1.

Signal and Production of Signal

A signal is time-varying or spatialvarying quantities such as voltage and current. It can be in two forms: a direct current which is either on or off, or an alternating current which can be used as carrier. It also refers to the electric current or electromagnetic field use to transmit data from one place to another. Data is applied to a carrier current or wave by means of a process called modulation. Signal modulation can be done in two ways: analog or digital, depending on what type of data is being transmitted or what means of communication is being done. Analog and digital signals will be described later in the next section. In reality, signal is produced by any quantity measurable through time or over space. Machine data or any set of human information can produce such quantities. Information being produced by these systems, specifically its input and output can be taken as simple quantities measurable through time or across space which is then represented by signals. Signals are used to facilitate the transmission, storage, and manipulation of information.

with no breaks or interruptions. Take this as an example: If you were to hum a descending note, people hearing you would be able to detect the change in pitch, but not point to specific moments when the pitch jumped from one note to the next. Digital signal (Figure 1b) refers to more than one concept. It can be considered as a signal that is generated by means of a digital modulation method which is considered as converted to an analog signal, when it refers to discrete-time signals that have a discrete number of levels, for example a sampled and quantified analog signal furthermore; it can be considered as a digital signal when it refers to the continuous-time waveform signals in a digital system, representing a bit-stream. In general, it uses specific values to represent information. Take this as an example: In the case of sound, that means representing a sound wave as a series of values that represent pitch and volume over the length of the recording. In a primitive digital recording of that descending note you hummed, you'd hear a single long sound as a collection of shorter sounds.

2. Analog and Digital Signals

The objective of this section is to show the difference between analog and digital signals by pointing out each characteristic as follows: Analog signal (Figure 1a) is a continuous signal. Its time varying characteristics (termed as variable) is used to represent another time varying quantity. It is a signal

Figure 1a. Analog Signal

Signal analysis is the mathematical analysis of the bandwidth, frequency and voltage level of a signal. Electrical signals are voltage or current time variations, It is represented by a series of sine and cosine waves. Mathematically. Voltage and current waveform is: Figure 1b. Digital Signal
v(t) = V sin(2t + ) or v(t)= V cos(2t + ) Voltage i(t) = I sin(2t + ) or i(t)= I cos(2t + ) Current

3. Signal Analysis
In every system designs in electronic communications, the most important step is to study every detail and anticipate the output performance of the circuit based on the existing voltage distribution and frequency composition of information signal. This is what we called SIGNAL ANALYSIS. We all know that not all of the signals in electronic communications systems are single- frequency sine and cosine wave, many of them are signals that are not can often be represented in compounds of sine and cosine waves.

Sine and cosine function is used to represent a signal that is pure arbitrary and depends on which is chosen as the reference. It should be noted that sin = cos(-90). Therefore,
v(t) = V sin(2t + ) = V cos(2t + - 90) v(t) = V cos(2t + ) = V sin(2t + + 90)

SINUSOIDAL SIGNALS
Sinusoidal signals, based on sine and cosine functions, are the most important signals you will deal with. They are important because virtually every other signal can be thought of as being composed of many different sine and cosine signals. They form the basis for many other things you will do in signal processing and information transmission. Eventually you will deal with signals as different as voice signals, radar signals, measurement signals and entertainment signals like those found in television and radio. Sinusoidal signals are the starting point for almost all work in signal processing and information transmission.

Periodic waveform is repetitive waveform because it repeats at a uniform rate, which means that every complete cycle of the signal takes equal or the same length and amplitude and the same shape. Periodic waves can be analyze through Time domain or the frequency domain. It is important that when analyzing systems performance to switch from time domain to frequency domain or frequency domain to time domain.

3.1. Time Domain

Time Domain Representation is the description of a signal with respect to time. The display in our TV or in CRT (cathode ray tube) is am amplitude vs time representation it also called signal waveform. An example instrument of time domain is an standard oscilloscope. Signal waveform is not directly indicate the frequency content but it shows the shape and instantaneous magnitude of signal with respect to time. The figure below shows an

example of time domain representation of a single frequency sine wave.

4. Fourier Series
In mathematics, a Fourier series decomposes any periodic function or periodic signal into the sum of a (possibly infinite) set of simple oscillating functions, namely sines and cosines. The study of Fourier series is a branch of Fourier analysis. Fourier series is named in honor of Joseph Fourier (1768-1830), who made important contributions to the study of trigonometric series, after preliminary investigations by Leonhard Euler, Jean le Rond d Alembert, and Daniel Bernoulli. He applied this technique to find the solution of the heat equation, publishing his initial results in his 1807 Mmoire sur la propagation de la chaleur dans les corps solides and 1811, and publishing his Thorie analytique de la chaleur in 1822.

Figure 2. Time Domain Representation

3.2. Frequency Domain

Frequency Domain Representation is the description of a signal with respect to its frequency. In time domain it plots the amplitude vs time, while in frequency domain it plots the amplitude vs frequency. This type of plotting is called Frequency Spectrum. Spectrum Analyzer is one example of frequency domain instrument. In Spectrum analyzer the horizontal axis represents the frequency while the vertical axis is the amplitude. So, the frequency domain representation of a wave does not necessarily indicate the shape of the waveform or the combined amplitude of all the input components but it shows the frequency content unlike the time domain. The figure below is an example of frequency domain representation.

Revolutionary Article

Multiplying both sides by , and then integrating from y = 1 to y = + 1 yields:

- Jospeh Fourier, Mmoire sur la propagation de la chaleur dans les corps solides (1807) In these few lines, which are close to the modern formalism used in Fourier series, revolutionized both mathematics and physics. The attempts over many years to clarify this idea have led to important discoveries in the theory of convergence, function spaces, and harmonic analysis.

Figure 3: Frequency Domain Representation

Birth of Harmonic Analysis

Since Fouriers time, many different approaches to defining and understanding the concept of Fourier series have been discovered, all of which are consistent with one another, but each of which emphasizes different aspects of the topic. Fourier originally defined the Fourier series for realvalued functions of real arguments, and using the sine and cosine functions as the basis set for the decomposition. Many other Fourier-related transforms have since been defined, extending the initial idea to other applications. This general area of inquiry is now called harmonic analysis. A Fourier series, however, can be used only for periodic functions. 5. Difference between

The clear distinction between the two is: DFT refers to a mathematical transformation or function, regardless of how it is computed, whereas FFT refers to a specific family of algorithms for computing DFTs. Operation using DFT is useful in many fields, but computing it directly, from the definition is often too slow to be practical. FFT is a way to compute the same result more quickly. Such example is: computing a DFT of N points in naive way, takes O(N) arithmetical operations, while an FFT can compute the same result in only O(N log N) operations. The difference in speed can be substantial, especially for long data sets where N may be in the thousands or millionsin practice, the computation time can be reduced by several orders of magnitude in such cases, and the improvement is roughly proportional to N log (N). This huge improvement made many DFT based algorithms practical; FFTs are of great importance to a wide variety of applications, from digital signal processing and solving partial differential equations to algorithms for quick multiplication of large integers.

Discrete Fourier series and Fast Fourier series

Discrete Fourier series is a specific kind of Fourier series, used in Fourier analysis. It transforms one function into another, which is called the frequency domain representation, or simply DFT, of the original function. DFT requires an input function that is discrete and whose non-zero values have a limited duration. Such inputs are often created by sampling a continuous function, like a persons voice. A Fast Fourier series (FFT) is an efficient algorithm to compute the Discrete Fourier series (DFT) and its inverse. FFT algorithms are commonly employed to compute DFTs. There are many distinct FFT algorithms involving a wide range of mathematics, from simple complex-number arithmetic to group theory and number theory.