity became available, not only in film and music but also in drama, literature, and popular culture. Discontinuity has affected the temporal texture of every Westerners life. Television can be equally as discontinuous. In a flash, viewers are transported from an animated fantasy world to on-the-spot coverage of a real war in a distant land, or from the artificial (but does that word mean anything today?) world of a quiz game to the laundry room of the Typical American Housewife. And think of the children who grow up watching 15,000 hours of television between the ages of two and eleven. Consider the program Sesame Street, a formative influence on children in the United States. It exhibits extreme discontinuities, as one short scene leads without transition or logic to a totally different short scene. Truly a moment form! Watching Sesame Street is not unlike listening to heavily spliced tape music.79 Going to a rave, one may experience many of the same discontinuities that Kramer writes of in the above quotation. However, as in Sesame Street and moment form music, DJs at raves focus on continuity rather than discontinuity - - in other words, the idea is that the music is continuously flowing. While some elements of the music may suddenly drop out and be replaced by others, it does not stop. The musics continuity is made from its discontinuity. One only needs to recall the process of mixing breakbeats in Jungle music. The music is composed of small fragments manipulated and reassembled

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Reich 2002, p.21. Kramer 1988, p.71.

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to form a whole greater than the sum of its parts. The music seems to take place independently of our preconceived notion of time. A provocative quotation from Kramer serves well to illuminate what is happening:

Does music exist in time or does time exist in music? This question is not simply a semantic game. If we believe primarily that music exists in time, then we take time as an absolute, as an external reality, as somehow apart from the experiences it contains. I do not wish to deny absolute time totally but rather to posit a substantially different musical time. If we believe in the time that exists uniquely in music, then we begin to glimpse the power of music to create, alter, distort, or even destroy time itself, not simply our experience of it. Events, not time are in flux. And music is a series of events, events that not only contain time but also shape it.80

Technology vs. Humans People frequently forget the extent to which technology is ingrained in our lives. Collectors of classical music recordings often seek out recordings based on the soloist, ensemble, or orchestra. While this seems like a logical pursuit, few realize the effect that the audio engineer has on the recording. Kramer writes that recordings are artworks themselves, not simply reproductions [of performances] and continues that two differently mixed, equalized, and reverberated recordings of the same performance can contrast as much as two different performances of the same work.81 Technology, whether in electronic or classical (or other) music, pervades our perceptions. Technological advances in computers have also made computers quite useful to composers. Computers are sometimes needed for the replication of super complex music because humans are incapable of producing the degree of accuracy required. While this is true, Kramer writes, Sequencers, on the other hand, produce coldly regular rhythms, far more precise than any human can perform. The result can be lifeless.82 The dilemma between computers and humans is simple. Human performers are not rhythmically perfect but they can add elements of life to music. Computer

80 81

Kramer 1988, p.5. ibid., p.67. 82 ibid., p.73.

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performances tend to sound more mechanical and forced. The composer is left with a choice between a rhythmically perfect performance but void of emotion, or a performance filled with emotion but far from computer perfect.

EDM as a Compromise Electronic dance music is an interesting genre of music to discuss with this dilemma in mind. The first question one might ask is why cant human performers train themselves to be more perfect? The answer to this is that a human, playing as perfect as humanly possible can still not achieve the perfection of a computer. Kramer attests to this as he writes:

The evidence is strong that a performer cannot play utterly regular rhythms. Fifty years ago Carl Seashore demonstrated as much by asking a pianist to produce a metronomic performance. Seashore found that the pianists rhythmic variations were smaller than when he was asked to play expressively, but that they were nonetheless present. Furthermore, the deviations in the mechanical performance were a scaled-down version of those in the expressive performance.83 From this quotation we learn that while a human performer can try to duplicate the accuracy of a computer, they will forever fall short of perfection. However, the opposite can be said for computers. There have been many attempts by programmers to get computers to sound more like humans. Options such as Quantization appear on most music software that produce irregularities and distortions in the music in an attempt to humanize the music. Computer programmers have also made software that allows the user to modify every aspect of every note in order to get a more human performance out of the computer. Though this may sound a bit extreme, this type of control is used by EDM composers. Reynolds writes:

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Kramer 1988, p.74.

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Samples were fed into the computer, beats were chopped up, resequenced, and processed with ever-increasing degrees of complexity. Effects like time stretching/compression, pitch shifting, ghosting, and psychedeliastyle reverse gave the percussion an eerie chromatic quality that blurred the line between rhythm, melody, and timbre. Separate drum hits within a single breakbeat could be subjected to different degrees of echo and reverb, so that each percussive accent seems to occur in a different acoustic space. Eventually, producers started building their own breakbeats from scratch, using single shot samples isolated snare hits, hi-hat flutters, et cetera. The term breakbeat science fits because the process of building up jungle rhythm tracks is incredibly time consuming and tricky, involving near surgical precision. Breakbeat science transformed jungle into a rhythmic psychedelia.84 Though electronic dance music is composed for dancing, it is also at the forefront electronically produced sound. Richard James (also known as Aphex Twin), is an affluent composer of EDM whose work according to Prendergast placed his inventions in sound right alongside the achievements of Stockhausen, Ligeti, Xenakis, and Reich.85 While EDM is composed of strictly repeated rhythms generated from computers, it rarely seems lifeless. Perhaps one of the reasons for this is the composers familiarity with the latest technology. Another reason for this is that some EDM composers incorporate live sounds into their works. Tom Jenkinson (also known as Squarepusher) performs live music with his bass while he is accompanied by his pre-composed computer music. During recordings he frequently attaches a midi pick-up to his bass that allows him to use his bass as a trigger to produce other sounds. His bass would thus be able to sound like any sound that his computer was capable of producing. For example, he could be playing his bass live but we would hear it as a keyboard or percussion sound.86 Some other EDM artists perform with a live drummer playing electric and/or acoustic drums to accompany or even (more rarely) replace the sequencer. The Kevins is an example of an almost entirely live Drum and Bass band (they use a drum machine in addition to their live drummer). Even DJs that are mixing with turntables or artists like Plaid who mix their pre-recorded music live tweak frequencies, equalize, and regulate the
84 85

Reynolds 1998, p.253. Prendergast 200, p.418.

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volume of the music the music sounds alive. EDM can thus be considered as a sort of balanced compromise between man and machine. Tomorrow Tomorrow we will wake. As many of the reiterating patterns of last nights rave still run rampant through our minds, we wonder how our theoretical findings in EDM can be expanded. While this paper has served well to illuminate issues of rhythm and form in electronic dance music, it has done so using only instrumental pieces. Vocals are often also intriguing in EDM. Producers can either use samples of singers, or, in a live setting, an MC (Master of Ceremonies). MCs in EDM can achieve fame just as great as the DJs. These MCs rap over the rapid intricate rhythms of EDM adding another layer of live complexity. The rhythms with which the MCs do this with would be an interesting thing to trace in this music. Also, although this paper has analyzed the form of entire tracks in EDM, many albums use some of the same patterns in other tracks. As the music is meant to continuously flow, although the track numbers may be advancing, the listener would be hearing only one track. As motives are used in different contexts, they develop. This motivic development as well as the large-scale form that it produces is another topic of interest. The current work of Mark Butler that examines complete DJ sets reflects this inquiry.87 Intelligent dance music offers music theorists another exciting opportunity for analysis. Here the dense textures and rhythmic manipulations are sure to produce discussions on rhythm, meter, pitch centricity, form, or any number of others. The problem that needs to be overcome of course is the transcription process. This is perhaps one of the main reasons why this genre as a whole is often overlooked. In electronic dance music there are vast openings for musical discourse. Above are only a few ideas that would lead to sizeable research. I believe that with the concepts written about within this paper, as well as those suggested, that one can begin to grasp the potential of this genre for analytical discourse. It is my hope that the concepts introduced
86

This technique is not restricted to this genre.

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here will be extended upon further in order to achieve a better understanding of this genre.

87

Butler 2003.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Arom, Simha. 1991. African polyphony and polyrhythm : musical structure and methodology. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press. Butler, Mark J. 2003. Unlocking the Groove: Rhythm, Meter, and Musical Design in Electronic Dance Music. Indiana University. Butler, J. Mark. 2001. Turning the Beat Around: Reinterpretation, Metrical Dissonance, and Asymmetry in Electronic Dance Music. Music Theory Online 7.6 (December): p. 139. Chernoff, John Miller. 1979. African Rhythm and African Sensibility: Aesthetics and Social Action in African Music. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Gauldin, Robert. 1997. Harmonic Practice in Tonal Music. New York, London: W. W. Norton & Company. ---, 1995. A Practical Approach to Eighteenth Century Counterpoint, 2nd edition. Illinois: Waveland Press, Inc. Green, Douglas. 1993. Form in Tonal Music: an Introduction to Analysis, 2nd edition. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, Inc. Hanninen, Dara A. 2003. A Theory of Recontextualization in Music: Analyzing Phenomenal Transformations of Repetition. Music Theory Spectrum 25.1 (Spring): p. 59-97. Hasty, Christopher. 1997. Meter as Rhythm. New York: Oxford Press. Horlacher, Gretchen. 2001. Bartoks Change of Time: Coming unfixed. Music Theory Online 7.1 (January): p. 1.1-4.2. ---, 1992. The Rhythms of Reiteration: Formal Development in Stravisnkys Ostinati. Music Theory Spectrum 14.2 (Fall): p. 171-187. Hughes, Ken. 2001. Squarepusher: Electrocuted Compositions. Keyboard 27.7 (July): p. 44-48. Kramer, Jonathan D. 1988. The Time of Music. New York: Schirmer Books. Krebs, Harald. 1999. Fantasy Pieces: Metrical Dissonance in the Music of Robert Schumann. New York: Oxford Press.

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---, 1997. Robert Schumanns Metrical Revisions. Music Theory Spectrum 19.1 (Spring): p. 35-54. ---, 1987. "Some Extensions of the Concepts of Metrical Consonance and Dissonance." Journal of Music Theory 31.1 (Spring): p. 99-120. Lerdahl, Fred. 1988. "Cognitive Constraints on Compositional Systems." In Generative Processes in Music, ed. John A. Sloboda. Oxford: Clarendon Press, p. 231-259. Lerdahl, Fred and Ray Jackendoff. 1983. A Generative Theory of Tonal Music. Cambridge: MIT Press. Lester, Joel. 1986. The Rhythms of Tonal Music. USA: Southern Illinois University Press. Martens, Peter. 2003. Finding the Beat in Metric Theory and Listener-Based Analysis. Paper presented at the 14th annual conference of the Music Theory Midwest, Bloomington, Indiana. Prendergast, Mark. 2000. The Ambient Century: From Mahler to Trance the Evolution of Sound in the Electronic Age. New York and London: Bloomsbury Publishing. Rahn, John. 2001. Music Inside Out: Going Too Far in Musical Essays. Canada: G+B International. Reich, Steve. 2002. Writings on Music: 1965-2000. New York: Oxford Press. Reynolds, Simon. 1998. Generation Ecstasy: Into the World of Techno and Rave Culture. New York: Little, Brown, and Company. Roeder, John. 2001. Pulse Streams and Problems of Grouping and Metrical Dissonance in Bartk's "With Drums and Pipes". Music Theory Online 7.1 (January): p. 1.1-9.3. ---, 1994. "Interacting Pulse Streams in Schoenberg's Atonal Polyphony." Music Theory Spectrum 16.2 (Fall): p. 231-249. Schachter, Carl. 1987. Aspects of meter. Music Forum 6. Schwartz, Elliott and Daniel Godfrey. 1993. Music Since 1945: Issues, Materials, and Literature. New York: Simon & Schuster Macmillan. Tenzer, Michael. 1998. Balinese Music. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions. Yeston, Maury. 1976. The Stratification of Musical Rhythm. New Haven: Yale University Press.

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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

Robert Keller was born in Long Island, New York in 1978. He attended and graduated from Skidmore College in 2000 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in music. At Skidmore College he studied guitar extensively with several teachers including Ricardo Cobo and Mark Delpriora. Upon graduation he was admitted to The Florida State Universitys School of Music masters program for guitar performance. While there, Keller also successfully gained admittance into the graduate music theory program. He is expected to complete both degrees in the Spring of 2004. Upon completion of these degrees, he intends to continue studying guitar and start his doctoral work.

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