Synopsisofthinkers

Compiledbymembersofarcreports_resource

High aspire Himanshu Palak Arvind Selvin Rahul Kumar Anand Kiran Duce online Arun Kartika Sachin Bharath Pushpa Sanjeev

George Elton Mayo

George Elton Mayo is considered as one of the pioneers of the human relations approach to organisation. His main hypothesis is that relations between employers and employees should be humanistic, not mechanistic. Employees and workers deserve to be treated as individuals with dignity and self-respect rather than as factors of production or interchangeable elements of the production system. He looked upon industrial organisations as psychosocial systems with primary emphasis on human resources, their behaviour and welfare, needs and satisfactions, interactions and co-operation. He focussed his attention on the behaviour of the workers and their production capacity keeping in view physical, economic and psychological aspects.

First Enquiry: Problem:

The employees of the textile mill were provided with all facilities, by the management, which was highly enlightened and humane. The mill was considered to be a model organisation. The general labour turnover (absenteeism) in all the departments was estimated to be approximately 5 per cent per annum while in the mulespinning department the turnover was approximately 250 per cent. To cope up with this problem of high labour turnover, a number of incentives were provided to the employees in this department. Despite incentives, the labour turnover did not come down. Solution: Mayo diagnosed the problem as one of lack of adequate rest which was causing fatigue to the workers. He introduced rest periods. The scheme motivated the workers and the labour turnover almost came to an end. In addition, the production rose and the morale of the workers also improved.

 Encouraged by results, Mayo suggested a new formula to earn bonus under this scheme, if the workers were to produce more than a certain percentage, they would earn bonus proportionate to their extra production. One of the important decisions the Management took was that control of rest periods was placed squarely in the hands of workers. This led to consultations among the workers. Social interaction was set in motion. The Rabble Hypothesis was negated.

Hawthorne Studies (1924-32):

The Hawthrone studies formed the basis for the rise of Human Relations theory, which shook the foundations of Classical approach. These studies were conducted in the Western Electric Company at Hawthrone. The studies included the following four experiments:

1. Great Illumination Experiment (1924-27):

Aim: To determine the effect of different levels of illumination on workers productivity. Procedure: Parallel observation of two groups of operatives, one a test group and the other control group, engaged in a task related to the production of electrical equipment took part in these tests. The study was designed to examine the level of production on the basis of varying levels of illumination. The control group remained with constant illumination of the level, Where as, in the test groups room, experimental changes were introduced periodically. The researchers observed the groups and kept accurate records of production over a period of two years. Regardless of the level of illumination, production in both the control and experimental groups increased

Illumination hypothesis was rejected. They began manipulating wage payments, rest periods, duration of working hours. Instead of group incentives plan, an individual piece rate plan and provision of refreshments were introduced. All yielded a further rise in production. The individual wage payment incentive had stimulated increase in the output. (First hypothesis) All the above mentioned privileges were with-drawn and returned to the conditions prevailing at the beginning of these experiments. For a while the output fell a little, but soon it rose to a point higher then at any other time. Mayo felt that the test room girls became a social unit and because of the increased attention of the research team to them, the unit developed a sense of participation in the project. The changes in supervisory techniques had improved the attitudes and output. (Second hypothesis)

2. Relay Assembly Test Room Experiment (1927):

Aim: To test the above two hypotheses from illumination experiment. Procedure: Two new groups were formed and placed in a special test room. Stage-I: The first group were placed on an individual incentive plan on a piecework basis. Initially the total output went up and after sometime it remained constant. The second group, although they were placed on individual incentive plan, was experimented with variations in rest periods and duration of work. Changes in the output were recorded. In this group there was an average rise of output in the production over a period of 14 months.

The first hypothesis was not confirmed since it was not wages, but something else that led to greater output in the both groups. Stage-II: To test the second hypothesis, the following changes were made: Atmosphere was made more friendly and congenial and the members were allowed to freely meet their fellow workers. Democratic oriented supervisors Before any change or move, the workers were consulted and advised about changes, their suggestions were also considered sympathetically The production increased when work groups felt that they were important and their efforts were meaningful. Mayo felt that work satisfaction depends to a large extent on the informal social pattern of the working group. He said that change in the style of supervision improved the morale of worker, which in turn increased production. This link between supervision, morale and productivity became the corner stone of the human relations

3. Mass Interviewing Programme (1928-31):

Aim: To explore the employees feeling (i.e. human attitudes and sentiments) by talking to them. Procedure: The workers were given an opportunity to come out and express freely and frankly about their likes and dislikes on the programmes and policies of the management, working conditions, how they were treated by their boss, etc. Although no reforms were introduced, the workers thought that in view of their complaints the working conditions were improved. They also felt that the wages were better although the wage scale remained at the same level.

It appeared that there was an opportunity to let off steam which made the workers feel better even though there was no material change in the environment (Ventilation theory).

4. Bank Wiring Experiment (1931-32):

Aim: To observe how the group norms affected each members output. Procedure: In this experiment, wages were paid on the basis of a group incentive plan, and each member got his share on the basis of the total output of the group. The research team found that the workers evolved its own norm of standard output, which was lower than the management target. The group, according to its standard plan, did not allow its members to increase or decrease the output. The work group developed a highly integrated social structure and used informal pressure to set right the deviant members. The following code of conduct was maintained for their group solidarity: One should not turn out too much work (rate buster) One should not turn out too little work (chesler) One should not tell a supervisor anything negative about an associate. (squealer) One should not attempt to maintain social distance or act officious. Informal leadership emerged and set informal norms of behavior which restricted the output. This informal leadership was more powerful than the formal leadership. Harmony between the informal social system and the formal organisation is the key concept in Mayos approach to human relations.

Summary: The Findings of Hawthrone experiments can be summarized as below: 1. The experiments led to the discovery of the informal organisation and to the inference that the social and psychological factors at work place are the major determinants of workers satisfaction and organisational output. 2. Non-economic factors, i.e. social rewards and sanctions are significant determinants of workers motivation and their level of job satisfaction than the economic factors. 3. Workers are basically social beings and they must first be understood as people if they are to be understood as organisation members. 4. The workers have a tendency to form small social groups (informal organizations). The production norms and behavioral patterns are set by such groups. 5. Leadership, style of supervision, communication and participation play a central role in workers behavior, satisfaction and productivity. Criticism:
1. 2. 3. Sweeping conclusions were drawn from relatively few studies, which critics considered were full of pitfalls. Peter Druker criticized human relationists for their lack of awareness of economic dimension. Critics argue that Mayos philosophy has no place for conflict and tensions, which are inevitable in every human society.

4. The discipline of the boss is replaced by discipline of the group forcing the individual to sacrifice his personal values.

1 INTRODUCTION; GULICK and URWICK edited THE PAPERS ON THE SCIENCE OF ADMINISTRATION (1937) they synthesized and integrated the ideas, writings and researches of earlier theorists on organisations, structures and executive functions. Various sources: Gulick and urwick had rich experience in the working of the civil service, military and industrial organisations. They borrowed concepts like Line and staff - military organisations. Machine model of man - Taylor. Industrial management - Henry fayol The two thinkers synthesized the classical theory of organisation or the administration management theory Science of administration. They believed that it is possible to develop a science of administration based on principles of administration. It was only, through empirical observations, analyses and systematised findings committed to recording and documentation over a considerable period, a science of administration can be possible. STRUCTURE OF ADMINISTRATION URWICK remarks that, it is impossible for humanity to advance its knowledge of organisation unless the factor on structure is isolated from other considerations, however artificial such isolation may appear. They Traces chaos and confusion in society - , because faulty structural arrangements in organisations. Defined organisation as determining activities that are necessary for a purpose and arranging them in groups, which may be assigned to individuals.

2 Task and Grouping top priority in organisation Individuals - comes later in organisation URWICK Urwick assume it as clean slate, design an ideal structure of organisation, any alteration made later Organisation -chiefly as a designing process, urwick felt that lack of design is illogical, cruel, wasteful and inefficient. Illogical appointing person without idea of position Cruel does not know qualification of the person Wasteful functional specialisation is not possible Inefficient supervisors have nothing to fall back except on personalities in the event of conflict PRINCIPLES GULICK enumerates ten principles of organisation. influenced by fayol 14 basic elements of administration 1. Division of work or specialisation 2. Bases of departmental organisation 3. Coordination through organisation 4. Deliberate coordination 5. Coordination through committees decentralisation 6. Unity of command 7. Staff and line 8. Delegation 9. Span of control 10. Decentralisation Special emphasis on division of work Basis of organisation , indeed the reason for organisation Central tenet

3 Job- broken into its components- component functions be broken simple repetitive activities Focus grouping the various activities into subunits, collecting subunits together to form units and inter relating the units to create the overhead organisation gulick says that division of work and integration are the bootstraps by which mankind lifts in the process of civilisation. Urwick identified eight principles of organisation 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Principle of objectives Principle of correspondence Principle of responbility Scalar principle Principle of the span of control Principle of specialization Principle of coordination Principle of definition

Later by integrating fayols 14 principles, mooney and reileys principles of process and effect, Taylors principle of management and the ideas of follet and graicunas, urwick derived 29 principles 1. Investigation 2. Forecasting 3. Planning 4. Appropriateness 5. Organisation 6. Coordination 7. Order 8. Command 9. Control 10. The coordinative principle 11. Authority 12. Scalar process 13. Assignment of functions

4 14. Leadership 15. Delegation 16. Functional definition 17. Determinative 18. Applicative 19. Interpretative 20. General interest 21. Centralization 22. Staffing 23. Spirit 24. Selection and placement 25. Rewards and sanctions 26. Initiative 27. Equity 28. Discipline 29. Stability Executive functions Gulick identified the executive function and coined the acronym POSDCORB 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. P- planning O organisation S staffing D directing Co- cooperating R reporting B- budgeting

Theory of departmentalisation Four bases 1. 2. 3. 4. Purposes(function) Process Persons(clientele) Place

5 Known as 4ps Single executive Did not favour organisation headed by plural bodies like committees, but insisted on single top executive. Felt that committee encourage irresponsibility , used to shield mistakes and to avoid responsibility To him committee is like a corporation without soul to be damned or a body to be kicked Committee mechanism is inevitably slow, cumbersome, wasteful, and ineffective Staff principle principle of staff is born out of the principle of unity of leadership all authority rests with leader, he requires staff to run organisation staffs both general and special objective of staff agencies authority of ideas general staff assist the executive in the tasks of command ex American presidential staff

Delegation Stressed the need for the administrators to keep the requisite authority with them and delegate the rest to their subordinates In absence of delegation , subordinate cannot act Organisation do not function efficiently, if executives do not have the enterprise to delegate and also do not know how to delegate Authority and responsibility must be co-terminus, co equal, and defined principle of correspondence Span of control Cannot effectively control more number of subordinates, at a time

6 Urwick observes number of subordinates increases in arithmetic progression, there is a simultaneous geometrical growth in the permutation and combinations of the relationship requiring the superior attentions Gulick gives three factors of span of control First , span depends on each individual supervisor Secondly, span depends on kind of work Thirdly, element of time span will be more in stable organisation Human factor and time Gulick notes that after all governments are constituted of human beings, are run by human beings and have as their main job helping, controlling and serving human beings Gulick observes that the main function of state should be human welfare, survival and improvement to meet challenges of ever changing environment and not war Gulick emphasises the needs to introduce greater decentralisation in place of the present centralised , hierarchical, military structure Public administration must abandon the non existent economic man and consider human welfare and compassion Gulick emphasised on time as a crucial factor in every event Without time there is no cause, effect, change In democracy timing is hallmark of statecraft Gulick identifies five different aspects of time namely 1. Time as an input 2. Time as an output 3. Time as the flow of events 4. Time as gap between two or more significant events or processes 5. Timing as management policy A critical evaluation While writing about principles, they are not made it clear as to what they meant by them. Normally principles are subject to universal truth subject to verification

7 Bertram gross noted that Simon will long be reread with pleasure for his free- swinging attacks on gulick and urwick principles as homely proverbs, myths, slogans, inanities. Simon says that it is a fatal defect of the current principles of administration that, like proverbs, they occur in pairs. For almost every principle one can find an equally plausible and acceptable contradictory principle Although the two principles of the fair will lead to exactly opposite organisational recommendations, there is nothing in the theory to indicate which the proper one to apply Another contradictory span of control Bases of departmental organisation are criticized on the basis that they are incompatible with each other. There is an overlap between them and they are said to be vague. This theory is criticized for its neglect of the human element in an organisation In spite of the varied criticisms, gulick and urwick ideas and conceptualisations stand out prominently in the literature of public administration. No textbook on public administration is complete without a discussion of these principles. The simple truths underlying the propositions stated as principles by the classical thinkers cannot be denied.

HenryFayol
INTRODUCTION
FayolisconsideredfatherofManagementProcessSchool OneoftheEarliesttopropoundUniversalPrinciples AnalyzedadministrationfromManagersViewPoint. OutstandingbookisGeneralandIndustrialManagement

AdministrationisUniversal
Wordadministrationembracesnotonlythepublicservicebutenterprisesofeverysizeand description,ofeveryformandeverypurpose. AllOrganisationsrequirePlanning,Organise,Coordination,Control,Command(POCCC)to functionproperlyandmustobservethesamegeneralprinciples. AdministrationisUNIVERSAL. Wearenolongerconfrontedwithseveraladministrativesciences,butwithonewhichcanbe appliedequallywelltoPUBLICandPRIVATEaffairs.

ActivitiesofanIndustrialUndertaking
ManagementPlaysaimportantroleintheGovernmentofundertakings. TotalityofactivitiesofanIndustrialUndertakingcanbedividedintofollowingsixgroups. TechnicalActivities(Production,Manufacture,Adaptation) CommercialActivities(Buying,Selling,Exchange) FinancialActivities(SearchforandOptimumuseofcapital) SecurityActivities(ProtectionofPropertyandPersons) AccountingActivities(Stocktaking,balancesheets,costs,statistics) ManagerialActivities(Planning,Organisation,Command,Coordinationand Control)

 ForFayol,ManagementisaFunction,akindofActivity HeisConcernedwiththefunction,notwiththestatusofthosewhoexerciseit.

ElementsofAdministration
1.Planning EffectiveInstrumentisPlanofaction Unity,Continuity,FlexibilityandPrecisionarebroadfeaturesofagoodplan. 2.Organisation ToprovideanIndustrialfirmorGovernmentAgencywitheverythingrequiredfor functioning Activitiesinto2categories1.TheMaterialOrganisationand2.TheHuman Organisation. 3.Command ArtofCommandrestswithcertainPersonalqualitiesandknowledgeofgeneral principlesormanagement. 4.Coordination WorkingTogetherandharmonizingallactivityandeffortssoastofacilitatethe workingoftheorganization. 5.Control ObtainConformitywiththePlanadopted,theinstructionsissuedandprinciples established. FayolsuggeststhatManagersshouldhavethefollowingattributes 1. PhysicalHealth,VigourandExperience 2. MentalAbilitytounderstand,judge,mentalvigourandcapability 3. Moralfirmnessandwillingnesstoacceptresponsibility

4. GeneralEducationAcquaintancewithmattersnotbelongingexclusivelytothefunction performed 5. SpecialKnowledgeSpecialKnowledgeoffunctionbeinghandled 6. ExperienceKnowledgearisingfromworkproper. FayolSaysManagementPrinciplesareNOTRIGID FayolDerives14principles DivisionofWorkSpecializationoflabourproducesmoreandbetterworkwithsame effort. AuthorityandResponsibilityAuthorityshouldbecommensuratewithResponsibility. Moreauthorityforeveryincreasingresponsibility DisciplineObedienceamongfirmanditsemployees UnityofCommandEmployeesshouldhaveonlyoneboss UnityofDirectionOneheadandonePlanforeachactivity SubordinationofIndividualInteresttogroupinterestInterestofoneEmployee shouldntprevailoverthatoftotalorganization RemunerationofPersonnelRemunerationpaidshouldbefairandaffordsatisfaction tobothpersonnelandthefirm CentralizationDegreeofinitiativevariesdependingupontopmanagers,subordinates andbusinessconditions ScalarChain(Hierarchy)LineofAuthorityofsuperiorsrangingfromultimateauthority tothelowestranks. Order(Placement)Employeeoccupiesthejobwherehecanrendermosteffective service EquityEquitybasedonKindlinessandjusticeinemployeremployeerelations StabilityofTenureofPersonnelSuitableconditionstominimizeturnoverof employees InitiativeAbilitytothinkfresh EspritDeCorpsHarmony,Unionamongthepersonnelofanorganizationisasource ofgreatstrengthinthatorganization.

AdministrativeTraining
GangPlankLevelJumpinginaHierarchialOrganization. LessRelevantinOrganizationswherethelinesofauthorityarelessclearerthanprivateorganizations. FayolSuggestsSystematictraininginadministration EveryoneneedsAdministrationandthereshouldbegeneralizedteachingofadministration TrainingisaContinuousprocess. EverySuperiorofficerinaorganizationasateachertohissubordinates

ComparisonbetweenFayolandTaylor
BothofthemarepioneersinScientificManagement Botharescientistsbeforetheybecamemanagers AttemptedtobuildManagementTheorybasedontheirobservationofpractical issues. TaylorDevelopedPrinciplesusedinproduction FayolDealtwithGeneraltheoryofadministrationtobeappliedtotop managementlevel IdeasonManagementindicatetheneedtoarrangeprocesses,material, resourcesandpeopleintostructuralhierarchyissame.

CriticismsofFayol
FayolNeglectedStructuralAspectwhiledealingwithFunctionalClassification FourteenPrincipleshasgreatdealofoverlapping Cannotbeappliedtoallorganizations(principlesarederivedfrommanufacturingorganization) Contemporaryorganizationsaremuchmorecomplex. PrincipleofUnityofcommandwouldoverwhelmthechiefexecutivewithproblemsof coordination

FayolscontributiontoAdministrativeTheory
UniqueDistinctionofattemptingtobuildauniversalscienceofmanagementapplicable tocommerce,industry,politicsetc Presentationandapplicationofsimplemethodsinalogicalandcoherentmanner TriedtodesignaRationalSystemofOrganisation ConceptofViewingManagementasbeingmadeupoffunctions. MostWidelyusedprincipleisUnityofDirectionandUnityofCommand Responsibilityshouldbeequaltoauthorityandviceversa MaxWeberConsideredChainofCommandtobeextremelyimportantinformal organization. GrossPointsoutPersonnelisforFayoltheessenceoforganization. Thoughhisprinciplesarecriticizedforevolvingthemfrompersonalexperience,theyhavearolein buildinggeneraltheoryofadministration. FayolhasanenduringplaceasoneoftheEarliestTheoristonManagerialActivity.

Kautilya
(noteoneshouldhavereadprasadandprasadatleastoncetounderstandthiswriteup) Arthashastradealswiththeproblemofacquiringandmaintainingterritory. Arthashastra=scienceofpolity=scienceofwealth+scienceofgovernment(dandanitiwhichislawof punishment).ScienceofPubAd(PA)ispartofscienceofgovernment. ArthashastracontainsprinciplesofPA,descriptionofgovtmachinery,descriptionofpersonnel. PrinciplesofPAimplicitlygiven.Suitabletomonarchicalformofgovt.Lessrelevancetodemocracies. ConnectionbetweenartofPAandscienceofPA.Artisputtingknowledgeofscienceintopractice.All administratorsshouldknowscienceofPAforgoverningwell.Likewise,onewhoisadministratorcan contributewelltothescienceofPAthannonadministrator.

PrinciplesofPA
Principlestoregulatetheworkingofthemachinery.Twosetsofprinciples. 1stset: Moreexplicitlygiven.Principlesofauthority,obedience,dutyandresponsibility.Sumsupthelegalistic theoryofthestate. Motives(canbecalledascontrols)behindobediencetoauthorityfear,duty,interest. Personnelareencouragedtoobeyordersthroughfinancialrewards,increaseinsalary,pension, makingthetenurepermanent. Sourcesoftheauthoritypositioninthehierarchy,qualitiesoftheofficial.Ordersareobeyedbecause oftheposition,qualitiesoftheofficial. Principleofdutyandresponsibilityasenseofduty.Inthehappinessofhissubjectslieshishappiness, intheirwelfare,hiswelfare. 2ndset: Implicitlygiveninthedescriptionofthemachineryofthegovernment. Principleofdivisionoflabourgovernmentfunctionsareassignedtodifferentdepartments. Principleofcoordinationautomaticallyfollowsfromtheaboveprinciple. Principleofhierarchytomaketheexecutionandcoordinationpossible.Noclarityabouttheinter relationshipsbetweendifferentofficers.Moreresponsibilityatthetoplevelsofthehierarchy.

Principleofequitynoclarityinarthashastra.

Machineryofthegovernment
Detailedaccount.Butthecontoursofthedepartments(intermsoffunctionstheyperform)arenotwell defined.Resemblesthepresentadministrationinfewaspects.Example:machineryoftheexternal affairsministry.Departmentsubdividedintosections.Sectionsarearrangedhorizontally. Allthedepartmentsundertheoverallcontrolandsupervisionoftheking. Generalhierarchyking>minister>superintendent.Oneministerlooksaftermanydepartments.Few ministers. Innercabinet=primeminister+highpriest.Rigoroustestsbeforerecruitment. ImportantministersPM,highpriest,chamberlain,collectorgeneral,treasurergeneral,commanderin chiefofarmy. Divisionofdepartments4PofGulick.Mostlyaccordingtopurpose.Oneinstanceaccordingtoperson superintendentofprostitutes.Noclarityonplace.Onecaseterritorialadministrationofcityand villages.Departmentsmostlyhorizontallyarranged. Financedepartmentcollectorgeneral(revenuecollection)+treasurergeneral(inchargeofthe treasuryandsoexpenditure).Theyalsolookafterallthebusinessactivityofthestate.Nostrict separationoftheauditandaccountsalthoughkautilyaadvocatesthat. Homedepartmentcollectorgeneralalsohasmagisterialfunction. Judiciaryhierarchyofcourtsunderking.Noseparationofpowers.Frenchadministrativelaw,not commonlawofEnglish. Socialwelfareactivitieswelfareoftheslaves,orphans,aged,infirm,helplesswomen.Socialjusticein grantingtaxconcessions,landgrants.Regulationofliquor,prostitution.Publicworksroads,tanks,rest houses,hospitals,gardens,templesetc. Miscellaneous: Explainswhyfinancedepartmentistheheartofgovernment.Mentionstheimportanceofthestatistics inPAcensusofproperty,families.UseofbusinessmethodsinPA.Mentionsevilsofbureaucratisation, corruption.Powercorrupts.

Personnel
Moreattentiononhigherpersonnel.Lowerpersonnelneglected.

Detailsofqualitiesrequiredintellectual,moral,physical.Nothingaboutlowerpersonnel,exceptthat theyshouldbeincorruptible,goodatwork. Classificationofpersonnelonthebasisofremuneration(startingsalaries.Doesnottalkabout superannuation).Nothingissaidaboutthegradesofeachcategoryofpersonnel,stagesandquantaof promotion,leave,pension,superannuation. Nothingissaidaboutinductivetraining,exceptforarmy. Transferofpersonnelasaprecautionagainstcorruption.Punishmentforcorrupt,andthoseofficials harassingthepeople. Pensionsforthefamilyinthecaseofdeath.Nothingmentionedaboutthepensionsafterretirement. Financialgrantsincaseofsickness,funerals,childbirth.Emolumentstomotivate. Codeofconductforgovernmentservants.

MARY PARKER FOLLET Constructive Conflict: Conflicts should be regarded as a normal process by which socially valuable differences register themselves for the enrichment of all the concerned and which is a sign of health and progress. 3-Ways of resolving conflict: Domination: Victory of one side over the other but not successful in the long run Compromise: each side gives up a little but rarely people want this Integration: Creates something new leads to invention but not always possible Steps in achieving Integration: 1. Bring the differences to the open 2. Consider the demands of both the sides and break them into constituent parts 3. In addition to Anticipation you have to prepare the Response as well. There are 2 types of responses- Circular and Linear. Circular behavior as the basis to Integration is the key to constructive conflict. Obstacles to Integration: Requires High Intelligence and Inventiveness. Some enjoy Dominating only. Problems are theorized instead of taking them as practical issues. Undue influence exerted by the Leaders. Lack of training. Steps in Giving Orders: Conscious Attitude: To know the principles that underlies the given activity. Responsible Attitude: One must think of the principles first and then give Orders. Experimental Attitude: Try and Watch Results. Pool the experiences of all see how it can be improved. To Ensure Acceptance of Order: 1. People should be made to see the desirability of a new method. 2. Rules should be changed to enable its adoption. 3. Few people should be convinced in advance to set an example. 4. Intensifying the attitude. Response to an order depends upon the place, circumstances and the manner of giving the order. Depersonalizing Orders: One should not give orders to another instead both should take orders form the situation [Law of Situation]. It means exercising authority according to the situation.

Types of Power: 1. Power Over Coercive power 2. Power With Coactive power Power over should be reduced by integrating the desires, obeying the law of situation and through functional unity. Functional Unity: Each should have authority and responsibility according to the function he is expected to do. Authority: means the right to develop and exercise power and it stems from the task being performed and from the situation. Central authority should be replaced by authority of function in which each individual has final authority within the allotted function. One should ask for what he is Responsible rather than asking To whom he is Responsible. She believes in Cumulative Responsibility and rejects Ultimate Responsibility Control: She believes in Fact control rather than Man control and in Correlated control than superimposed control. Control should depend on the facts of each situation instead superiors controlling the subordinates. Unified organization is a self-regulating, self-directing organism in all such org control tends to be self-control. Planning: Scheme of self-adjusting and self-coordinating the various interests. Coordination: Harmonious ordering of parts. 4 Principles to achieve coordination: Coordination should be the reciprocal relating of all factors in a situation. Coordination should be done by direct contact. Coordination should be done from the early stages of policy formulation. Coordination should be a continuing process Leadership: A leader is one Who can see all round a problem, sees it related to a certain purposes, sees is evolving into the next situation, understands how to pass from one situation to another Who can energize, knows how to encourage, how to draw form all what each has to give. He is not just found at the apex of the organization but everywhere. Functions of a Leader: Coordination

Definition of purpose Anticipation

Types of Leadership: Leadership of Position: Holds a position of formal authority Leadership of Personality: Due to his forceful personality Leadership of Function: Who posses expert knowledge Success of an organization depends on allowing the Leadership of function to operate freely Criticisms: She ignored the social nature or the process involved in management. She considered only psychological conflicts. Her ideas of integration are illusory She was never a systematic writer just threw out interesting ideas randomly. Judgment: Metcalfe and Urwick say her ideas were in advance of her time and her suggestions are useful for anyone who is interested in the problems of establishing and maintaining human cooperation in the conduct of an Organization.

Rensis Likert Introduction: Rensis Likert is a thinker of human relations school (behaviouralist) and is popular for his contribution pertaining to Supervision, Management Systems and dynamics of interpersonal relationships. He is known for his studies on organization and analysis of Management Styles. He gave the Management Systems I-IV, developed Likerts Scale to measure attitudes and Linking Pin Model. Supervisory Styles: He classified supervisors into two categories: job centered and employee-centered. The primary concern of first category of supervisors is to ensure performance of assigned tasks and maintenance of prescribed standards. The characteristics are: exert heavy pressure to get work done. have little confidence in the subordinates. exercise close and detailed supervision. allow little freedom to subordinates. are punitive and critical when mistakes occur. The supervisors in second category are primarily concerned with the human aspect of their subordinated for effective team building for high task performance. The characteristics are: exert little pressure on subordinates. earn and get the confidence and trust of their subordinates. Increase the achievement motivation of subordinates and encourage them to accept high task performance goals through group decision processes. exercise general rather than detailed supervision, allow subordinates to schedule their own pace of work. help subordinates when mistakes occur It is argued that the high performing managers are more humane to their subordinates, while the low performing managers are compelled to get tough with their subordinates. Likert also emphasises that heavy pressure may produce good result for a short while but it is bound to go down in long term. Similarly the effective team building process by moulding employee attitudes for positive achievement will take some time before making any impact on goals and performance. Effective supervision is an adaptive (to values, expectations) and relative (to the situation) process. Supportive Relationships The focus in this model is on participation and involvement of individuals in the managerial processes. He conceives of an interaction-influence system to maximise skills, resources and motivation of individuals at different levels of the organization. The characteristics of interaction-influence system are: i. Each member will find his personal values, needs and goals reflected in those of the workgroups and organization as a whole ii. high performance goals come from members themselves iii. authentic and sensitive communication process within and between workgroups iv. each member can exert his influence on decisions and actions of organization In a traditional organization, the ideal interaction-influence system is not possible due to one-to-one relationships between superiors and subordinates, one way top-down communication etc. Linking Pin Model: Its an Organizational model conceived by Likert, expected to remove the hurdles found in traditional hierarchical organization and facilitate growth of interaction-influence system. The salient features are: i. An organisation is represented as a number of overlapping work units in which members of one unit are leaders of another.

ii. The supervisor/manager has the dual task of maintaining unity and creating a sense of belonging within the group he or she supervises and of representing that group in meetings with superior and parallel management staff. iii. These individuals are the linking pins within the organisation and so they become the focus of leadership development activities. iv. Thus every individual functions as a linking pin for the organisation units above and below him. He is the group leader of the lower unit and a group member of the upper unit. v. A group-to-group, as opposed to traditional man-to-man, relationship exists. vi. These multiple linkages provide additional channels to share information and influence.

Management Systems

System 1: Exploitative authoritative

Goal setting and decision making by top management; communication is top down; superiors and subordinates are distant; Subordinates are not trusted; Management uses fear and threats and sporadic rewards Management uses rewards motivation; , information flowing upward is restricted to what management wants to hear and whilst policy decisions come from the top some prescribed decisions may be delegated to lower levels, superiors expect subservience lower down. Management offers rewards, occasional punishments; big decisions come from the top whilst there is some wider decision making involvement in details and communication is downward whilst critical upward communication is cautious. Management encourage group participation and involvement in setting high performance goals with some economic rewards; communication flows in all directions and is open and frank with decision making through group processes with each group linked to others by persons who are members of more than one group called linking pins; and subordinates and superiors are close. The result is high productivity and better industrial relations.

System 2: Benevolent authoritative

System 3: Consultative

System 4: Participative group management

System-4 is considered to be the most productive and ideal. He favoured System-4 because of its commitment to giving decision making power to the employees who are trusted by management and do not hesitate to share feedback and opinions. Three basic concepts of Likerts System 4 are Principle of supportive relationships group decision making and method of supervision high performance goals for the organization The participative management system (System 4) displays overlapping structures, cross functional-linkages, group decision processes, open and authentic three way communication (up, down and lateral), adaptive supervision and individual and workgroups with a high degree of achievement motivation. As per empirical evidence, System 1 and 2 are prevalent in low performance units and System 3 and 4 in high performance units. The high level performance if at all produced in former, is shortlived while it is sustained for longer periods in latter because the high level performance realised by System-4 management is under more durable conditions of achievement motivation of individuals leading to their self-actualisation. Applications of System 4 Research and experimental studies have convinced Likert about the validity of System-4 management for realising high performance goals. He visualised the possibility of all organizations practicing System 1, 2 and 3 will eventually shift to System-4.

He feels that unless the efforts like team building, job enrichment, sensitivity training, participative decision making are integrated into an overall strategy of changing management system, they will not yield any result. He suggested various steps to be taken in order to gradually shift the organizations toward System-4 management. Managing Conflicts Likert defines conflict, as the active striving for ones own preferred outcome, which if attained, precludes the attainment by other of their own preferred outcome, thereby producing hostility. He differentiates two types of conflicts: substantive and affective. Substantive is rooted in the substance of task and affective is derived form the emotional, affective aspects of interpersonal relations. Likert suggested that System-4 leadership and interaction-influence networks have the ability to diffuse conflict situations. He suggested replacing win-lose strategies of conflict resolution by win-win strategies, wherein all parties stand to gain leaving no one frustrated and embittered. System 4 structures and processes help to de-emphasize status, depersonalize problem solving and use power to resolve conflict constructively instead of suppressing them. System 4 was participative but NOT PERMISSIVE ie individual influences system and vice versa An Evaluation Supportive relationships, group methods of decision-making and supervision, high performance goals and achievement motivation (all features of System-4) contribute to better forms of human organization Human organizations will increasingly move towards this ideal-rational system of management. Linking pin model is accused of doing nothing more than drawing traingles around the traditional hierarchical structures. It also slows down the process of decision making. Likerts most important contribution to management thought nd practice is his systemic analysis of good management practices and extending their frontiers of knowledge and application He laid the empirical foundation for the development of management science.

Question in UPSC 1. The successful management leaders are found in Likerts System-4 approach to organisational leadership. Examine.

Frederick Herzberg Frederick Herzberg born in Massachusetts was an American psychologist who became one of the most influential names in business management. He is most famous for introducing job enrichment and the Motivator-Hygiene theory. Herzberg graduated from City College in 1946 and moved to the University of Pittsburgh to undertake post-graduate workplace while teaching as a professor of psychology at Case Western Reserve University in Cleveland and later moved to the University of Utah where he held the position of professor of management in the college of business. Two Factor Theory "The Dual Structure Theory" Herzberg proposed the Motivation-Hygiene Theory, also known as the Two factor theory (1959) of job satisfaction. The theory was based around interviews with 203 American accountants and engineers in Pittsburgh, chosen because of their professions' growing importance in the business world. The subjects were asked to relate times when they felt exceptionally good or bad about their present job or any previous job, and to provide reasons, and a description of the sequence of events giving rise to that positive or negative feeling. The two-factor theory states that there are certain factors in the workplace that cause job satisfaction, while a separate set of factors cause dissatisfaction. Motivator Factors

Hygiene Factors

Achievement Recognition Work Itself Responsibility Advancement

Salary Company Policy and Administration Interpersonal Relationships Supervision Job Security Working Conditions Personal life

According to Herzberg, individuals are not content with the satisfaction of lower-order needs at work, for example, those associated with minimum salary levels or safe and pleasant working conditions. Rather, individuals look for the gratification of higher-level psychological needs having to do with achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement, and the nature of the work itself.

Two-factor theory distinguishes between: Essentially, hygiene factors are needed to ensure an employee is not dissatisfied. Motivation factors are needed to motivate an employee to higher performance.

He proposed several key findings as a result of this identification: 1. Herzberg calls hygiene factors as dissatisfiers whereas motivator factors as satisfiers. 2. Motivator factors determine how an employee feels about his job whereas hygiene factors determine how a worker feels about his company. 3. Herzberg argued that an employee is either dissatisfied or not dissatisfied with hygiene factors, and he is either satisfied or not satisfied with motivational factors. 4. The prevention of dissatisfaction is just as important as encouragement of motivator satisfaction. 5. Hygiene factors operate independently of motivation factors. They are opposite ends of same continuum. Herzberg describes them as unipolar traits. 6. Hygiene improvements have short-term effects while motivational improvement produces long term effects. 7. Hygiene needs are cyclical in nature and come back to a starting point. This leads to the "What have you done for me lately?" syndrome. Hygiene and Motivation Seekers Herzberg divides people working in organisations into two groups: Sr No 1 2 3 4 5 Hygiene seeker Motivated by nature Shows little interest in kind and quality of work he does Short duration of satisfaction Does not profit professionally from experience May be successful on job because of talent Motivation seeker By nature of work Shows capacity to enjoy the kind of work he does Long duration of satisfaction Profits professionally from experience May be an over achiever

Job enrichment: According to Herzberg The job should have sufficient challenge to utilise the full ability of employee. Employees who demonstrate increasing levels of ability should be given increasing levels of responsibility and If the job cannot be designed to use the employees full abilities then the organisation should consider automating the task or replacing the employees with one with lower level of skill Process of enriching job: 1. Select the jobs where attitudes are poor, hygiene is becoming costly and motivation will make a difference in performance 2. Approach the jobs with the conviction that they can be changed 3. Brainstorm a list of changes that may enrich the jobs, without concern for their practicality 4. Screen the list for generalities. 5. Screen the list to eliminate suggestions for horizontal loading 6. Avoid direct participation by employees whose jobs are to be enriched 7. Be prepared for a drop in performance 8. Expect the first line supervisors to experience the anxiety and hostility and changes that are being made. Horizontal and Vertical Job Loading Herzberg contends that management often merely succeeds in reducing the mans personal contribution, rather than giving him an opportunity for growth in his existing job. He calls this horizontal job loading, as opposed to vertical loading, which provides motivation factors. Horizontal loading is adding another meaningless task to the existing ones, usually some routine electrical activity. The arithmetic here is adding zero to zero. While vertical job loading is instrumental to maximise individual workers internal motivation to work and to enhance job satisfaction, that is job enrichment.

Criticisms:
House and Wigdor criticise the theory on following grounds: When the things are okay, they put themselves in best light, but when things go wrong they blame the environmental factor.

No overall measure of satisfaction was used in Pittsburghs study. A given factor can cause job satisfaction for one and job dissatisfaction for others and vice versa. Intrinsic job factors are more important to both satisfying and dissatisfying job events. The most basic is the criticism that both of these theories contain the relatively explicit assumption that happy and satisfied workers produce more. Ref: Prasad & Prasad

Abraham Maslow
Background:
The great flaw of classical thinkers Assumptionthatpaymentistheonlymotivationalfactorforaworker. Morepaymentwillinducehimtoproducemorewasthelineofthinkingofthethenthinkers. EltonMayoseverelycriticizedthisapproachwhileexplainingtheimportanceofhumanbehaviorin organizationbutdidntfocusmuchuponmotivationalfactors. ItwasAbrahamMaslow(PhDinPsychology)who,in1943,madeabreakthroughinhuman motivationwiththeappearanceofhispaperentitledofAtheoryofHumanMotivationin whichhepostulatedtheideaofahierarchyofhumanneeds. Basisofhishypothesis:Humanbeingsarepleasureseekingbeingsandaremotivatedtowards satisfactionoftheirneeds. Hisinitialwritingscouldntgeneratemucheffectonmanagersandadministrators.Hisideaswere popularizedbyMcGregor. Maslows propositions:

1.Manisawantinganimal.Healwayshassomeneeddrivinghimtoaction. 2.Thereisahierarchyofneeds.Theyarearrangedinanorderofprioritywiththemostbasic
needstobesatisfiedfirst.

3.Aneedsatisfiedisnolongeramotivator.
Basedonabovepropositions,MaslowdevelopedhisHierarchyofneedstheory. Maslowseeshumanneedsintheformofahierarchy,startinginanascendingorderfromthelowestto thehighestneedsandconcludesthatwhenonesetofneedsaresatisfiedthentheneedforotherset arises. Humanbehaviourisareflectionofmorethanoneneed.Classificationofneedsintospecificgroups isarequisiteinformulatingamotivationtheory. 1.Physiologicalneeds Food,water,clothing,shelter,sexualneedsetc. Unlessthesearesatisfied,otherneedscantmotivatepeople 2.Securityorsafetyneeds Livefreelyfromphysicaldangers,fearoflossofjobetc. 3.Affiliationneeds Needtoestablishrelationshipswithothersalongwithreciprocity. 4.Esteemneeds Onceaffiliationneedissatisfied,theyneedselfesteem,power,prestigeetc 5.Needforselfactualization Highestneed. Desiretobecomewhatoneiscapableof.Utilizemaximumpotentialtoachievesomething Characteristicsofselfactualizedpersons: Unusualabilitytodetectthespurious,thefake,andthedishonestinthepersonality; Creativeness,originality;

Missionandpurposeinlife; Likeprivacy,dignity,autonomyandfreedomtopursueendeavorsinlifeandwork; Maintaininterpersonalrelationswithonlyfewpeople.

Views of Maslow:
Thishierarchyisnotwatertightcompartment.Ex.Somepeoplepreferesteemneedsto physiologicalneeds. Basichumanneedsarecommonirrespectiveofsocietiesandcultures. Humanbehaviourisareflectionofdiverseneedsandcannotbeinfluencedbyasingle variableorneed. Satisfiedneedisnotnecessarilyamotivator.

Crux of his theory:Ones basic needs must satisfy before moving to higher needs. Criticism: Needsdonotspecificallyfollowsuchorderalwaysespeciallywhenlowerneedsaresatisfied.There arenoevidencesfoundregardingthisspecifichierarchy. Threehigherlevelneedsvarygreatlywithmanagerialranks. [ThiswasmainlybyPorter] Themovementfromlowertohigherneedsisnotalwaysfollowsfromthesatisfactionoflower needs.Itisfoundtobebecauseofcareerdevelopment.[ByHall & Naugaim] ConceptofSelfactualizedpersonisvaguelydefined.Ithascontradictoryfeatures. Theideaisgoodbutcantbeturnedintopracticalguidelinesbymanagerstomakepeoplemore Productive.[ByNash] Inspiteofsomuchofcriticism,Maslowsideaofneedshierarchyremainspopular.Ithasgreatly influencedpracticeofmodernmanagement.Itsanimportantcontributiontowardsunderstanding humannatureofmotivation.

ChesterBarnard SpiritualFatherofSocialSystemSchool. Organisation:: Consciouscooperationoftwoorpersons. Needoforganization? 1. Humanpossessesalimitedpowerofchoiceandisconstrainedbythetotalsituationforcooperation. 2. Limitingfactor:Biologicallimitation(mostimportant).Otherbeingphysicalandsocial. forovercomingthesehegoesforcooperativesocialsystem. 3needsofanOrganization:: WillingnesstoServe:: DependsonContributionSatisfactionequilibrium. Rejectedconceptofeconomicman. Incentives>inputsthatanindividualputsin 4specificinducements:: a. b. c. d. Materialinducements Personalnonmaterialopportunities Desirableworkingconditions. Idealbenefactions.
Communication Organization WillingnesstoServe

CommonPurpose

4generalinducements:: a. Associationalattractiveness b. Adoptionofworkingconditiontohabitualmethodsandattitudes. c. Opportunityforthefeelingofenlargedparticipation.

d. Conditionsofcommunicatingwithothers Purpose: Neededforcooperation. Mustbeacceptedbyallwhoseeffortsconstitutetheorganizationelsewillnotsimulatecooperative action. Accomplishthroughcommunication.

Communication::referasapartofauthoritylateron. FormalOrganization:: Characterizedby:system,depersonalization(effortsofindividualsaredepersonalized),specialization(based on4PsofGullick)andinformalorganization. InformalOrganization: Basedonpersonalrelationships Indefinite,structurelessandshapelessmassofvarieddensities. Continuousinteractionbetweeninformalandformalorganization. Asocietyisstructuredbyformalorganizations,formalorganizationsarevitalizedandconditionedbyinformal organizations.Ifonefailstheotherdisintegrates. TObeeffectiveeveryinformalorganizationmustestablishformalorganization.Inturnformalorganization createinformalorganizationasameansofcommunicationandprotectingindividualsfromthedominationof formalorganizations. FunctionofInformalOrganizations:: Communication(whichislargelyinformal) Createscohesivenessandintegration Facilitatesincreatingsocialconditionsthatencouragewillingnesstowork,byaddingsocial motives Createsafeelingofindependenceasinformalinteractionsarenotgovernedbyformalrules andauthority Protectsindividualpersonalityandcharacteragainstnegative(orcorrupt)organizational influences Informalorganizationsplayasignificantroleinthedevelopmentofanorganizationalculture, thatistheaggregateofthevalues,normsandattitudesofitspeople

Authority:Acceptanceasabasis. Characterofacommunicationofaformalorganizationbyvirtueofwhichitisacceptedbya contributer. twoparts:: Subjective:acceptanceofcommunicationasabasisofauthority Objective::Characterofcommunication:

1. 2. 3. 4. Thereceiverisbothmentallyandphysicallyabletocomply Thereceiverbelievesitiscompatiblewithhisorherpersonalinterest Thecommunicationisunderstood

Thereceiverbelievestheinstructionisconsistentwiththeorganizationspurposes

Acceptanceofauthority:: a. dependsonZoneofindifferenceorderswhichareunquestionablyacceptable. b. Executivesshouldonlyissueorderswhichfallsintothiszoneofindifference. Fictionofauthority a. Peopleacceptauthoritybcoz:: (1) Dontwanttoaissueoutofit. (2) Lossofpersonalstatus. Authorityalsodependsonthesystemofcommunication:: 1. The channels of communication should be definite;
2. Everyone should know of the channels of communication; 3. Everyone should have access to the formal channels of communication; 4. Lines of communication should be as short and as direct as possible; 5. Competence of persons serving as communication centers should be adequate; 6. The line of communication should not be interrupted when the organization is functioning; 7. Every communication should be authenticated. Thus, what makes a communication authoritative rests with the subordinate rather than with his superior.

Responsibility: emphasis on internal factore rather than external factors. Functions of the executives: Establishing and maintaining a system of communication; Securing essential services from other members; Formulating organizational purposes and objectives.

Criticism:: 1. No practical examples. 2. No descriptive or prescriptive attention to the process of purpose. 3. Leadership is abstractedly examined. 4. Underestimate the objective authority and appers to assign the individuals the choice to accept or reject authority.

Significance:: 1. Acceptance theory of authority,leadership as a process of fulfilling the objective of organization, mgmt. as consent have immense contemporary values and strengthen the democratic spirit in the modern world. 2. Analysis of process of formal and informal organizations and their mutual interaction has practical utility and scientific value. 3. Practical importance to modern executive interested in effective and efficient functioning of the organization.

CHRISARGYRIS
Introduction
Argyrisisbestknownasagreatpsychologistandanorganisationaltheorist.Heisaleading managementthinkerwhostudiedorganisationfromthestandpointofpsychology.Hefocuses upontheindividualsrelationshiptotheorganisation.Hehastreatedextensivelytheconflict betweentheindividualssocialandpsychologicalneedsandtheexigenciesoftheorganisation.In developinghisconceptualisationonorganisationalbehaviour,Argyrishasextensivelyapplied researchfindingsinthefieldsofpsychology,socialpsychologyandhumanrelations.Argyris influenceonthedisciplinesofmanagementandpublicadministrationiswidespread.

AbriefreferencetoArgyrisviewsonvariousdimensionsoforganisationalanalysisisas follows

A.HumanPersonality
Argyris personality model is regarded as a major contribution to the behavioural school of thought. According to him, the organisation should provide an environment in which an individual is able to develop his personality from a state of infancy to a state of personal or psychological maturity. Argyris contends that this progression from infancy towards maturity consists of seven developments: 1. From infant passivity towards adult activity. 2. From dependence towards relative independence. 3. From limited behaviours to many different behaviours. 4. From erratic, shallow and brief interests to more stable and deeper interests. 5. From short-time perspective to longer-time perspective. 6. From a subordinate social position to an equal or super-ordinate social position. 7. From lack of self-awareness to self-awareness and self-control. Effectivemanagementmustaimatthedevelopmentofindividualtowardspersonalor psychologicalmaturity.

B.InterpersonalCompetence
Argyrisfeelsconcernedtofindthelackofinterpersonalcompetenceeverywherein organisations.he has specified four specific types of behaviour: (i) accepting responsibility for ones ideas and feelings; (ii) showing openness to ideas and feelings of those above and below ones self;

(iii) experimenting with new ideas and feelings; and (iv) helping others to accept, show and experiment with their ideas and feelings.

C.ACritiqueofFormalOrganisation
Argyriscriticisestheclassictheoryoforganisationforcreatingincongruencies(inconsistencies) betweentherequirementsoforganisationandthepersonaldevelopmentoftheindividual. Argyris formulates certain propositions about the impact of formal organisation on the individual. Major hypotheses in this regard are as follows: There is lack of disagreement between the needs of individual and the initial demands of the formal organisation. This leads to a conflicting situation because the individual feels that he cannot fulfil his personal needs and at the same time meet the demands of the organisation. This ultimately leads to a state of conflict and tension which in turn may lead to some major organisational problems. Another impact of the rigidities of formal organisation could be the development of frustration among the participants in the organisation. The resultant frustration on the part of the participants is likely to lead to a less mature behaviour, aggression and hostility. Certain management reactions may produce a sense of psychological failure, the result of which may be loss of interest in work, loss of self-confidence, tendency of blaming others, lower work standards, giving up easily, and lastly a fear of still more failure. Argyris suggests certain solutions through which disagreement between the formal organisation and the individual could be removed or lessened. Such as, The first suggestion given by Argyris is to enlarge the jobs instead of cutting them. It will creat interest among the participants. there should be encouragement in participative management and leadership an for this mature individuals should be choosed. Lastly, he favours the development of reality leadership where the leader needs a great deal of understanding rather than just depending upon hunches of guess work for decision-making.

D.OrganisingFutureStructures
1.APyramidalStructure
expectedtoperformlimitedroutinetask effectivefornoninnoativeactivity

2.AnAdaptedFormalorganizationalStructures
effectivebecauseitoffersmuchscopeforsubordinateparticipantswiththesuperiortotakehisown decision.

3.DefinedButParticipativeSturucture

eachemployeehasequalopportunity usedinsituationlikegroupincentives,newproductdevelopment,intyerdewpartmentaloperation.

4.MatrixOrganisation
eachemployeehasdefinedpowerandresponsibility. SuperiorSubordinaterelationshipsareeliminatedandsubstitutedbyselfdisciplinedinvidual.

E.TGrouporSensitivityTraining
ArgyrislaysemphasisontheTgroupmethod(Tfortraining) Incontrasttotheconventionaltrainingprogramme,thefocusofTgroupsessionistocreatan atmosphereinwhichparticipantsforgethierarchalidentitiesanddevelopdistributive leadershipfordecisionmaking. Itsobjectiveistodevelopeffective,realitycentredleaders.

F.CriticismofSimonandSocioPsychoApproachesArgyriscriticisestheapproaches
andworkofbothindustrialpsychologistsandorganisationalsociologistsforhavingignoredmuchof theresearchonpersonality,andinterpersonalrelationshipswhich,accordingtohim,arecritical partsoftheorganisation.
ArgyrisaccusesSimonandothertraditionaladministrativethinkersforsupportingauthoritarian structures,forpayinglittleattentiontoanger,conflictandemotionalfeelingsoftheemployee towardstheorganisationanditsgoals.

G.ACriticalEvaluation
Argyrisconceptofselfactualisationisbeingregardedasutopiaandwithoutanyprecise operationalindicators.Simontreatsselfactualisationassynonymouswithanarchy.

Argyrispropositionthatthepursuitofthegoalofselfactualisationisauniversalisticgoalhasalso beenquestioned. ChrisArgyrishasadvocatedforjobenlargementandTgroupsessionsforincreasinginterpersonal competence.Thisremedialapproachseemsmyopicinnatureandcannotgettotherootofthe problemsolongasthebasicconflictofinterestsbetweentheemployersandemployeesexists. Ratherthesetechniquescannotservebetterthanmaintainingthestatusquo. Argyrisholdsthatmanagementphilosophyhasmovedfromtheinitiallydevelopedemphasison scientificmanagementtoanemphasisonpeopleandhumanrelations.Infact,aneffective managementrequirestherightcombinationofboththeapproaches.Onlythenajudiciousblend betweenthestructuralandthehumandimensionsoforganisationcanbebroughtabout.

He further observes that the belief that superiors can develop subordinates to be more skilful in interpersonal competence will no more be true since none can develop anyone else except himself. The responsibility of management is not to develop people.

H.Conclusion
Argyrissuggestsaninterventionstrategyfororganisationdevelopmentinfourcoreareas. Firstly, the organisation should provide an environment for the development of the individual towardspersonalorpsychologicalmaturity. Secondly, a programme for organisation change should aim at improving the interpersonal competenceoftheemployees. Thirdly,changesmustbeintroducedtotransformthetraditionalpyramidcalformoforganisation. Fourthly,techniquesforprogrammedlearningaimedatindividualchangeshouldbeintroduced. Gordon Lippitt observes that the greatest contribution of Argyris lies in his idea that formal organisationsarebasicallyantimaturingandtherefore,actagainstemployeesachievingasense ofselfactualisation.

DOUGLASMCGREGOR MAJORWORKS: 1.HumansideofEnterprise 2.Leadershipandmotivation 3.ProfessionalManager BASICHYPOTHESIS/ASSUMPTIONS: 1.Everymanagerialactrestsontheory. 2.Thetheoreticalassumptionswhichmanagementholdsaboutcontrollingits humanresourcesdeterminewholecharacterofenterprise. 3.Allcontrolisselectiveadaptation. PropoundedtheoriesofmanagerialcontrolknownasTHEORYXand THEORYY.
THEORYX ASSUMPTIONSOFTHEORYX:

1.Theaveragehumanpersondislikesworkandwillavoiditifhecan. 2.Thereforepeoplemustbeforcedwithathreatofpunishmenttoworktowards organisationalobjectives. 3.Theaveragepersonpreferstobedirected;Toavoidresponsibility;Isrelatively unambitious;Wantssecurityaboveall.

FEATURES:

1.Closesupervisionandexternalcontrol. 2.Highcentralizationofauthority. 3.Autocraticleadership

THEORYY:

ThecentralprincipleofTheoryYisthatintegarationofbehaviorsiskeyprocessin managementbecauseitresultsinthecreationofconditionsconduciveforthe memberstoachievetheirowngoalsbestbydirectingtheireffortstowardsthe successoftheenterprise. HecallshistheoryYAnOpenInvitationToInnovation.

ASSUMPTIONS:

1.Workcanbeasnaturalasplayifconditionsarefavourable. 2.Peoplewillbeselfdirectedandcreativetomeettheirworkobjectivesifthey arecommitedtothem. 3.Commitmenttoobjectivesisafunctionofrrewardsassoiciatedwiththeir achievement. 4.Underproperconditionstheaveragehumanbeinglearnstoacceptaswellas seekresponsibility. 5.Thecapacitytoexercisearelativelyahighdegreeofcreativity,imaginationin thesolutionoforganosationalproblemsiswidelydistributedinthepopulation. 6.Undertheconditionsofmodernindustriallife,intellectualpotentialitiesof averagehumanbeingsareonlypartiallyutilized.
FEATURES:

1.Decentarlisationofauthority 2.Jobenrichment

3.Participativeleadership 4.Twowaycommuniacation 5.Itstressesuponteamworkateachleveloforganization.

THEORYYINPRACTICE:

Hisresearchindicates: 1.Highcorrelationb/wacceptance&commitmenttoobjectives. 2.Greaterlongrunadvantagesinpermittingsubordinatestolearnbyexperience.

SCANLONPLAN:

ItwasaresearchprojectundertakenbyMcgregorandF.lesiauronUnion managementcooperation. ItsbasedonassumptionsofTHEORYY. CONCLUSIONSOFREASEARCH: 1.ParticipationbasedonassumptionsoftheoryYhelpsinsatisfyingegoof workersandthusmotivatesthemtowardsorganizationalobjectives. 2.Participation,ifusedwiselyisnaturalcommitmentofmanagementby integration&selfcontrol.

RELEVANCEOFTHEORYYINLINESTAFFRELATIONSHIP:

Acc/tohimTHEORYYapproachsressesuponteamworkateachlevelof organizationwhichhelpsinimprovingstafflinecollaboration. THEPROFESSIONALMANAGERFROMCOSMOLOGYTOREALITY: 1.Hebelievedthatmanagersviewoforganizationalrealityexertsprofound effectsuponmanagerialactsandaffectstheachievementofhisowngoalsaswell asofhisorganization.

2.Hesaysthatmanagementstylesandstrategiesshouldbeevolvedcontinuously acc/toempiricalexperienceofreality. THEREHABILITATIONOFRATIONALEMOTIVEMANAGER InhisbookPROFESSIONALMANAGERhepromotesRATIONALEMOTIVE MANAGERandplacestheideaofintegrationwithintheconceptualmouldof transactionalconceptofpowerandinfluence. THECONCEPTOFTRANSACTIONALINFLUENCE 1.ForMcgregorifinfluenceismutuallyorientedthenitsaSocialPhenonmenon. 2.Saidthatwhensocialelementssuchastrustandmutualsupportarepresent thereisnoneedforconcernaboutpowerequalisation. STRATEGIESTORESOLVECONFLICT: 1.DivideandRuleBasedonassumptionofTHEORYX 2.SuppressionofdifferencesBasedonassumptionofTHEORYX 3.Workingthroughofdifferences CRITICISM: 1.TheoryXandTheoryYdichotomyistoosimplisticasmostpeoplesbelieffallsin betweentheoryXandtheoryYattitudes. 2.PeterDruckernegatedMcgregorsclaimthatTheoryXandTheoryYare theoriesabouthumannatureassamepeoplereactdifferentlytodifferent situations.

Dwight Waldo
Intro :
YoB:1913,USA YoD:2000

Qualifications:
*Ph.Dinpoliticalscience.YaleUniversity

Positions held:
*FacultyofUni.ofCalifornia,SyracuseUniv. *PresidentofNationalassociationofSchoolsofpublicaffairsandadministration *EditorinchiefofPublicadministrationreview. *vicepresidentofAPSA(Americanpol.scienceassociation) *convenerMinnowbrookconference *memberofCAG(Comparativeadministrationgroup)

Books:
#TheAdministrativestate:thestudyofpoliticaltheoryofAmericanadministration. #ComparativePA:prologueproblemsandpromise #TheEnterpriseofPublicAdministration #IdeasandIssuesinPublicAdministration #PerspectivesonAdministration #ThestudyofPA:PAinthetimeofTurbulence.(1971) #TemporalDimensionsofDevelopmentAdministration

Contributions:
Heshotintoprominenceimmediatelyafterhisfirstwork.TheAdministrativestate: Inthebookheoffersthesymbiosisbtwpoliticsandadministration Showedthetheoryofpoliticsadmin.Dichotomytobefalseandcalledforits abandonment HestressedtheneedtoreconcilePAwithDemocraticvalues.. HeprovedthatPAisnotasciencewithuniversalvaliditybycomparingAmericanPA hasevolvedpoliticaltheoriesunmistakablyrelatedtouniqueeconomic,social, governmentalandideologicalfactors Heputsforwardtheideaof21stcenturyPAwhichisessentiallybasedonIndustrialand Urbancivilisationthatisguidedbydevelopmentsintechnologyandbyplanning.. Waldohadbeenconsistentinhisadvocacyofvalueseveninlaterdaysof behaviouralism Theperiodbtw19481968sawthedevelopmentof TheCasemethod CPA PPBS(planningprogrammingandbudgeting) Waldoadded3moredevelopmentsin1972

NPA OrganisationalHumanism OrganisationalDevelopment..

WaldoPointedthatNPA projects3perspectivesclearlytheyare: Clientorientedbureaucracy RepresentativeBureaucracy Peoplesparticipationinadministration AccordingtoWaldo,NPA UrgesConcernforsocialequity PAshouldbemoreProactiveratherthansimplyReactive PAshouldbemoresensitive,subtleandhumane. Notantiscientificbutadvancetechnologiestobeusedinthecontextofconcernand reform.

LaterperiodofsixtiessawUSinturmoil.NationwasplaguedbyUrbanriots,losthuge numberofyoungpeopleinVietnamwar..ItwasinsuchaturbulenttimetheNPA originated TheproponentsofNPAcomplainedtheOldPAwasUnresponsiveandunimaginative andhasceasedtobeanagentofReform. SomenewerconcernsofPAaccordingtoWaldoare: Antipoverty UnionsandcollectiveBargaining Environmentalism Consumerism WaldosPublicationsinthefieldofadministrativetheoryarenotasnumerousasin thegeneralfieldofadministration. Hehasclassifiedexistingorganisationsintofourmodels TheDecisionMakingmodel Systemmodel Bureaucratmodel Socialsystemmodel

Minnow brook Conference: 1968

33youngscholarsandpractitionersofPAgatheredatminnowbrookconference centre(Syracuseuniversity)undertheinspiringLeadershipofDwightWaldo,and challengedthetraditionalPA.ItgaverisetoNPA

WaldohasbeenoneofthemostcreativemindsintheAmericanPublic administration.

Source
Thinkers.srirammaheshwari Laxmikant.

FREDERICK TAYLOR

He is regarded as the father of the scientific management, and was one of the first management consultants. He was considered as one of the intellectual leaders of efficiency movement and his ideas were highly influential. Taylor believed that the best management is a true science, applicable to all kinds of human activities. Taylor focussed mainly on management principles applied directly to the field of production. The conditions in the factory were unplanned. Complete absence of standardization of methods of work. Workers were left with their own discretion in choosing methods to be employed for doing their work. Taylor noticed a phenomenon of workers purposely operating below their capacity and called this phenomenon as soldiering or skiving. He attributed three reasons for this, 1. They believed that if they produce more, some of them would become surplus and would be eliminated. 2. Non incentive wage system encouraged low productivity. 3. Rule of thumb and unscientific methods employed by workers. To counter the problem of soldiering and improving the efficiency, Taylor undertook experiments to determine the best level of performance of job. These were characterised by the use of stop watches to time a workers sequence of motion with the objective of determining one best way of doing the job. Scientific Management Theory [SMT] attempted to transform administration of workplace so as to increase productivity. He built up orderly sets of principles, which were adopted in place of trial and error methods. He proposed a new system consisting of three parts, 1. Observation and analysis of work through time study to set the rate or standard. 2. A differential rate system of piece work. 3. Paying men and not position. To him, the objective of the management should be to pay high wages and to have low unit production cost to increase the efficiency. His other objectives were, 1. 2. 3. 4. Application of scientific principles. Standardisation of work conditions. Formal training to workers and instruction cards. Friendly co-operation between management and workers.

Taylor recognised the need for the scientific selection of the right men for the right job considering their initial qualifications and potential for further learning. He wanted effective supervision of worker and his working conditions. The principal object of management according to him was to have maximum prosperity for the employer and the employee. Taylor observed that management neglected its functions and shifted its responsibility to the worker.

FREDERICK TAYLOR

Principles of scientific management 1. Development of true science- It is necessary to know as to what constitutes a fair days work. It saves the worker from the unnecessary criticism of the boss and enables the management to get the maximum work from the worker. He wanted to classify and tabulate the ideal working methods, what he called them as one best way of doing a job. 2. Scientific selection and progressive development of the workman To ensure the effective performance of the scientifically developed work. It is the responsibility of the management to develop the worker offering him opportunities for advancement to do the job to the fullest realisation of his capabilities. 3. Scientific education and development of workers. 4. Friendly co-operation between management and workers. Taylors scientific management assumes equal responsibility between management and workers. The division of work between them creates understanding and mutual dependence. Functional foremanship Taylor doubted the efficacy of the linear system or military type organisation, where each worker has only one boss. He replaced this system with what he called as functional foremanship in which worker receives order from 8 specialised supervisors. Of the 8 functional bosses, 4 are responsible for planning and 4 for execution. He believed that in this functional type of organisation, the foreman can be trained very quickly and specialisation becomes very easy. Other mechanism developed by him, 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Time study. Standardisation of work. Movement of worker for each class of work. Desirability of planning room. The exception principle in management. Use of slide rules and similar time saving implements. Instruction cards. Task idea in management, accompanied by large bonus for successful performance of the task. 9. The differential rate system. 10. Routing system. 11. Modern cost system. Mental revolution SMT, according to Taylor, primarily involves a complete mental revolution on the part of workers and the management as to their duties, their work, and towards their fellow worker. It demands the realisation of the fact that their mutual interests are not antagonistic and mutual prosperity is possible only through mutual co-operation. Mental revolution requires fulfilment of two basic conditions,
2

FREDERICK TAYLOR

1. Both, management and workers should turn their attention towards increasing the size of surplus rather than on division of the surplus. 2. Both sides must recognise the importance of scientific investigation and knowledge, and discard the old traditional individual judgement/opinion in all matters. After breakthrough in mental revolution, the organisation provides a congenial environment for introduction of SMT. Criticism Taylor was of opinion that every employee had two needs; high wages and opportunity for personal advancement. The worker was thus viewed and treated as an individual workhorse in social isolation. SMT takes a mechanistic and economic view of human nature. However workers do not always behave in an economically rational way. SMT fails to take account of how people at work are affected by social variables. SMT oversimplified workers motivation in terms of money only. In its enthusiasm to standardize work procedures, SMT had literally put an end to individual discretion and creativity. It was criticised as mechanistic theory of organisation. It increased monotony and resulted in absence of skill variety. Taylors method of scientific management sacrifices the initiative of the worker, his individual freedom and the use of his intelligence and responsibility. His specification of what should be done and in what time leaves no scope for workers to think. The use of stop watch was protested and led to strikes where Taylorism was under implementation. SMT was also criticised as it neglected the human aspects of production and concentrated only with mechanical aspects. Basic ideals of SMT and labour unionism were found to be incompatible. Taylors SMT was impersonal and underemphasised the human factor. Hawthorne investigations also proved that emotional attitude of worker toward his work and his colleagues play an important part in increasing efficiency. The work gets depersonalized and the worker becomes a mere cog in the machine, and the relation between the worker and the executive becomes remote as a result of which worker lacks the sense of participation in the work. It may even lead to automation of the workers, which may have physiological and neurological consequences. Taylors division of work into planning and executive divisions has been severely criticised. It is believed that it is difficult to develop proper team spirit, and if planning is totally diversified from the execution it is difficult to secure the participation of the workers in the progress of the firm. Taylor overlooked the fact that principle of division and sub-division of work into minutest part is subject to law of diminishing return. Contribution of SMT Taylor was the first person to emphasize the importance of quantitative techniques in the study of industrial management. His concepts of work design, measurement, and production control changed the nature of the industry and began to establish departments of work study, quality control, etc. Taylorism led to the introduction of Human Relations Movement within the
3

FREDERICK TAYLOR

discipline of Public Administration. Taylor, in brief, combined theory and practice, thought and experiment, and teaching and doing all in one life. His SMT had a major influence on the growing reform and economy movements in Public Administration.

WebersBureaucracy
INTRODUCTION
Maxweberenjoysuniqueplaceingalaxyofsocialscientistswhoattemptedtoexplain theconceptofbureaucracy Weberswritingreflectthesocialconditionsofgermanyof19thcentury Accordingtoweberadministrationmeansdomination Powerisabilityofapersontoenforcehiswillonothersdespiteresistance Authorityarisesoutoflegitimatepower

Threestatesoflegitimacy
Legalauthority o Foundinorganisationswhererulesareappliedjudiciallyinaccordancewithuniversally validprinciples o Peoplewhoexercisepowerareappointedorelectedbylegalprocedures

Traditionalauthority o o o o Authorityisaninheritedstatus Legitimacyisdrawnfromcustomsandtraditions Peoplefollowtheordersofrulerbecauseoftheirloyaltytoruler Officialswhocarryoutordersarehouseholdstaffofruler

Charismaticauthority o o o Powerisexercisedbasedonleaderssupernaturalqualities Legitimacyisderivedfromcharismaofleader Officialswhocarryouttheorderscomprisedisciplesorfollowerswhoareselectedon basisoftheirdevotiontoleader

Allthesethreeauthoritiesclaimlegitimacyaslongasruledaccepttheirorders Legitimacyislostwhenleader/rulerdoesillegalthings,ignorestraditionsandlosescharisma respectively

Weberconsideredlegalauthorityassuitableformoderngovernments.Hencehedesigned bureaucracyasalegalrationalauthority

Bureaucracy
Weberwas1stsocialscientisttomakeasystematicstudyofbureaucracy Bureaucracyisanadministrativebodyofappointedofficials Bureaucracyisof2types o o Patrimonialbureaucracyfoundintraditionalandcharismatictypesofauthority Legalrationalbureaucracyfoundinlegaltypeofauthority

Greaterstresswasonlegitimacyandimpersonalorder Keyfeaturesofbureaucracyare o Impersonalorder o Rules o Rulestoregulateconductofoffice Applicationofrulesrequriesspecialisedtraining Authorityisderivedfromthepositionandnotthepersonholdingtheposition

Sphereofcompetence Eachofficerhasaspecificfunctionandnecessaryauthoritytocarryoutthe function

Hierarchy Clearhierarchyexistsinorganisationofofficesandadministrativestaff

Writtendocuments Everyadministrativeactisrecordedinwritingtoensureaccountability

Personalandpublicends Officialmeansshouldnotbeusedtoachievepersonalgoals Thisistopreventmisuseofpositionbybureaucrats

Meritbasedrecruitment Appointmentandjobplacementisabsedontechnicalqualifications Itisafulltimeoccupation Fixedsalarypaidinmoney

Advantages
Precision. Speed. Clarityincommunication. Reductionoffriction. Reductionofpersonalcosts.

Disadvantages
Multiplicationofadministrativefunctions Verticalstructure Manylevelsofmanagement Muchpaperwork,routineand"redtape" Impersonalofficialsworkingtoafixedroutinewithoutnecessarilyexercisingintelligent judgment.

Criticism
RobertMerton:adherencetohierarchyandrulesmayresultinunintendedconsequences whichmaybedetrimentaltoachievementoforganisationalgoals PhilipSelznick:divisionoforganisationintosubunitsmayleadtoascenariowheregoalsofsub unitsmaycomeinconflictwithorganisationalgoalsleadingtogoaldisplacement Thereareseveralcontradictionsinwebersmodel o o o o Thetwoprinciplesi.e.Impersonaldetachmentandespritdecorpsareincompatible Stricthierarchygivesrisetomutualsuspicion Promotiononbothseniorityandmeritarecontradictory Thismodelignoreshumantouch

PeterBlaudoubtedtheuniversalityofbureaucracy o Bureaucracyneedstoadjustaccordingtothechangingenvironmenttoremainefficient

Robertpresthus:weberhasmadeimplicitassumptionsaboutmotivationwhichmaynothold trueinnonwesternsocieties Simonandbarnard:efficiencywillbereducedofwebersstructuralapproachisfollowed Lapalombara:bureaucracyisalessefficaciousinstrumenttobringabouteconomicchange Emphasisondocumentsleadstooverformalismandconvertsbureaucratintoaglorifiedclerk Carlfriedrich:bureaucracyisconsideredasidelatype.Butidealandtypecontradicteach other

Itlacksempiricalvalidity

Conclusion
Weberwascriticisedforitsoverformalism.Butpresentdayadministrationinfactisbecoming moreformalwithdevelopmentofnewmanagementtechniques. Todaybureaucracyispracticedinmostofsocietiesofworld Bureaucracyhasevenbeenusedbywelfareanddevelopmentorganisationsbecauseofthe weaknessesinherentinindividuals Administratorsareconsideredchangeagentsandbureaucracyactsasacatalystfor modernisation Bureaucraticrulesandproceduresarelikelytopersistinallorganizations,soitisimportantto considerboththeirenablingandcoercivefeatures

WOODROW WILSON

INTRODUCTION The intellectual roots of Public administration as a Discipline are traced to the pioneering contributions made by Woodrow Wilson in the 1880s. In his famous essay, The Study of administration, published in 1887, he stimulated interest in and stressed for a study of administration. The study of administration was the result of Wilsons search to find answers to the political abuses of the spoil system and finding ways of assimilation of European administrative systems into American democratic politics.

Life and works

He studied politics, government, law He was a professor of political science from 1886 to 1902 In 1902 he became governor of New Jersy and in 1913 Precedent of USA Recipient of noble price(1919) for peace and contribution to formation of league and nations

Wilsons contribution to public administration 1. His advocacy of a science of administration; 2. His emphasis on the special nature of administrations distinguishing administration from politics;-Dicotomy 3. His apparent predilection for private or business administrator; and 4. His early initiative for comparative study of administration.

ADMINISTRATION AND GOVERNMENT

Wilson emphasized the importance of study of administration in the context of increasing complexity in society, increasing role of state and democratic nature of governments. Defined - administration as the most important part of government, government in action, execute/operative /most visible part of government. Before Wilson (19th century) focus of scholars was on politics, making the laws, framing the constitution. After Wilson focus shifted to administration, running the constitution and execution of laws. now the focus was onhow not what i.e. how the law should be administer with equity, speed and without friction.

Therefore objective of administrative study is to discover What government can properly and successfully do .And how it can do these things with almost possible efficiency and the least cost of either money or of energy.

ADMINISTRATIVE SCIENCE Wilson strongly believed that administration is eminently a science. he said that science of administration is the latest fruit of science of that of science of politics. He observed that it is more difficult to run a constitution than to frame one. Wilson wanted that the debate on the constitutional principles should be set aside as they are of little principle consequence ,and one should try to systematically and understood science of administration'

POLITICS AND ADMINISTRATION DICHOTOMY Wilson examined the relationship between politics and administration and consider as separate activities at one level and interdependent at another. This vagueness leads to different interpretations of his views and administrative relationships. Interdependence and intimate relationship: He said Administration cannot be divorced from its connections with the other branches of Public law without being distorted and

robbed of its true significance. Its foundations are those deep and permanent principles of politics. From this statement, it is evident that Wilson was aware of the

interdependence between politics and administration, while trying to carve out the field of administration. Wilson argued that politics and administration are separate: He said administrative questions are not political questions. According to him, politics is the special province of the statesman and administration that of a technical officials.

ADMINISTRATION AND BUSINESS: Wilson argued Administration is a business and like business it does not involve itself in questions of politics.administration being removed from politics is not subject to the vagaries and vicissitudes but it does on uninterrupted continuing the promise of the system The basic premise of argument -the affairs of public administration were synchronous with those of private administration. He focused on implementation of aspects of government and advocated the need for technically competent civil service based on merit.

WILSONS VIEWS ON COMPARATIVE METHOD: Wilson emphasized the importance of comparative method particularly learning from others about the ways of doing things without motives and ends. Therefore one can learn from European autocracies, their more efficient administration methods without importing their autocratic spirit and ends.

THE GOVERNMENT-NEW MEANING

His Article The new meaning of Government published in 1912 in womens magazine, he extends the consent to the participation in government in all classes and interests and

disentanglement of the government from all vested interest and free from every kind of narrow and private control. He argues that law should be clear, explicit, founded upon fact and unmistakable, and should be changed if bad. and law should be implemented without reference to persons or interest-financial or political And Government must administer resources as good trustee

AN EVALUATION

Wilson noted the study of Administration was too general ,too broad and too vague.It gave scope for different interpretations of Wilsons views and also assessment of his contribution to the study of public administration.looking in a historical context when the political debate was mainly on who should make laws and what the laws should be,his focus on howlaws should be administredis aseminal contribution.

CRITICISM Riggs Argued Administration cannot work in vacuum. Politics has wide impact on administration. Therefore politics-administration dichotomy no longer valid. Wilson has been criticized for giving one sided opinion .i.e. for forgetting his mother discipline political science. Wilson talked about efficiency, business like administration, speed. in this process he did not cover social dimensions. His approach was prescriptive not descriptive, because he never mentioned how to achieve efficiency, economy, effectiveness. Buechner argues-basic premise of Wilsons argument was that the affairs of public administration were synonymous with those of private administration. He was criticized for just raising the issues not answering it.

YEHEZKEL DROR Introduction, Life & Works: Yehezkel Dror (1928) was born in Vienna, Austria, migrated to Israel in 1938 and was educated in Jerusalem at Hebrew and Howard universities. He is widely regarded as the worlds foremost pioneers of modern public policy studies. Through his concept of policy sciences, he attempted to avoid the peril of specialisation (bordering narrow isolation), present among the social sciences in modern times, which he believes is dangerous as it renders both the knowledge and its possessor ineffective. Drors professional experience includes visiting professorships and policy consultancies at universities and government institutes in several countries. He is a recipient of several awards including First Annual Harold Lasswell Award. His prominent publications included i. Public Policy-making Reexamined (1968), ii. Design for Policy Sciences (1971), iii. Ventures in Policy Sciences (1971) iv. Policy-making under Adversity (1986). Knowledge System and Public Policy: Dror, while taking stock of the existing knowledge for human action, divided the knowledge into three levels:

The analysis to these knowledge system led Dror to propound the following law: While human capacities to shape the environment, society and human beings are rapidly increasing, policy-making capabilities to use those capacities remained the same. The endeavours to develop scientific knowledge in the area of policy-making suffer from the following weaknesses: a. Micro-approach adoption of present research. b. Disjointed knowledge system. c. Focus on rationality. d. Too much of incrementalism. e. Neglected critical elements like politicians. f. Lack of comprehensive approach due to the dichotomy between behavioural and normative approach. g. Lack of devices in normative approach. h. Absence of prescriptive methodology in behavioural approach. Thus, he concludes that policy science, as a separate field is necessary and essential to accelerate the development of policy knowledge and to use it for better policy-making.

Emergence of Policy Sciences: The policy sciences are emerging from a number of efforts, like the pressure of problems environmental, urban, public order, demands for new forms of participation, new patterns of international cooperation, etc. Now, in many countries, there is a tendency to move from science policy to policy research using science and scientific methods.

Dror fears that the emergence of a new science may not be allowed to come up at all because of the existing academic and political culture. Thus, he suggests some new paradigms of the policy sciences, which are the following: 1. Understanding improvement of macro-control systems, esp. policy systems. 2. Breaking the barriers & traditional boundaries between various social sciences by integrating knowledge & building up a supra-discipline focusing on policy-making. 3. Bridging the gulf between pure and applied research. 4. Accepting tacit knowledge and personal experience as an important source. 5. Sensitising to the difficulty of achieving Value Free Sciences. 6. Rejecting the a-historic approach as it is very time sensitive. 7. Discarding the take-it-or-leave-it attitude of behavioural sciences. 8. Recognising the crucial role of extra-rational processes like creativity, intuition, charisma & value judgement, and of irrational processes like depth motivation.

Implications of Policy Sciences: Emergence of policy sciences will have far-reaching implications such as: i. Transfer of some major research and teaching functions form universities to research organisations. ii. Participation of experienced politicians and executives in scientific activities. iii. Interaction between universities and policy research organisation. iv. Novel teaching designs. v. Basic change in the age-old dilemma of knowledge and power, which in turn effects social and political power. Dror anticipates the following far-reaching implications in the growth of policy sciences: 1. Utilisation of its knowledge in consideration of issues, exploration of alternative and clarification of goals. 2. Encouraging the explicit mega-policy decisions which include several factors. 3. Encouraging the comprehensive mega-policies within a broader context of basic goals, postures and directives. 4. Willingness to learn by systematic evaluation of past policies. 5. Devoting for greater attention to better consideration of the future. 6. Encouraging creativity by supporting individuals and organisations engaged in adventurous thinking and organised dreaming. 7. Envisaging the establishment of multiplicity of policy research organisations. 8. Belief in extensive social experimentation for finding solutions to present and emerging social issues. 9. Encouraging institutional arrangements for possibilities of long range advancement of humanity through genetic policies. 10. Encouraging one-person-centred high-level decision-making who have to bear the major brunt of work. 11. Devoting considerable attention to improve the politician as it believes in a new symbiosis between power and knowledge. 12. Endeavouring to advance citizen participation in public policy-making. 13. Expediting radical Nova design of adult education to increase public participation in decision-making. 14. Moulding the children - the future citizens for policy-making roles by changing the school curriculum and teaching methods. 15. Avoiding pitfall of a few person monopolising policy science knowledge. 16. Expecting changes from politics, the public and education by involving a major change in the contribution of scientists in policy-making.

Thus, policy sciences hope to improve policy-making and decision-making which remained largely underdeveloped. But, it involves the large-scale effort on the part of the scientific community and policy practitioners.

Models of Public Policy-making: Dror considers the normative model as a i. Tool for systematically analysing public policy-making ii. Basis for the criteria and standards needed to evaluate policy-making iii. Guide for formulating effective proposals for any improvements that are found to be desirable. He examines existing 6 normative models critically citing their shortcomings: 1. The pure-rationality model: It comes in for most detailed criticism. a.Its 1st step, namely, establishing a complete set of operational goals is politically more difficult than stating general goals and then letting operational goals evolve themselves. b.The next two steps, namely, making a complete inventory of values and resources and preparing a complete set of alternative policies are even more difficult with the present manpower allocated to policy-making. c.The next three steps, newly preparing a valid set of predictions of cost & benefit for each alternative, calculating the net differential expectation for each and then choosing the best are indeed extremely difficult. 2. The economically rational model: It may be dubbed as the pure-rationality model with a tack on it as far economically possible. 3. The sequential decision model: With a tack on it, it involves trying out two alternatives till one proves obviously better than the other less than half way through the trial. 4. The incremental change model: It involves step-by-step decision-making using past experience - advocated by Lindblom. It comes in again for very sharp criticism as it can possibly succeed only when the future is a ridiculous in the present world situation. 5. The satisfying model: It is essentially Simons satisficing model of the normal human being choosing the first satisfactory alternative without going further. 6. The extra-rational process model: It is no model as such but is brought in to emphasize the need to use extra-rational abilities. As normative models have many limitations, Dror suggests optimal model integrating and supplementing the strength of various models, at same time avoiding their weaknesses. He claims his optimal model to be a fusion of the economically rational model with the extra-rational model. He presented 5 major characteristics of his optimal model:

The optimal model has 3 major stages, which in turn, has a number of phases and are closely interconnected by channels of communication and feedback:

Barriers of Policy Sciences: In particular, the following specific barriers can be identified: 1. Lack of belief in the ability of science to be of help in the policy-making process. 2. Strong taboos and ritualistic attachments to institutions and beliefs. 3. Socio-cultural distances between scientists and policy-makers. 4. Contradictory conclusions arrived at by equally reputable scientists. 5. Bad experience with science and its contributions to policy-making. In addition, two main interrelated socio-cultural barriers to policy sciences appear to be: a. Fear of the policy-making roles of science, and b. Beginnings of an anti-intellectual and anti-rational movement. Another important barriers to policy studies in many countries are the following: i. University conservatism, i.e. Universities are dominated by Juridical approach and absence of advanced social science. ii. Most radical ideologies reject policy studies and research as a servant of the corrupt establishment delaying the needed revolution by constituting a palliative. iii. Scarcity of persons who are qualified to engage in policy research. Becoming a Policy Scientist: Dror suggested 9 desiderata to the striving policy scientists, which are:

As the desiderata presented above was formidable, he offered 5 operational recommendations to aid & guide those who intend to become policy scientist, which are: i. Read a lot and broadly, ii. Work on diverse issues, iii. Experience different work locations, iv. Spend some years in another culture, v. Study a major language. Dror was clear that to become a policy scientist ones skills and qualifications are important to advise on critical decisions.

Capacity to Govern: The inadequacies of the present day forms of governance are being increasingly recognised due to distrust of governments, money dominated elections, failure of governments to find policy options on major issues, etc. Dror argues that the contemporary governments are obsolete and proposes changes in values, structures, staffing, public understanding and political culture to equip the governments to meet the challenges of the 21st century. Present governance is not equipped for weaving the future for better, so radical governance redesigns are essential in order to upgrade capacities to govern. Dror distinguishes between ordinary tasks of governance and higher order tasks - the former include service delivery, maintaining public order, etc. that are receiving attention in new public management and re-inventing government. Higher order tasks of governance should receive more attention and priority. He identifies 10 characteristics of global change, viz.:

Crticisms: 1. Drors proposition for the development of a new discipline of Policy Sciences is a bold attempt at integration of knowledge. But, the total approach tends to be academic in perspective with poor operational utility. 2. He started with an observation that control systems developed so far are feeble which is considered to be disastrous to the future of man. But, he failed to establish any valid correlation between improvement in public policy-making and societal direction systems. 3. His call for the use of extra-rational abilities in his optimal model is criticised from the standpoint of the present state of administrative studies. 4. His major contribution is metapolicy-making. From this, he goes over to simply describe the existing structure but fails to underpin the problem of special research into deliberate structural change and their impact on policy. 5. His discussion on policy sciences is conditioned mostly by the experience of Western societies and of Israel. But, such an analysis should consider 3rd World countries. 6. His discussion suffers from vagueness and repetition. Conclusion: 1. Dror viewed policy sciences as a response to face the challenge of shaping the future through improved knowledge, structural rationality and organised creativity. 2. As the purpose of policy sciences is to contribute to the improvement of public policymaking, policy sciences as a supra-disciplinary effort has an immense contemporary relevance. 3. Although the analysis of Dror suffers from certain shortcomings, the whole approach has immense academic relevance to a student of social sciences, as it is a bold attempt to break the artificial barriers created to knowledge.

F.W.RIGGS
1.INTRODUCTION Hisworkisregardedaspathbreakingworkincomparativepublicadministration. Emphasizedcrossculturalandcrossnationaladministrativestudy Theoryfindslotsofrelevanceindevelopingcountries. Usedthreebroadanalyticaltool:
1. Ecologicalapproach 2. StructuralFunctionalapproach

3. IdealModels 2.1.EcologicalApproach: Administrationisaffectedbytheenvironmentinwhichitoperatesandin turnaffectstheenvironment. Interrelationshipexistsamongadministration,social,political&economic subsystems. 2.2.StructuralFunctionalApproach 5impfunctionsofsociety:social,economic,political,communicationand symbolic Thisapproachisanalyzingthesefunctionswhicharecarriedbystructures responsibleforit. 2.3.VariousModels 2.3.1.AgrariaIndustriaModel Agrariaissystemwhereagriculturepredominates.Theadministrative systemhasascriptivevalues;structuresarediffusedandnormsfollowed areparticularisticandnonegalitarian.

 Industriaareindustrialsocietieshavinganadministrativesystemwhichhas achievementnorms,haveuniversalprincipleandisegalitarian. Riggslateraddedtransitiamodelwhichrepresentsamodeloftransforming society.Thetransitiarepresentstransitionalstagebetweenagrarianand industriaandpossessthecharactersticofbothagrarianandindustria. 2.3.2.FusedPrismaticDiffractedModel Seesection3 3.FusedPrismaticDiffractedModel 3.1.FusedModel Basedontheprincipleofprism.Whitelightrepresentsasocietywithavery lessdegreeofdevelopment.Diffractedrainbowrepresentshighly developedsociety.Theinbetweentransitionstageisprismaticsociety. Neitherofidealextremeexists.Onlydegreevaries. Heavilydependonagriculture;economicsystembasedonbartersystem Kingandofficialsnominatedbythekingcarryoutalladministrative, economicandotheractivities. Royalfamilyandspecialsectsdominate.Ascriptivevaluesdominate. 3.2.DiffractedModel Eachstructurecarriesoutitsownfunctions. Attainmentvalueinsociety. Economicsystembasedonmarketmechanism(demandandsupply) Responsivegovernment Generalconsensusamongallthepeopleonallbasicaspectsofsociallife. 3.3.PrismaticModel Achievedcertaindegreeofdifferentiation.Specializationofroleshavebeen achievedbutcoexistenceoftheseroleshavefriction. 3Features: Heterogeneity

Formalism Overlapping 3.3.1. Heterogeneity Simultaneousexistenceofdifferentkindsofsystemandviewpoints.Ex. ruralurban,Indiangurukulaswesterneducation,homeopathicallopathic. Variousfactorspullingapartthesystem. Politicalandadministrativeofficersenjoyenormousinfluence.Priviledges forselectedgroupsandpressuregroupwhichmaybecommunal.Itcreates probleminadministration 3.3.2.Formalism Discrepancybetweenformallyprescribedandeffectivelypracticednorms. Prismaticsocietyhashighdegreeofformalism.Rulesandregulationsare prescribedbutwidedeviationsareobserved. LackofpressureonGovernmentforprogrammeobjectives.Weaknessof socialpowerstoinfluencebureaucraticperformance. Hypocricyinsociallife. ConstitutionalFormalismgapbetweenstatedprinciplesandactual implementation.exofficeofChiefMinister.

3.3.3. Overlapping Extenttowhichdifferentiatedstructurescoexistswithundifferentiated structuresoffusedtype. Newormodernsocialstructuresarecreated,buttraditionalsocial structurescontinuetodominate.ExParliament,Government,Offices existbutbehaviorisgovernedbyfamily,religion,casteetc.

 4.Subsystemsinprismaticmodel 4.1.SalaModel(Administrativesubsystems) Certainfeaturesofbereau(diffracted)coexistswithcertainfeaturesof chambers(fused). Formalismexists: 4.1.a.Universalizaionoflawistherebutisnotfollowed 4.1.b.Objectiveissocialwelfarebutpriorityispersonalaggrandizement. Overlappingexists: Highlyconcentratedauthoritystructureoverlapswithlocalizedand dispersedcontrolsystem. Noncooperationamongrivalcommunitiesalsoreflectsinadministration. Sofavouritismandnepotismiswidespread ExistenceofclectsThedominantgroupwhousemodernmethodsof organizationbutretainsdiffuseandparticularisticgoaloftraditionaltype. Forpromotionofficersdependonascriptiveties.Officersunresponsiveto people.Unbalancedpolityinwhichbureaucracydominatesexists. Nepotism,corruptionandinefficiency 4.2.BazarcanteenModel(economicsubsystem) Marketfactors(demandandsupply)aswellasareanafactors(religious, social,family)dominatestheeconomy. Thisleadstopriceindeterminancyfurtherdeterioratingeconomic conditionsencouragingblackmarketing,hoarding,adulterationetc. Foreigndominationandasmallsectionofpeopledominateeconomic institution. Priceofservicesvaryfromplacetoplace,timetotimeandpersonto person.

 Economicsunsystemactslikesubsidizedcanteentopriviledged&tributary canteentomembersoflesspriviledged,politicallynoninfluentialor membersofoutsidegroup. Wagerelation:Widegapexistsforsamework.Personswithlesswagemay feelmotivatedtoearnmorebyillegitimatemeans. 5.1.Development Risinglevelofdiffractionrepresentsdevelopment.Higherthelevelof differentiation(variousstructuresforvariousfunctions)andintegration (coexistenceofthesestructures),higherthedevelopment. Ifdifferentiationishighbutnosufficientintegrativemechanism,itleadsto confusionandchaos. Differentiationdependsupontechnologicalfactors.Integrationdepends upon: 5.1.a.Penetrationrecepitivityoflawandgovt.willingnessandability. 5.1.b.Participationwillingnessofpeopletoparticipate. 5.2.Change 5.2.1.Exogeneos:Triggeredbyforeigntechnicalassistance;Govesriseto formalism 5.2.2.Endogeneous:Triggeredfrominside. 6.Criticism Usageofscientificwordsdoesnotmakeadministrationscience.Ithas highlytechnicaldescription Prismaticandsalamodelsareequilibriummodelsanddoesnotleadto socialchange.(Lee) Lackofmeasurementoflevelofdiffractioninprismaticordiffracted society.

 Diffractedsocietyisalsonotdesirablebecauseitisstaticandin equilibrium. Difficulttoidentifythelevelofdifferentiationandintegrationfor development. Lackofinternationalperspective. Wronganalyticaltool.(Tilman) Failstoexplaintheroleofadministrationinsociety. Overlappingisnotspecificphenomenaofprismaticsocietybutexistsin diffractedsocietyalso.(Arora) Prismaticmodelhasanegativecharacter.