INDIA IN THE CHANGING GEOPOLITICS OF THE

INDIAN OCEAN

By:
*
Dr. Mohammed Khalid
ABSTRACT

Indian and the Indian Ocean are two inseparable entities. India
owes its geophysical existence to the Indian Ocean. Throughout history
India has been interacting with the lands and the peoples of its littoral
through religion, culture and other means. There existed a certain unity
in the Ocean for centuries till it was broken by the advent and impact of
the advancing European colonial powers after 16th century.
Exist of the colonial powers -the British, Dutch, French etc.- from
the region after the Second World War made the countries of the region
to refashion their foreign policies keeping in view their national interests,
the emerging geopolitical realities and the dawning of Cold War in the
region.
India, uniquely positioned in the centre of the Indian Ocean realm
opted for the non-alignment as its foreign policy and stood for making
Indian Ocean a 'Zone of Peace'. On the other hand India started building
up new relations with the littoral states of the Ocean. Over the last sixty
years, India is more engaged than ever in the region through trade, aid
and financial assistance. The Country is an important source of science
and technology, education, turn-key projects in industry etc. Inspite of
the efforts made in this regard, a lot needs to be done and that can
happen only if India encashes upon the needs of development starved
countries of the region. As an emerging economic and technological
power India must consider the Indian Ocean region as the core area of
its foreign policy and reinvent and reinvigorate its policy in this regard. It
is incumbent on India to play a larger role in the region for its own
economic development and to promote prospects of peace and
cooperation in the region.

Embedded, and terrestrially moored to the surrounding ocean,

India is a gift of the Indian Ocean.1 The splitting of Gondwanaland and

*
Sr. Lecturer in Political Science, Dept. of Evening Studies, Panjab University,
Chandigarh

1
drifting apart of the continents in their present shape about 150
million years ago,2 defined the contours, character and geographical
parameters of the South Asian sub-continent, of which India is a
preponderant feature.

Named after India by the Arabs who called it Bahr-e-Hind,

Indian Ocean had served as a protective shield around the sub-
continent till maritime activity perforated this shield through the
advent of the Europeans from the 16th century onwards. Until then,
life and history of India was entirely north-bound.3 The advent and
subsequent impact of the Europeans brought about a qualitative
change in the life of the South Asian sub-continent. The ramifications
and resonance of the change defined and determined the extent and
intensity of the Ocean’s linkages with contemporary India. The
experience and the legacy of colonialism–imperialism have notably
contributed to the Country’s consciousness of Indian Ocean.

India has a long and rich history of cultural and commercial

interaction with the littoral and other territories of the Ocean. In those
times India influenced and attracted the peoples of Indian Ocean
through culture, religion, trade and commerce rather than through
military engagements and war. It is now used as an ideological-
spiritual input, or a buttress for India’s foreign policy and position
there. Otherwise, it is the immediate colonial past that largely
contributes to the present Indian orientation towards the ocean.

The north-orientation and pre-occupation of Indian state with

the lands and peoples of central and west Asia continued
undiminished even under the colonial rule.4 The Second World War
changed this perspective drastically. The importance of the Indian
Ocean was realized in the wake of Japanese penetration of South
Asia, following the fall of Singapore in 1942.5 The “unfortunate

2
tendency to overlook the sea in the discussion of India’s defence
problems”, was pointed out by Pannikar, who said “India never lost
her independence till she lost the command of the sea in the first
decade of the 16th century.” He emphasized on the setting up of
distant basis like Singapore, Mauritius, Aden and Socotra as outposts
of the country’s defence, so that Indian Ocean must remain truly
Indian.6 Another view in this regard holds that even if India does not
rule the waves of all the oceans of the world, it must at least rule the
Indian Ocean by becoming undisputed power over its waters.7

India is uniquely located with its triangular shaped southern

peninsula jutting out into the sea. It is washed by the Bay of Bengal
on the east and the Arabian Sea on the west. The 5,700 km 8 long
coastline of the mainland has in its eastern part a number of deltas.
The west coast includes two peninsulas of Kutch and Kathiawar.
Western coastline runs more or less straight, the Cape Comorin to
the 22o parallel N. The coastline in the east runs in wide curves,
changing directions from north to north-east from the 16o parallel.9
India has a continental shelf varying in its width from 100 metres to
350 km at varying depths.

Indian Islands:

The Indian territory includes a number of islands in the Bay of

Bengal and the Arabian Sea. The islands in the Bay of Bengal -the
Andaman and Nicobar- are larger and more habitable in contrast to
the Lakshdweep islands in the Arabian Sea, which are small and
mostly uninhabited. The former represent elevated portions of
submarine mountains, while the latter islands are entirely built on
corals. The Andamans include 257 islands and Nicobar is composed
of 62 islands in the Bay of Bengal.10 Lying between 14o and 6o S
latitude, they are scattered over an area of 6,374 and 1,645 sq kms

3
respectively.11 Before independence, these groups of islands were only
marginally bound with the Indian mainland. After independence,
planned development was undertaken to integrate them with India.
These islands provide India a prime geographic position which no
other country enjoys in the Indian Ocean realm.

The geopolitical significance of these two groups of islands lies

in that they extend India’s boundary deep south into the Indian
Ocean, simultaneously making Indonesia, a close neighbour.12 By
extending India’s continental shelf that the archipelago of these
islands provides, the country’s area for exploitation of the shelf and
the Indian Ocean seabed is significantly enlarged.

Centrality of India

By virtue of its location, India has close neighbourhood not only

with Indonesia, Malaysia Thailand, Burma, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka,
Maldives and Pakistan, but it is also central to the entire Indian
Ocean. The African continent and Arabian peninsula to its west and
southwest, and southeast Asia to its east, impart unique centrality to
India in the Indian Ocean.

At independence, the leadership of the country headed by

Jawaharlal Nehru was fully conscious of the implications of this
geographical position. It was duly taken into account in the shaping of
India’s foreign relations. Country’s rapid economic development was
an urgent, high priority, which could not occur unless security
environment in its neighbourhood, and the Indian Ocean region as a
whole was congenial and conducive. For achieving an enduringly
peaceful security environment, it was imperative for India not merely
to stay away from the then emerging Cold War and military alliances
following the World War II, but also to see that their pernicious impact

4
did not impinge or enter this region. Nehru regarded India as too big a
country to be bound down in military or political alliances of any kind
to any country, however big that country may be.13 He maintained:

"I do not say that our country is superior or that we are

above passion and prejudice, hatred and fury. But as
things are, there are certain factors which help us. First of
all, we are geographically so situated that we are not
drawn into controversies with that passionate fury that
some other countries are. This is not due to our goodness
or badness, but is a matter of geography".14

The geographical insularity caused by the Himalayas and the

Indian Ocean also made Nehru15 think that India is going to be a
meeting ground of various trends and forces in the region. India’s
abysmal poverty and economic backwardness had also to be shed
away through mutual economic relations and help with other
countries of the Region. Nehru was clear: “ultimately, foreign policy is
the outcome of the economic policy, and until India has properly
evolved her economic policy, her foreign policy will be rather vague,
rather inchoate, and will be groping.16 It was quite impossible for India
to invest in military build up without jeopardizing the outlays for her
economic development. So the Indian leadership decided to
concentrate on economic diplomacy17 instead of diverting the country’s
limited resources into expensive military build up.

Under the circumstances, the posture, credo and policy of non-

alignment meant non-involvement in power politics which had
hitherto permeated and characterized the world. Nonetheless, an
active and moral role in the affairs of the world must be played in the
cause of promotion and preservation of peace. The policy reflected “at
once a desire to avoid commitment -an understandable attitude for

5
any people of meager resources- and a wish to be among those who
count in world affairs.”18

The manifestations of Cold War were more prominent in the

Indian Ocean region. The Korean War in the vicinity of the Region was
the first demonstration of emerging Cold War. Indian Ocean and its
littoral was effectively used by the US to contain the Soviet
Communism. The British withdrawal from the east of Suez in 1971
and corresponding entry of the US naval forces to fill the so called
“power vacuum” in the region conspicuously brought the Cold War at
India's doorsteps which made its commitment stronger to campaign
against the Cold War. India’s policy was “of trying to realize security
largely through promoting peaceful regional cooperation among the
littoral and hinterland states and preventing the militarisation of the
Indian Ocean.”19

India’s concern over the security of the Indian Ocean was in

evidence as early as 1965. In November that year Britain granted
independence to Mauritius and Seychelles. The British detached the
Islands of Aldabra, Furquhar and Desroches from Seychelles and
Diego Garcia from Mauritius to establish British Indian Ocean
Territory (BIOT). Later, Diego Garcia was transferred to USA,
ostensibly to set up a communication facility but was gradually
expanded as an effective naval base.20 The growing US naval presence
was counter productive as Soviet naval forces too began showing their
presence in the region and look out for possible naval bases around
the ocean littoral.21 India also contested the concept of “power
vaccum”. Prime Minister Mrs. Gandhi never missed an opportunity of
proclaiming that Indian Ocean should be kept a nuclear free area. 22
The Lusaka conference of non-aligned heads of state, in September
1970, adopted the resolution to consider and respect “the Indian

6
Ocean as a Zone of Peace.”23 India sharply reacted in 1970 to the
British intent to supply “limited categories of defensive weapons to
South Africa under Simons Town Agreement in 1970.24

The Commonwealth Heads of Government Conference was held

at Singapore in January 1971. India’s Minister of Foreign Affairs,
Swarn Singh elaborated India’s position and concern about Indian
Ocean at the conference. He expressed “concern” at the arrival of the
“power game” in the Indian Ocean. Until now a peaceful ocean, he
dismissed the Soviet threat as “hypothetical”, the littoral states, he
said, were “far more concerned over the growth of South African
military power” and the construction of the Diego Garcia base was
sure to bring in other big powers. “India would like all big powers,
including the Soviet Union, United States, France, Britain to leave the
area alone.”25 At the United Nations, India, together with Sri Lanka
succeeded in having a resolution adopted by the General Assembly on
16 December 1971, which called for peace zone to be established in
the Indian Ocean and “that the area should be free of nuclear
weapons.”26 The power rivalry and its inevitable pernicious
consequences for the region became a major issue which India
relentlessly pursued at the conferences and meetings of the non-
aligned, the Commonwealth, the Afro-Asian countries, the Arab
League, the OAU and so on, as also in various bilateral discussions.27

India’s naval outreach in the Ocean

With a coastline of 7,516 km with a total of 1,197 island

territories in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea, India has an
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of 2.01 million Sq.km. About 90
percent by volume and 77 percent of total value of India’s trade comes
through the ocean. The resource rich EEZ provides 68% of its oil
production (at Bombay High) and fish production of 2.82 million

7
tones. Country's entire oil and gas supplies are imported through the
ocean. Therefore its economy and development is crucially dependent
on the waters of Indian Ocean.

Apart from the foreign policy measures, to provide naval

security to these crucial maritime interests, India has built a
formidable navy and Coast Guard. For this purpose its navy has three
commands, i.e., Western, Eastern and Southern with their
headquarters at Mumbai, Vishakhapatnam and Kochi. Navy has two
fleets, the Western and Eastern comprising ships, air crafts and
submarines. Over the years the country has developed major Naval air
bases at Goa and Arkonnam and other air bases at Visakhapatnam.
To protect its economic and territorial interests in the deep south of
the ocean it has also developed air bases at Port Blair and Car Nicobar
in the Andaman and Nicobar islands. Minor naval establishments are
also strategically located at Chennai, Kolkata, Chilka, Lonavala and
Jamnagar.28

Set up in August 1978, the Indian Coast Guard (ICG) is

entrusted to protect India’s national interests in its maritime zone.
This force keeps regular surveillance of India’s EEZ to prevent
poaching and smuggling. The Coast Guard conducts rescue
operations and protects marine environment etc.29 To augment its
naval strength further, India has launched Project Seabird, which
consists of the Karawar (Karnataka) naval base, an air force station, a
naval armament depot, and missile silos to be realised in next five
years. Kadamba in Karawar is being developed as a naval base to
protect country's Arabian Sea maritime routes. The entire project will
cost 8.13 billion US dollars.30 No other country in the region has such
an impressive and powerful navy. It speaks of India's growing

8
involvement in the ocean to protect its maritime interests and secure
the sea lanes of communication and transportation.

Defence Cooperation

Having one of the most elaborate defence establishment in the

region and effective naval presence, India has extended helping hand
to the friendly countries of the Indian ocean region by training their
defence, para-military and police personnel in various fields. In the
College of Defence Management Secundrabad, these foreign defence
persons attend Campus programmes to learn modern, scientific
management. Training is also given to middle level officers from these
countries at Defence Services Staff College, Wellington. The Military
College of Telecommunication Engineering, Mhow, imparts training in
signals, information technology and communication to the defence
and para military forces. At the Army School of Physical Training
Pune, instructors are trained from the countries like Maldives,
Mauritius, Myanmar and Sri Lanka.31 India also provides assistance
under Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation (ITEC) programme
of Ministry of External Affairs, by providing training to Army
personnel from the countries of Southeast Asia, Africa and
neighouring countries. Similarly National Defence College, New Delhi
trains defence personnels from these countries in Politico-Strategic
Gaming Exercises and Research activities etc.

India has intensified its pace of cooperation with the countries

of Indian Ocean region. After the success of tsunami diplomacy,32 it is
looking forward to evolve new channels of naval diplomacy with these
countries. Joint naval exercises with Malaysia, Singapore,33 Iran are
frequently taking place to transfer naval warfare technology and
training to these countries. Indian warships are making port-calls in
Bangladesh, Myanmar etc. In July 2006, the country handed over a

9
26 ton fast track craft –INS Tilanchang-- to Maldives. By these and
many other such measures India has sufficiently demonstrated its
naval capability and outreach in the Ocean and its littoral. India's
defence exports touched 13 million US dollars topped by the supply of
advanced light helicopter (Dharuv), Lancer attack helicopter and
Dornier transport planes to Mauritius. It has also supplied radars to
Indonesia and Sudan.34

The Economic thrust

During the last sixty years, India has adopted many pronged
strategy towards the Indian Ocean. Its foreign policy of non-alignment
and refusal to be drawn into international military power politics;
opposition to Cold War; contesting the so called "power vacuum"
theory promoted by the West to justify US presence in the Indian
Ocean; efforts to declare Indian Ocean as a peace zone; build up of a
strong navy and offering naval cooperation with the countries of the
region are one aspect of this strategy. On the other hand India has
engaged in varied economic activities like trade, aid and setting up of
joint ventures, business subsidiaries and transfer of technology to
these countries. This growing economic partnership has been widely
recognized by these countries. India's economic interests in the region
are served through trade, commerce and technical assistance.

Trade:

Till independence, India had little trade with the countries of the
region as its economy was bound with and subservient to that of
Great Britain and some Commonwealth Countries. Even after
independence the direction of trade did not immediately shift much to
its neighbourhood but instead to the eastern bloc countries and the
Soviet Union. India’s dominant trade activity in the region till the end

10
of 1970s was oil import from the Persian Gulf region and export of
some foodstuffs to them.35

Over the last few decades India’s foreign trade has undergone a
complete change so far as its direction and composition is concerned.
The exports now cover a wide range of traditional and non-traditional
items and nature of imports has also undergone a change. Till 1990
India’s foreign trade was subject to strict bureaucratic and legal
controls and foreign exchange regulations were tight. It was a trade
deficit economy where imports included capital goods, defence
equipments, petroleum products and raw materials. Exports were
unduly sluggish.

After1991, the government introduced a series of reforms to

liberalise and globalise the foreign trade. Its exports have grown from
Rs. 32,558 crore in 1990-91 to Rs. 2,91,582 crore in 2003-04 and
imports from Rs. 43,193 crore in 1990-91 to Rs. 3,53,976 crore in
2003-04.36

India has emphasized to develop close trade relations with the

countries of the Indian ocean region. The major commodities India
exports include textiles, chemical and related products, engineering
goods, gems and jewelry, petroleum products and agricultural
products etc.37 Indian Exports (by value in crore rupees) to the
countries of Indian Ocean are shown below.

Table – 1

Value of Exports from India to the Countries of Indian Ocean

Region

Country April-Feb. 2007 %share of Exports

South Africa 8,926.28 1.75
Mozambique 770.46 0.15
Tanzania 1,172.18 0.23

11
Kenya 5,367.24 1.05
Ethiopia 473.15 0.09
Djibauti 1,311.40 0.26
Israel 5,358.63 1.05
Jordan 725.02 0.14
Saudi Arabia 10,123.24 1.98
Yemen 4,952.75 0.97
Oman 2,588.84 0.51
UAE 49,090.65 9.62
Qatar 1,305.43 0.26
Bahrain 750.17 0.15
Iraq 856.33 0.17
Iran 6,048.28 1.18
Pakistan 5,481.10 1.07
Bangladesh 6,568.44 1.29
Myanmar 561.59 0.11
Thailand 5,897.36 1.16
Singapore 24,616.62 4.82
Indonesia 8,462.33 1.66
Australia 3,707.92 0.73
Sri Lanka 9,262.88 1.81
Maldives 278.51 0.05
Mauritius 2,957.71 0.58
Madagascar 173.63 0.03
Reunion 84.39 0.02
Seychelles 52.35 0.01
Comoros 22.79 -
Source: System of Foreign Trade Analysis, Dept. of Commerce, govt. of
India. See. www.commerce.nic.in/India_trade.htm

The exports from India indicate that their nature and quantum
has diversified. Almost nil at the time of independence, about one-
third of India’s exports are now directed towards the countries of the
region. Significantly, India exports its goods to all the countries and
island states of the Region.

Major import commodities to India include petroleum, which

constitutes 32.10%, electronic goods 6.86%, gold 7.97%, machinery
7.63% and metal ores and scraps 4.62% of its total imports.38 From

12
Saudi Arabia, emanate 7.62% of Indian imports and 4.68% from
UAE.39 Imports (by value in crore rupees) from the countries of the
region is shown below.

Table – 2

Value of Imports to India from the countries of Indian Ocean

Region

Country April-Feb. 2007 %share of Exports

South Africa 10,530.65 1.43
Mozambique 82.85 0.01
Tanzania 403.15 0.05
Kenya 228.33 0.03
Somalia 79.22 0.01
Ethiopia 48.80 0.01
Djibouti 8.55 -
Israel 4,465.96 0.61
Jordan 2,020.21 0.27
Saudi Arabia 56,140.83 7.62
Yemen 8,360.99 1.13
Oman 1,983.82 0.27
UAE 34,502.82 4.68
Qatar 8,699.83 1.18
Bahrain 1,938.33 0.26
Kuwait 24,479.61 3.32
Iraq 23,065.98 3.13
Iran 30,554.25 4.15
Pakistan 1,390.52 0.19
Bangladesh 931.30 0.13
Myanmar 3,134.39 0.43
Thiland 7,007.94 0.95
Singapore 22,426.71 3.04
Malaysia 21,739.15 2.95
Indonesia 16,586.76 2.25
Australia 28,335.58 3.84
Sri Lanka 1,916.30 0.26
Maldives 12.72 -

13
Mauritius 59.62 0.01
Madagascar 73.92 0.01
Reunion 23.63 -
Seychelles 2.98 -
Comoros 18.38 -
Source: System of Foreign Trade Analysis, Deptt. of Commerce, Govt.
of India. See, www.commerce.nic.in/ftpa/comq.asp.

The import statistics indicate that about 42.23% of India's

imports originate from the Region and from every country of the
Ocean littoral. Apart from trade, various Indian multinationals have
set up their subsidiaries and joint ventures in the countries of the
region.

Indian subsidiaries and joint ventures in the region

India is most developed of the developing countries in the Indian

Ocean. It is now one of the fastest growing economy in the world.
During the early decades after independence its economy was inward
looking and slow moving. Growth rates were very slow in core sectors.
After 1991 its economy started opening up to integrate itself with the
global economy.

First Indian company to set up its business venture abroad was

initiated by TATA in 1961 by setting up a subsidiary and first
industrial venture by Birlas in 1964 in Ethiopia. First joint venture
was initiated in 1970. Till 1991 there were 244 approved Indian joint
ventures abroad. These joint ventures in manufacturing, trading and
service sectors had mainly been concentrated in the countries of
Indian Ocean littoral. By 1991 there were 22 such ventures in
Malaysia, 17 in Thailand, 15 in Sri Lanka, 14 each in Nigeria and
Singapore, 13 in Indonesia, 11 in United Arab Emirates and 10 in
Kenya.40 During the span of eight years (1992-99) the number of joint

14
ventures has substantially increased. In this period alone various
Indian companies set up 5 new joint ventures in Australia, 12 in
Bahrain, 10 in Indonesia, 4 in Kenya, 37 in Malaysia, 10 in Saudi
Arabia, 41 in Singapore, 54 in Sri Lanka and 68 in UAE.41

During the post-liberalisation period the number of Indian

wholly owned subsidiaries (WOS) has also substantially increased. In
1992, the approval to set up such subsidiaries was granted to 28
WOS which reached 143 in 1996 and 238 in 1999. By 2001 India
had about 2,368 business ventures abroad and a large number of
them were concentrated in the Indian Ocean region,42 as shown in the
Table below.

Table – 3
Indian subsidiaries (WOS) in the Indian Ocean region

Country No. upto 1991 No. between Total

1992-99
Australia 1 8 9
Bahrain 1 1 2
Indonesia 1 5 6
Kenya 2 2 4
Malaysia 4 8 12
Mauritius - 81 81
Singapore 6 105 111
Sri Lanka 1 20 21
Thailand 2 - 2
UAE 1 26 27
Sources: Ritu Srivastava and Krishan Kumar, "India Business
Ventures Abroad", op.cit.

Indian Business with other countries indicates that it is more

concentrated in about 11 out of 28 littoral and 7 island states. Mainly
the business has been set up in Southeast Asian countries and the
Persian gulf. Preference has been to set up subsidiaries in the

15
developed countries like UK or USA while joint ventures have found
preference in the developing countries of the Indian Ocean. In the post
liberalisation period, Indian investment abroad has substantially
increased and a lot needs to be done in this regard. These joint
ventures are mutually beneficial for India as well as the host
countries. For example, to augment the supply of fertilizer in the long
run, India intends to establish joint ventures for production of urea in
Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Egypt and Mozambique.43 The share of Indian
Investment in the countries of Indian Ocean has increased due to the
setting up of subsidiaries and joint ventures.

Table – 5

Share of Indian Ocean littoral states in the total Indian

investment abroad (by mode and value of subsidiaries and joint
ventures)

Country Share Country Share

Oman 6.98% Bahrain 0.48%
UAE 5.04% Israel 0.41%
Mauritius 4.06% Jordan 0.40%
Sri Lanka 3.19% Saudi Arabia 0.38%
Singapore 3.18% Egypt 0.28%
Iran 2.96% Tanzania 0.17%
Thailand 1.31% Myanmar 0.16%
Malaysia 0.88% Australia 0.13%
South Africa 0.85% Kuwait 0.11%
Bangladesh 0.66% Maldives 0.02%
Indonesia 0.49% Seychelles 0.02%
Source: Ritu Srivastava and Krishan Kumar, "India Business
Ventures Abroad", op.cit.

Of the total investment the Indian Ocean Countries share

32.16% i.e. about one-third of Indian investment abroad.

16
Aid and assistance

India has also provided aid to build economies and

infrastructure in these countries. For example, in the year 2003-04,
India initiated a "Team Nine" initiative to boost links with African
countries. Indian aid to African countries was Rs. 71.62 crores in
2003-04 which went up to Rs. 104.54 crores in 2004-05.44

India has abiding interest in providing assistance to

developmental projects in the countries of Africa and southeast Asia
and other regions. Overall budget allocation for the purpose was Rs.
3,410 crore in 2003-04 and Rs. 3,640 crore in 2004-05.45 During the
tsunami disaster which killed about 2,30,000 people and hit almost
all the littoral countries, India provided financial aid of Rs. 100 crore
to Sri Lanka, 5 crore to Maldives and provided relief and rehabilitation
packages to Indonesia and Thailand.

Technology transfer

Internationalization of technologies and production are

important to promote global competitiveness. India enjoys a unique
position as an emerging centre and source of science and technology
that could assist in the fulfillment of aspirations of the countries of
the Indian Ocean region. Capable of promoting exports of high value
added products and services, India has established strong
technological and industrial capabilities in several areas which are of
considerable relevance and utility to the countries if the region. India
is exporting its technology, directly or indirectly to these countries by
sending experts and skilled man power to them, establishing joint
ventures, undertaking turn-key projects, licensing of know-how and
providing training. Keeping this in view, the Department of Scientific

17
and Industrial Research has started International Technology Transfer
Programme, which focuses on the activities relating to promotion of
international technology transfer including export of technologies,
services and technology intensive products.46

The activities performed under ITEC programme include,

Building schools in Maldives, teaching unemployed youth in South
Africa (teaching book binding and biscuits making), sharing
experience in dry-farming techniques in Iraq, conducting feasibility
study for the establishment of airline in Malaysia. The ITEC has
recently undertaken different projects like: assistance in the
transformation of education system in South Africa, vocational
training centres for construction sector in Indonesia. It also sends its
experts in these countries, conducts study tours and sends aid for
disaster relief wherever required.47

India has many service providers in technology transfer like

web-designing, software developers, courier services etc.48 Transfer of
technology has a direct link with the economic development. India has
elaborate national policy on development, promotion and transfer of
identified technologies to some of the countries of the Indian Ocean
region.49

Research and exploration in the Indian Ocean

With a large coastline and EEZ, India has immense scope for
exploration and exploitation of the living and non-living resources.
Keeping in view the vastness, complexity and uncertainty of the ocean
environment, Department of Ocean Development (DOD) was created
in 1981 as a nodal and independent department under the direct
charge of the Prime Minister. The DOD organizes, coordinates and
promotes ocean development activities. It has Polymetallic Nodules

18
Programme, Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Management, Ocean
Observation and Information Services and Assessment of the Marine
Living Resources etc. The DOD lays special emphasis to encourage
research in Marine Geology, Geophysics, Marine Biology, Marine
Ecology, Coastal Engineering etc. Since its incepting the department
has supported hundreds of R&D projects in the interdisciplinary field
of Marine Science and Technology. These autonomous institutions
under the DOD Include National institute of Ocean Technology,
Chennai; National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research, Goa; and
Indian National Centre for Indian Ocean Information Services.50

The elaborate network of ocean research and development only

reiterates India’s concern on every aspect of its linkages with the
Indian Ocean. India had ratified the United Nations convention of the
Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) in June 1995 and is a member of almost all
the institutions established under the convention including the
International Seabed Authority.51

As a center of higher education

Indian education system is well recognized the world over. The

country has 354 Universities, about 18 thousands of Colleges, 428
Engineering Colleges and hundreds of Medical Colleges. Indian
Institutes of Technology (IITs), Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs)
and Indian Institutes of Science (IISc) are highly respected institutions
in their fields. India has been attracting students from other countries
in its colleges and Universities. For students from developing
countries of Asia and Africa where facilities for medical education are
inadequate, a limited number of seats are reserved in MBBS and BDS
courses. Ministry of External Affairs has set up a students cell to
coordinate between prospective foreign students and educational
institutions in the country.52

19
 Most of the foreign students join technology, management and
science courses. About 77 percent of them come for graduate courses,
12.45 percent for post-graduate courses and only 1.3% take up for
research. Pune University has the highest number (2,144, in 2004-05)
of foreign students followed by Bangalore University which had 1,966
in the same year. Manipal Academy of higher Education, Mysore
University and Jawaharlal Nehru University are other favoured
destinations for the students from other countries. The United Arab
emirates sends the highest number of students to India which
numbered 1,500 in 2004-05, followed by Iran with 1,120 students.53

Promotion of Indian Culture

Under he aegis of Indian Council of Cultural Relations (ICCR)

India is spreading its culture to the countries of Indian Ocean. It has
cultural exchange programmes with about 70 countries. Indian dance
troups, cultural delegations, singers and musicious visit and perform
in the countries like UAE, Singapore, Malaysia etc. The country has
set up Maulana Azad Centre for Indian Culture in Cairo (Egypt),
Indian Culture Centers in Durban, Johannesberg (South Africa),
Colombo (Sri Lanka) and Kualalumpur (Malaysia). Jawaharlal Nehru
Indian Cultural Centre is an important outpost of Indian Culture at
Jakarta, Indonesia.54

Indian Ocean is very important to India in many ways. It needs

a secure maritime environment to achieve sustained development.
India has a stable political system and a liberal-democratic polity. A
burgeoning economy, technologically advanced in many areas, strong
in naval and defence forces, with a large number of educational
institutions and largest technical manpower in the region, India
stands out as one of the leading countries of the Region. From India’s
broad interaction with the Indian Ocean and its littoral states it can

20
be easily inferred that the Region is its rightful domain which extends
from the Strait of Malacca to the Strait of Hormuz and from the coast
of Africa to the western shores of Australia.

In the fast globalizing world, where India is emerging as

powerful political and economic player, there is need to direct its
foreign policy to the Indian Ocean and its littoral. The region is
starved of development and modernization. Most of the countries of its
littoral have few educational institutions, weak infrastructure, and
virtually no technology of their own. India must step in to fulfill these
decencies and needs. Inspite of various measures, India has taken to
maintain and improve its multifaceted presence in these countries, a
lot needs to be done. That is possible only if India makes Indian ocean
and its littoral as central to its foreign policy and be ready to play a
larger role there for its economic development and to promote
prospects of peace and cooperation in the region.

Foot Notes

1. “It arose of its waters, settled in its present posture by the force
in it, acquired its shape from the ocean, and continues to be
subject to its enternal thrusts”. Chopra, Maharaj K: INDIA AND
THE INDIAN OCEAN, New Delhi, Sterling, p.1

2. The genesis of the Indian Ocean basin is believed to date back to

the Mesozoic Era (225 to 65 million years ago) when the
continent of Gondwanaland in the Southern Hemisphere broke
up into huge blocks (South America, Africa, Australia,
Antarctica, Madagascar and India) that subsequently drifted to
their present positions. See for details, ENCYCLOPAEDIA
BRITANNICA (1974), Vol. 9, p. 310, vol. 5, pp. 108-15.

21
3. During the Mauryan Period, Kautilya mentioned in his book,
Arthashastra, a separate administrative division of the Overseas
Maritime Activities. However, to north India the sea meant very
little. Even the Mughal Empire of Akbar had hardly any navy.
The Mughals never considered the sea important. Inspite of this
attitude, Indian Ocean remained under the exclusive control of
India in the past because of its proximity. In fact India
controlled the Indian Ocean till the middle of the thirteenth
century and no Asian power could challenge Indian supremacy.
See Slukhwal, Bheru L; Geopolitical and Geostrategic
Importance of the Superpower Rivalry in the Indian Ocean",
Asian Profile, Vol. 10, No. 1, February 1982, p. 26-27.

4. This is evident in the military and defence policies of the British

Empire in India all through. See, Kaushik, Devindra: THE
INDIAN OCEAN, A Strategic Dimension, Delhi, Vikas, 1983, p.
84.

5. Ibid.,

6. Pannikar K. M; INDIA AND THE INDIAN OCEAN, London,

George Allen and Unwin, 1945, p. 14 and 82.

7. See, Vaidya, K.B: THE NAVAL DEFENCE OF INDIA, Bombay,

Jhacker, 1947, pp. 91-101.

8. THE GAZETTEER OF INDIA, Country and people 1973, vol. 1,

New Delhi, Publication Division, Ministry of Information and
Broadcasting, p.1. The total length of coastline, including that of
the mainland, Andaman and Nicobar, and Lakshadweep
islands, is 7,516.6 km. See INDIA, A Reference Annual, 1988-
89, Publication Division, Govt. of India, p.1.

9. Ibid., p. 55.

22
10. Chak, B.L: ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS, New Delhi,
Publication Division, 1971, p. 1; also see, THE GAZETTEER OF
INDIA, Indian Union, vol. 1, 1973, op.cit. pp. 62-63.

11. LEXICON UNIVERSAL ENCYCLOPEDIA, New York, Lexicon Pub,

Vol. 1, 1987, p. 400: Vol. 14, p. 183. There are varying figures
regarding the exact number of islands, their total area and the
number of islands which are inhabited. See, INDIA 1988-89, op.
cit., p. 748-49; THE STATESMAN’S YEAR BOOK 1989-90,
London, Macmilan, p. 693-94.

12. Bose Ashish: POPULATION OF INDIA, 1991 Census Results and

Methodology, New Delhi, B.R. Publishers, 1991, pp.60.

13. Nehru, Jawaharlal: INDIA’S FOREIGN POLICY, New Delhi,

Publication Division Government of India, 1967, p. 32.

14. Ibid., p.73.

15. India’s foreign policy since independence till 1964 was

completely dominated by what Nehru thought. As Michael
Brecher points out, “In other state does one man dominate
foreign policy as does Nehru in India. Indeed, so overwhelming
is the influence that India’s policy has come to mean in the
minds of people everywhere the personal policy of Pandit
Nehru". See, NEHRU, A Political Biography, London, 1959, pp.
564-5.

16. Nehru, INDIA’S FOREIGN POLICY, op.cit. p.24.

17. Ibid., p. 79.

18. Martin, Lawrence W (ed): NEUTRALISM AND NONALIGNMENT

New York, Praeger, 1963, p. 28. For a full discussion and

23
 analysis of non-alignment, see, Annals, AAPSS, no. 386,
November 1969.

19. Kaushik, op.cit., pp. 86-87.

20. For gradual expansion of US base at Diego Garcia see, Banerjee,

Brojendra Nath: INDIAN OCEAN, A Whirlpool of Unrest, New
Delhi, Peribus, 1984, pp. 257-280.

21. For Soviet presence in the Indian Ocean, see, Wall, Patrick (ed):
THE INDIAN OCEAN AND THE THREAT TO THE WEST,
London, Stacy International, 1975: Jukes, Geoffrey: THE
INDIAN OCEAN IN SOVIET NAVAL POLICY, London,
International Institute of Strategic Studies, 1972.

22. Kaushik, op.cit., pp. 91-92; Indian and Foreign Review, vol. 7,
No. 17, 15 June 1970, p. 6.

23. See, Joel Larus, “India’s Nonalignment and Super Pawer Naval
Rivalry in the Indian Ocean”, in Bowman, Larry Wand and
Clark, Ian (eds): THE INDIAN OCEAN IN A GLOBAL POLITICS,
Boulder, Westview, 1981, pp. 91-92; Paulose, T T, “Indian
Ocean: Prospects of a Nuclear-Free Peace Zone”, Pacific
Community, Vol. 5, No. 2, 1974, pp. 323-24; Kaushik, op.cit., p.
92.

24. Under the agreement (Concluded 4 July 1955) Britain

transferred the Simonstown naval base to South Africa but
retained over flight rights in South Africa. The base was to
remain available for the British navy and Britain’s allies in
war-time, even in a war in which South Africa itself was neutral.
Britain also supplied warships and other armaments to South
Africa under the agreement. For details see, Keesing’s, 1955-56,

24
 pp. 14294; THE ANNUAL REGISTER OF WORLD EVENTS, a
review of the year 1955 (London) 1956, p. 43.

25. Kaushik, op.cit., p. 92.

26. Ibid., p. 95.

27. Namboodri, P K S (et al): INTERVENTION IN THE INDIAN

OCEAN, New Delhi, ABC Publishing House, 1982, p. 229.

28. INDIA, 2005, Publication Division, government of India, pp. 177-

78.

29. Ibid, pp. 178-79.

30. “India’s Project Seabird and the Indian Ocean’s Balance of

Power,” The Power and Interest News Reports, 25 July 2007.
See, www.pinr.com.

31. See, http://india.gov.in/hindi/sectors/defence4.php

32. On 26th December 2004, tsunami waves hit the coastal areas of
many of the littoral states of the Indian Ocean. About 2,30,000
people were killed. India suffered great losses of life and
property. Showing its resilience and economic vigour, India
refused to accept aid from outside countries. Showing its
strategic interest in the region, India not only sent relief to many
countries but also deployed its naval ships aircraft and
helicopters to help rebuild the infrastructure in these countries.
This was seen as the new picture of India which was ready to
play the role of a regional power. It enhanced its dignity among
the countries of the region. Interview of India’s External Affair
Minister to outlook dated Jan. 17, 2005. See
www.indianembassy. Org.speeches/3.htm.

25
33. “India Singapore to enhance defence cooperation,” Bridge
Singapore, Business News, 15 August 2006, see, www.india-
defence.com.

34. See, http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/ 1015812.

cms.

35. For Indian Ocean Trade, See, Wire, James C, "Access to the
Indian Ocean”, Military Review (Kansas) vol. IX, No. 11,
November 1980, p.65.

36. INDIA, 2005, op.cit., p.135: also see, commerce.nic.in/

indtrade.htm.

37. See table at, www.commerce.nic.in/ftpa/comq.asp.

38. See, Ibid.,

39. Ibid.,

40. Srivastva, Ritu and Kumar, Krishan, “India Business Ventures

abroad”, (IIM Luchnow). See, http://dspace.iimk.ac.in/
bitstream/ 123456789/6811/topic5_kk_ritu.pdf.

41. Ibid.

42. Ibid.

43. Statement by Ram Vilas Paswan, Union Minister of Chemical

and Fertilizers. Press Releases, Ministry of Chemical and
Fertilizers, dated May 23, 2007.

44. THE HINDU, Chennai, 9th July, 2004.

45. Ibid.,

46. INTERNATIONAL TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER PROGRAMME,

Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Ministry of
Science and Technology, Government of India, New Delhi.

26
47. See website of Indian and Economic Cooperation Division,
Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India.

48. Many Software companies from Bangalore and Delhi are offering
various IT solutions world-wide like Pixal Productions, Sap Labs
India, Strand Genomics, United Cad System etc. See,
“Technology Transfer from India”, www.tradeindia.com.

49. Virmani, B.R. and Kala Rao: ECONOMIC RESTRUCTURING,

Technology Transfer and Human Resource Development, 22nd
Edition, New Delhi, Vedams eBook,1999.

50. For details see, “Ocean Development,” INDIA 2005, A Reference

Annual, op.cit., pp. 649-662.

51. Ibid., pp. 659-60.

52. See, THE HINDU, online Edition dated 19th September, 2003 at,
www.hindu.com/2003/09/19/stories.

53. See, The TIMES OF INDIA, at indiatimes.com/articleshow/

7733422.cms.

54. See, www.iccrindia.org.

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