Geographic information systems allow us to represent, investigate and analyse the real world using a computer.

A computer, at the fundamental level, is little more than millions of switches processing electronic signals. To work, a computer relies on the things that it is processing being reduced to a very simple level. Therefore, systems that work with geographic information need to break the geographic information down to very simplified versions of reality so the GIS can work with them. There are two methods by which geographic information is broken down for use in a computer: 1. Physical features and human features are reduced to points, lines and polygons which are linked to information that describes them (their attributes). This method of representing the world around us is called vector 2. Physical features and human features are divided into a regular grid with each cell in the grid holding descriptive information about its contents. This method of representing the world around us is called raster. If you wish to use a geographic information system it is important to understand these two methods of representation:

Representing with vector The key to understanding the vector method is realizing that all shapes, no matter how complicated, can be simplified to a number of very simple tables containing information about the shapes that are linked together. The vector method of representing the real world breaks down the shape component of the geographic information into simple tables of information that a computer can easily work with. It then links the tables together using a database to draw the shapes. The key to understanding how a geographic information system works with the shape component of geographic information is to understand how complex shapes can be reduced to linked tables of information:

Points Points are the simplest shape that can be associated with geographic information. They have zero dimensions and can therefore be located using a simple, single x,y coordinate located relevant to a coordinate system. Points can represent physical features (eg. a telegraph pole) or non-physical features (eg. the location of a road accident). Storing point locations is very simple and requires nothing more than a single table containing

columns for the x and y coordinate locations and ID numbers, one for each point:

Lines Lines are an extremely common form of one-dimensional geographic information. They are used to represent physical features such as roads and railways and contour lines. Storing lines is more complex than storing points because lines change shape when distorted. We already know that distortion is an essential aspect of representing geographic information (eg. via map projections), and it therefore follows that the shape of a line in one map projection might be very different in another. Consequently, geographical information composed of lines cannot be stored by referring to the line shape alone. To get around this problem, lines are stored using the properties that remain invariant of distortion (known as topology). There are only three of these: Start points End points Intersections

All lines must have a start and an end point, irrespective of distortion. Also, two lines that intersect will always intersect no matter how much they are distorted. The locations of these topological properties (called nodes) can be stored as individual coordinate pairs. The nodes can then be connected together with lines (called arcs) composed of ordered coordinate locations that define the line shape (including the locations of the nodes). Storing lines in this way requires a large number of tables of information that are linked together. This, in turn, means that a system for handling large numbers of linked tables of information is required. Commonly such as system is referred to as a database and it common to find a database at the center of large datasets of geographical information. The following example shows how geographic information composed of lines is stored using topology tables. The use of topology means that what appears to be two lines is actually stored as four.

polygons enclose two-dimensional areas. Any geographic information relating to enclosed boundaries or areas is represented using polygons. The sorts of features that polygons represent include the outlines of lakes and reservoirs, the outlines of buildings, country outlines and political boundaries. topology is also used in storing the coordinates that represent polygons because polygons are fundamentally composed of arcs. Below the two polygons (Poly A and Poly B) are composed of three arcs which, in turn, are composed of two nodes and a number of coordinate pairs. As before, the shapes can be reduced to a number of linked tables (a database) that, together, hold all of the information necessary to draw the shapes in a map space

Using topology to build polygons also has the enormous advantage that lines are not doubled up at the point at which two adjacent polygons juxtapose. As for lines, a large number of tables of data are required and so a database is used to organize and manage the data. Representing with raster Physical features and human features can usually be divided into a grid and this is a much more simple way of representing the world around us than using points, lines and polygons. Take the following example of a lake in a park that has been represented by dividing the geographic information into a grid

This is the process of representing the world using raster. raster is an extremely simple method of representing geographic information and, therefore, the computer in a geographic information system is able to work with raster very easily. raster does not require the extensive database of linked tables to store the shapes of the features. The main drawback of raster lies in its representation. Whilst many physical features and human features naturally form points, lines and polygons, very few naturally form a grid pattern. Therefore, raster is limited in the reality with which it can represent geographic information and the detail that the raster data is able to provide is clearly limited by the size of the grid that is used.

Spaghetti data model Among many of the commonly used vector based data structure, the spaghetti data model has the most simple data structure (Aronoff 1989). In the spaghetti data model each entity on a map becomes one logical record in the digital file, and is defined as a string of x, y coordinates. Although all entities are spatially defined, no spatial relationships are encoded. This represents a significant deficiency since, to perform any type of spatial analysis, the spatial relationship between such entities must be derived through computation. But the spaghetti data model can efficiently reproduce maps digitally because information extraneous to the plotting process is not stored (Peuquet 1984). Properties of Spaghetti Data Model v Point is enclosed as single XY co-ordinate pair v Line is encoded as a string of XY co-ordinate pairs v Polygon is encoded as a closed loop of XY co-ordinates that define its boundary. The common boundary between adjacent polygons must be recorded twice, once for each polygon. v The Spaghetti model is a file of spatial data constructed in this manner is essentially a collection of co-ordinate strings with no inherent structure-hence the term spaghetti model. v Although all the spatial features are recorded the spatial relationships between these features are not encoded.

Topological model The topological model is the most widely used method of encoding spatial relationships in a vector based GIS (Peuquet 1984). Topology is that branch of mathematics used to define spatial relationships between entities (ESRI 1992). For example, an area or polygon is defined by a set of lines which makes up its boundaries. In this case the line is the border between two polygons. Each line can represent part of a path connecting such other paths. For example, lines can be used to represent streets and the routes which pass along them. The connectivity or contiguity of these features is referred to as their topology structure (ESRI 1992). By sorting information about the location of a feature relative to other features, topology provides the basis for many kinds of geographic analysis without having access to the absolute locations held in the coordinate files (ESRI 1992). Topology is the mathematical method used to define spatial relationships. The model is termed Arc-Node data model. v Arc the basic logical entity, a series of point that starts and end at a node. v Node is an intersection point where two or more arcs meet. A node can also occur at

the end of a dangling arc i.e. and arc that is not connected to another arc such as the end of a dead-end street. v Polygon is comprised of a closed chain of arcs that represents the boundary of the area. v Point is encoded as a single XY co-ordinate pair. Point is considered as the polygon with no area

5.4.1 Vector data model

In the vector model, objects or conditions in the real world are represented by the points and lines that define their boundaries, much as if they were being drawn on a map (Aronoff 1989). With vector representation, the boundaries or the course of the features are defined by a series of points that, when joined with straight lines, from the graphic representation of those features. The points themselves are encoded with a pair of numbers giving their X, Y coordinates in a real world map projection. The non-spatial attributes of these features are then stored with a conventional database management system. The link between the spatial data file and the attribute data file can be a simple identifier number that is given to each feature in a map (Kam 1993).

5.4.2 Raster data model Raster data models represent geographical space by dividing it in a series of units, each of which is limited and defined by an equal amount of earth's surface. These units are of different shapes, i.e. triangular or hexagonal, but the most commonly used shape is the square, called cell. Cells are interconnected to create plane surfaces representing all the space of a single area of study. The matrix of cells, organized into rows and columns is called a grid. In raster data model the focus is more in location. A raster data model is more like a photograph rather than a map. Geographic features are represented in grid cells or pixels filled with values. In the raster data model, the accuracy of the map depends on the scale of the map, the resolution and, hence, accuracy depends on the real world area represented by each grid cell.

For raster to vector conversion to work you need an image that contains unambiguous shapes. If the image contains a lot of overlapping or touching information, like this one, the shapes become confusing to the raster to vector converter and you will not get a good

conversion. This image is by no means the ghastliest image we have seen, and to be fair parts of the image were better quality than the section shown here. However, it is not only raster to vector conversion that the image is unsuitable for. Just imagine if it was one of the images in your archive and the original drawings had been destroyed. Although the linework can be made sense of by a human being, the text is illegible and has been irretrievably lost. I have not seen the original drawing that this was scanned from, but assuming it was legible and reasonably clean there is every possibility that if it had been scanned at a slightly higher resolution using a good adaptive threshold, the raster image quality would have been fine. I'm hoping that seeing images like this will stress the importance of careful scanning by knowledgable operators, and make companies who pay untrained staff low wages to scan drawings en masse on scanners that are sold on the promise of scanning "400 drawings per hour" think twice.

Digital Terrain Model

Our NEXTMap digital terrain model (DTM) is a bare-earth model that contains elevations of natural terrain features such as barren ridge tops and river valleys. Elevations of vegetation and cultural features, such as buildings and roads, are digitally removed. It provides seamless, wide-area, and current terrain data so you can perform more accurate cross-border geospatial analyses in applications that require a bare-earth model, such as: Contour generation Base, geologic, and topographic mapping

Our NEXTMap terrain model is available in two versions: Hydro-enforced digital terrain model structures over water bodies (such as bridges and culverts) are removed, water surfaces are flat, and watercourses flow downstream making them ideal for water resource and floodplain management applications. Ortho-ready digital terrain model bridge decks and culverts are maintained in the elevation models, and major roads are smooth to accommodate the use of the

terrain model in orthorectification of optical images. Our world-class enterprise workflow allows us to integrate elevation datasets from around the world to provide the best-of-breed digital terrain models with a range of accuracies starting at 1 vertical meter LE90% in unobstructed terrain of low slopes.

TIN data model The Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN) data model is an alternative to the raster and vector data models for representing continuous surfaces. It allows surface models to be generated efficiently to analyze and display terrain and other types of surfaces. The TIN model creates a network of triangles by storing the topological relationships of the triangles. The fundamental building block of the TIN data is the node. Nodes are connected to their nearest neighbors by edges, according to a set of rules. Left-right topology is associated with the edges to identify adjacent triangles. The TIN creates triangles from a set of points called mass points, which always become nodes. The user is not responsible for selecting; all the nodes are added according to a set of rules. Mass points can be located anywhere, the more carefully selected, the more accurate the model of the surface will be. Well-placed mass points occur when there is a major change in the shape of the surface, for example, at the peak of a mountain, the floor of a valley, or at the edge (top and bottom) of cliffs. By connecting points on a valley floor or along the edge of a cliff, a linear break in the surface can be defined. These are called breaklines. Breaklines can control the shape of the surface model. They always form edges of triangles and, generally, cannot be moved. A triangle always has three and only three straight sides, making their representation rather simple. A triangle is assigned a unique identifier that defines by its three nodes and its two or three neighboring triangles

Grid/Lunr/Magi In this model each grid cell is referenced or addressed individually and is associated with identically positioned grid cells in all other coverages, rather than like a vertical column of grid cells, each dealing with a separate theme. Comparisons between coverages are therefore performed on a single column at a time. Soil attributes in one coverage can be compared with vegetation attributes in a second coverage. Each soil grid cell in one coverage can be compared with a vegetation grid cell in the second coverage. The advantage of this data structure is that it facilitates the multiple coverage analysis for single cells. However, this limits the examination of spatial relationships between entire groups or themes in different coverages.

EMBEDDED SYSTEM

Difference between Microprocessor and Microcontroller The major difference between a microprocessor and a microcontroller are their functions. Where a microprocessor has more generalized functions, a microcontroller is more specific to its task. A microprocessor may not also be programmed to handle real-time tasks whereas a microcontroller such as in devices that need to control temperature of water or perhaps measure the temperature of a room require real time monitoring and therefore with its inbuilt set of instructions the microcontroller works on its own. A microprocessor requires constant input by a human such as in a personal computer so that instructions can be boot. A microprocessor is the memory of the computing machine whereas the microcontroller integrates the entire computer in a single chip. Not only does it have the memory embedded in, it also has input and output ports plus peripherals such as timers and converters. All this can be handled with a single touch

Embedded systems in general and microcontrollers in particular are playing a key role in today's industrial automation and remote monitoring era for enhanced productivity and reduced costs. The aim of this paper is to report research at e-Monitoring and eManagement Research Centre (eM2RC) at College of E&ME (NUST) on distributed eMonitoring and e-Management (eM2) using Man-to-Machine, Machine-to Machine (M2M) connectivity for industrial automation. The reported system has successfully been developed, tested and implemented in the local Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) industry to improve Overall Equipment Effectiveness (OEE) resulting in an increased overall system efficiency. The research is based on a combination of hardware and software logic in which the hardware implementation emphasizes the role of embedded systems and M2M connectivity for e-Monitoring and e-Management applications. The e-Information is sent to central server and related technicians/managers/executives for immediate decision making to reduce downtimes and improve quality

In the society, there permanently increases number of people whose occurs the state of health requires relatively frequent medical check or examinations. People, who passed or suffer from specific diseases, the subsequences of which can occur unexpectedly and result in critical health situation, represent the other group. The solution could be the continuous remote monitoring of certain patientspsila functions important for their life with possible providing the help. Under the remote monitoring the sensing of important data about a personpsilas health anywhere they just are and transmission of these data into the technological centre where they will evaluated are understood. The applicability of this idea has a great potential. In addition to the above-mentioned groups this can be also a question of active or recreation sportsmen, rescuers or various special units where it is necessary to know the basic health parameters of a person. In this paper considers non-invasive sensors for monitoring of some physiologic parameters, data transport and their processing, archiving and visualization at a supervising place using computing

equipment (desktop PC, notebook). This methodology was a basis for successive applied research projects that were developed in cooperation with hospitals.

This project is an Interactive Voice Response System based on a personal computer. The data of an institution or firm is stored in a computer as a MySQL database, the worlds most popular open source database.Parents or students can then access and retrieve data from this database just by making a call to a predetermined mobile number. The user should provide the student details like admission number, semester number, exam code etc. when requested by the computer. The computer will then speak back the data requested, using a speech synthesizer. The Block diagram is given below Application Specific Control Circuitry. The advantages of the programmable control paradigm are widely known in the design of synchronous sequential circuits: easy correction of late design errors, easy upgrade of product families to meet time-to-market constraints, and modifications of the control algorithm, even at run time. However, despite the growing interest in asynchronous (selftimed) circuits, programmable asynchronous controllers based on the idea of microprogramming have not been actively pursued. In this paper, we propose an asynchronous microprogrammed control organization (called a microengine) that targets application-specific implementations and emphasizes simplicity, modularity, and high performance. The architecture takes advantage of the natural ability of self-timed circuits to chain actions efficiently without the clock-based scheduling constraints that would be involved in comparable synchronous designs. The result is a general approach to the design of application-specific microengines featuring a programmable data-path topology that offers very compact microcode and high performance-in fact, performance close to that offered by automated hardwired controllers. In performance comparisons of a CDplayer error decoder design, the proposed microengine architecture was 26 times faster than the general purpose hardware of a 280 MIPS microprocessor, over three times as fast as the special purpose hardware of a low-power macromodule based implementation, and even slightly faster than a finite state machine-based implementation

Embedded Systems are compact Embedded System market is cost sensitive. Embedded System are used in Safety Critical Environment like Medical domain, nuclear domain etc. Where as in desktop / Laptops there is enough memory , display screen is also bigger and so many other.

All above mentioned points make embedded system different then desktop system. And linux is the OS which suits to both. Let us find out the main points

Description Today's embedded and real-time systems contain a mix of processor types: off-the-shelf microcontrollers, digital signal processors (DSPs), and custom processors. The decreasing cost of DSPs has made these sophisticated chips very attractive for a number of embedded and real-time applications, including automotive, telecommunications, medical imaging, and many othersincluding even some games and home appliances. However, developing embedded and real-time DSP applications is a complex task influenced by many parameters and issues. This introduction to DSP software development for embedded and real-time developers shows how to use digital signal processors efficiently in embedded and real-time systems. It covers software and firmware design principles, from processor architectures and basic theory to the selection of appropriate languages and basic algorithms. The reader will find practical guidelines, diagrammed techniques, tool descriptions, and code templates for developing and optimizing DSP software and firmware. The book also covers integrating and testing DSP systems as well as managing the DSP development effort. The accompanying CDROM contains the code from the design examples as well as design tools and product demos.