Exp 6

Generator Chracteristics The three most important characteristics or curves of a d.c generator are 1. No-load saturation characteristic (E0/If) It is also know as Magnetic characteristic or Open circuit Characteristic (O.C.C). It shows the reation between the no-load generated e.m.f in armature, E0 and the field or exciting current If at a given fixed speed. It is just te magnetisation curve for the material of the electromagnets.Its shape is practically the same for all generators whether separately-excited or self-excited. A typical no load saturation curve is shown in Figure.It has generator output voltage plotted against field current.The lower straight line portion of the curve represents the air gap because the magnetic parts are not saturated. When the magnetic parts start to saturate, the curve bends over until complete saturation is reached. Then the curve becomes a straight line again. Separately-excited Generator The No-load saturation curve of a separately excited generator will be as shown in the above figure.It is obvous that when If is increased from its initial small value, the flux and hence generated e.m.f Eg increase irectly as curent so long as the poles are unsaturated.This is represented by straight portion in figure.But as the flux denity increases,the poles become saturated, so a greater increase If is required to produce a given increase in voltage than on the lower part of the curve.That is why the upper portion of the curve bends. Self-excited Generator (Series or Shunt ) The O.C.C curve for self-excited generators whether shunt or series wound is shown in above figure.Due to the residal magnetism in the poles, some e.m.f (=OA) is gnerated even when If =0.Hence, the curve starts a little way up.The slight curvature at the lower end is due to magnetic inertia.It is seen that the first part of the curve is practically straight.This is due to fact that at low flux densities reluctance of iron path being negligible,total reluctance is given by the air gap reluctance which is constant.Hence,the flux and consequently,the generated e.m.f is directly proportional to the exciting current.However, at high flux densities, where is small,iron path reluctance becomes appreciable and straight relation between E and If no longer holds good.In other words,after point B, saturation of pole starts.However, the initial slope of the curve is determined by air-gap width.O.C.C for higher speed would lie above this curve and for lower speed,would lie below it. Compound-wound Generator If the series field amp-turns are such as to produce the same voltage at rate load as at no load.then th generator is flat-compounded. It should be noted, however, that even in the case of a flat-cmpounded generator, the voltage is not constant form no load to rated load. At half load, the voltage is actually greater than the rated voltage as seen from figure. If the series field amp-turns are such that the rated voltage is greater than the no-load voltage, then generator is over-compounded.If rated voltage is less than the no -load voltage, then the generator is under-compound.

Exp 7
A generator produces direct current (DC) electricity through electromagnetic induction. A wire-wound shaft is turned in a magnetic field, causing electricity to flow on the wire to positive and negative output terminals. The electricity must be fed to a device that draws power, called a load. A load is any device, such as a light bulb or a refrigerator, that uses electricity. The generator's output changes as load changes. In practice, the output of a generator is regulated by regulating load. How a generator responds to load changes depends on how the generator is configured. 2.3.2 Load Characteristics The load characteristic of a dc generator at a particular speed is the relationship between armature voltage of the generator and its load current at that speed. It is called the external characteristic if the plot is between the terminal voltage vs load current and the internal characteristic if the plot is between the generated emf vs load current. In a separately excited dc generator, the field current is independent of armature conditions. At constant field current and constant speed, the terminal voltage in this case drops off somewhat asload current increases because of the increased armature resistance drop and reduction in fluxdue to armature reaction Shunt-Wound Load Characteristics A shunt-wound generator is wired differently than a series-wound generator, and its voltage output performs in an opposite way: As the load increases, the voltage output decreases. For example, a generator is feeding 3 volts to a light bulb. If a second light bulb in the circuit is turned on, the generator's voltage output drops to 1 volt. While the voltage is more constant than that of a series-wound generator, it is still far from ideal. The voltage output has to be constant under various load conditions. To regulate the output, again a ballast load is used to compensate for varying load conditions. Because the voltage of this kind of generator also is also difficult to control, a shunt-wound generator is seldom used.

Exp 8
The Motor Principle: when a current-carrying conductor is located in an external magnetic field perpendicular to the conductor, the conductor experiences a force perpendicular to itself and to the external magnetic field. The right-hand rule for force on a conductor can be used to determine the direction of the force experienced on the conductor: if the right thumb points in the direction of the current in the conductor and the fingers of the right hand point in the direction of the external magnetic field, then the force on the conductor is directed outward from the

palm of the right hand. The motor principle is used to form a precise definition of ampere. 1 ampere is the amount of current flowing through two straight parallel conductors 1 meter apart in a vacuum which produces a force 2 10-7 newtons per meter of conductor. Analog electric meters (i.e., galvanometers, ammeters, voltmeters) operate on the motor principle. Electric motors are an important application of the motor principle. An electric motor consists of a permanent external field magnet (stator) and a coiled conducting ammeter (rotor) which is free to rotate within the field magnet. Brushes and a commutator (designed differently if A.C. or D.C. current is supplied to the armature) connect the armature to an external voltage source. The speed of rotation of a motor depends on the amount of current flowing through it, the number of coils on the armature, the strength of the field magnet, the permeability of the armature, and the mechanical load connected to the shaft. MOTOR BASIC PRINCIPLES Energy Conversion As stated above, mechanical energy is changed into electrical energy by movement of conductor through a magnetic field. The converse of this is also true. If electrical energy is supplied to a conductor lying normal to a magnetic field, resulting in current flow in the conductor, a mechanical force and thus mechanical energy will be produced. Producing Mechanical Force As in the generator, the motor has a definite relationship between the direction of the magnetic flux, the direction of motion of the conductor or force, and the direction of the applied voltage or current. Since the motor is the reverse of the generator, Fleming's left hand rule can be used. If the thumb and first two fingers of the left hand are extended at right angles to one another, the thumb will indicate the direction of motion, the forefinger will indicate the direction of the magnetic field, and the middle finger will indicate the direction of current. In either the motor or generator, if the directions of any two factors are known, the third can be easily determined. Value of Mechanical Force The force exerted upon a current carrying conductor is dependent upon the density of the magnetic field, the length of conductor, and the value of current flowing in the conductor. Assuming that the conductor is located at right angles to the magnetic field, the force developed can be expressed as follows: F = (B I) / 10 where: F = force in dynes B = flux density in lines per square centimeter = length of the conductor in centimeters I = current in amperes. At the same time torque is being produced, the conductors are moving in a magnetic field and generating a voltage. This voltage is in opposition to the voltage that causes current flow through the conductor and is referred to as a countervoltage or back EMF. The value of current flowing through the armature is dependent upon the difference between the applied voltage and the countervoltage.