Drilling and Completion I - PE 3313 Review of Chapter 1 & 2

Sept. 30, 2011 Dr. R Ahmed

Rock Properties

A knowledge of rock properties and their compositions are critical for a drilling engineer in solving many complex drilling problems Hard or soft formation: rate of penetration Permeable or impermeable: Lost circulation, Swelling or non-swelling: shale instability, Abnormal pressures: well control.

Downhole Temperature

Affects properties of drilling fluids;

Mud treating chemicals and clays become ineffective or unstable at high temperature; causes cement thickening

Has adverse effects on drilling hardware and materials

many problems are encountered drilling high temperature zones; drilling costs become very high.

Downhole Pressures
Improper control of pressure can lead to a kick, blowout, loss of equipment, pollution, and loss of life
1. 2. 3. 4.

Pore pressure: can be normal, abnormal, subnormal Overburden pressure (overburden) Borehole fluid pressure: is a function of mud density Fracture pressure This is the pressure at which a rock fails Pf < Poverburden Uncontrolled breakdown of a rock leads to lost circulation a kick blowout
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Fundamental Pressure Equations

For liquids: P = 0.433xHxS = 0.052xHx (psig) H is ft, S = specific gravity, is density in lbm/gal
(0.01875xGxH/ZavgxTavg)

For gases: P2 = P1*e

(psi)

G is gas gravity, H is ft,Tavg is in R

Total overburden pressure P = 0.433xHxSb = 0.433xH[(1-)Sm + xSf)] (psig) H is ft, Sb, Sm,Sf are bulk, matrix, & the fluid specific gravity

Normal Pore Pressure

Assume all formations are permeable vertically. Fluid in pores becomes more saline with depth so gradient increases. Normal pore pressure at any depth = depth x average fluid gradient above.

Abnormal Pore Pressure

Pore pressure can be different to the normal pressure for the depth. Two conditions are both necessary for the development of abnormal pressure Impermeable barrier above. Mechanism causing pressure change.

Reasons for Drilling a Well

Drilling is not only for producing pore fluids (oil, water, gas) but also for: Gaining information about the sub-surface; Allowing injection of fluids; Exploiting geothermal resources; Disposing Waste (nuclear waste); Drilling training/research wells.
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Objectives of Drilling Operations

Minimize the total well cost (i.e. maximize return on investment) Drill a useable hole (minimize formation damage) Drill well in a safe and environmentally sound manner.

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Classifications of Rigs

In general, there are three locations: onshore, swamp or offshore/deepwater/ultra deepwater Onshore: mast or mobile (generally of the cantilever type) Swamp: tender barge or jack-up (they are bottom-supported) Offshore: tender barge, jack-up, semi-submersible, drill ship
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Basic Rig Components

All rotary rigs have the same basic drilling equipment, with the following major components or systems: Power system Hoisting system Fluid-circulating system Rotary system Well control system Well monitoring system
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Rig Power System: Input Power

Input power: The rate fuel energy input delivered to the power system: Power input = Fuel consumption rate * heating value = wf * H
Heating values of common fuels
Fuel Type
Diesel Gasoline Butane Methane

Density (lbm/gal)
7.2 6.6 4.7 -

Heating Value Heating Value (Btu/lbm) (Btu/gal)

19,000 20,000 21,000 24,000 136,800 132,000 98,700 -

Hoisting System
The hoisting system is designed to lower or raise the drillstring, casing string, and other subsurface equipment into or out of the hole. The principal components of the hoisting system are:
1) 2) 3)

Derrick and substructure; Block and tackle; Drawworks.

The following two routine operations are performed with the hoisting system:
1. 2.

Making a connection: adding a new joint of drillpipe as the hole deepens; Making a trip: process of removing the drillstring from the hole to change a portion of the downhole assembly and then lowering the drillstring back to the hole bottom. A trip is made usually to change a dull bit.

Arrangement of Block and Tackle

Drawworks
Provide the hoisting and braking power required to raise and lower the heavy strings of pipe The principal parts of the drawworks are:
Drum Brake (hydrodynamic or electromechanical type); Transmission (for direction control) ;and Catheads (spool used to tension the drilling line)

The drum transmit the torque required for hoisting and braking It also stores the drilling line (cable) required to move the traveling block the length of the derrick.

Rig Fluid Circulating System

Function is to remove rock cuttings out of the hole as drilling progresses Principal components are Pumps Pits/tanks Mixing devices Contaminants removal equipment (solid control devices), and Flow conduits

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Rotary System
Includes all the equipment used to achieve bit rotation; Can be conventional or modern type; Conventional rotary system is made up of swivel, kelly kelly bushing, rotary drive, rotary table, and the drillstring (i.e. drill pipe and drill collars) Modern rotary system is TOP DRIVE, also called power swivel

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Well Control System

One of the most important system on the rig. Its functions are:
To detect a kick and To close the well on surface To circulate well under pressure & increase fluid density at the same time To move pipe under pressure To divert flow from the rig

Kick is uncontrolled flow of formation fluid and occurs when hydrostatic pressure (PH) is less than the formation pressure (Pf) If the well system fails, BLOWOUT occurs - this is perhaps the worst disaster while drilling Effects of blowouts are: loss of life, loss of equipment, loss of the well, loss of natural resources, and damage to the environment
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Kick Detection During Drilling Operation

Kick detection while drilling usually achieved by use of a pit volume indicator or mud flow indicator. Both devices can detect an increase in the flow of mud returning from the well over that which is being circulated by the pump. Mud flow indicator can detect a 19 kick more quickly. Used in

Blowout Preventer (BOP)

These are special pack-off devices (valves) used to stop fluid flow from a well. A multiple of the pack-of devices is called BOP stack. Functions of BOP: To stop flow from the annulus To determine flow from the well To allow pipe movement under pressure To allow fluid circulation
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Drilling Cost Analysis

Introduction

The duties and responsibilities of a drilling engineer is to recommend drilling procedures that will result in:
Successful completion of the well; Safe and inexpensively drilling procedures.

Drilling Cost Equation

The use of drilling cost equation can be useful in making these recommendations. The usual method is to break the drilling costs into two categories:
1. Variable drilling costs (time dependent costs); 2. Fixed operating expenses that are independent of

alternatives being evaluated (time independent costs).

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Total Drilling Cost

Is the sum of variable and fixed operating costs . Hence, the total drilling cost per foot Cf is expressed as:
1 where:
tb is the time required to drill (i.e. run the bit); tc is the time spent during making connections; tt is the time spent during tripping; Cb is the cost of the bit; Cr is the fixed operating cost of the rig per unit time; D is drilled depth.

Estimating Drilling Time

An estimate of drilling time can be based on historical penetration rate data from the area of interest. The penetration rate in a given formation varies inversely with both compressive strength and shear strength of the rock. The rock strength tends to increase with depth of burial because of the higher confining pressure caused by the weight of the overburden. Without major unconformities in the subsurface lithology, the penetration rate usually decreases exponentially with depth. Under this conditions, the penetration rate can be related to depth, D by:

where K and a2 are constants.

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Outline
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Brief Overview; Functions of drilling fluids; Classification of drilling fluids; Types of drilling fluids; Composition and properties of drilling fluids; Factors governing selection of fluids; Properties of drilling fluids; Testing of drilling fluid; Measuring techniques.
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Direct Major Functions of Drilling Fluids

Transport rock cuttings to the surface; Control formation pressure; Exert sufficient hydrostatic pressure on the formation; Prevent walls from caving; Cool & lubricate the drillstring; Reduce friction between the hole and the drillstring; Transmit hydraulic energy to drill motor, tools and bit.

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Indirect Major Functions of Drilling Fluids

Observe and detect information about the well; Prevent drill string corrosion; Limit formation damage; Minimize hole problem such as loss circulation, stuck pipe, and wellbore instability.

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Classification of Drilling Fluids

Synthetic Fluids

Nitrogen

The choice of a particular fluid depends on several factors such as: Formation type (abnormal pressure, depleted, shale, offshore); Temperature; (high temperature zone, deepwater drilling, flat rheology fluid) Pressure (deepwater narrow drilling window); Environmental concerns (offshore drilling, drilling environmentally sensitive area such as Arctic National Wildlife Refuge ).
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Factors Governing Selection of Fluids

Types of formation: rock strength, stability and permeability; Range of temperature; Formation pore pressure; Well logging evaluation to be performed; Water quality and availability (fresh or salt water); Environmental & ecological considerations; COST - Total cost of drilling fluid is about 10 -12% of total drilling cost and it increases exponentially with depth above 8500-ft
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Properties of Drilling Fluids

Two categories of properties: physical & chemical
Physical properties
Mud density Rheological properties (viscosity, yield, & gel) Filtration loss and cake thickness Contents (solid & liquid)

Chemical properties
pH, cation exchange capacity, total hardness Lime, calcium, and sulfate contents

Resistivity for water-based mud Electrical stability (voltage) for oil-base fluid
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Measuring Techniques: Density

Atmospheric mud balance Lowest mud weight must;

Maintain primary control Avoid compressive stress failure of wall/wellbore collapse

Pressurised mud balance

Highest mud weight must;

Avoid losses or fracturing
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Measuring Viscosity/Rheology

RPM 600 300 200 100

Sec1

102 2 511 341 170

Viscometer guts

Fann viscometer Model 35

Shear stress for a particular shear rate is measured on the rig using a rotating viscometer similar to the one shown here. The viscometer has six standard speeds; rpm 600, 300, 200, 100, 6 and 3. The container is filled with a mud sample.

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Determining Rheological Parameters

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Viscosifiers
Control the rheological properties of drilling fluids; Enhance cuttings transport capacity of the mud; Reduce fluid loss; Decrease formation damage; Reduce wellbore instability

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Fluid Loss Test

Mud sample pressurized against 7.1 in2 (45-cm2) filter paper at 100 psi for 30 minutes. Filtrate volume & cake thickness are reported. HPHT test; 500 psi & 300oF or as required.

Low fluid loss; prevent reservoir damage. Thin filter cake reduces differential sticking. Fann API filter press Fann HPHT filter press

Schematic of API Filter Press

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Example Filter Press Data

f t V f = 2kP sc 1 A f sm

This figure shows that a spurt loss volume of filtrate Vsp is often observed before the porosity and permeability of the filter cake stabilize and the above equation becomes applicable It is common practice to report an approximate water loss which is twice the 7.5-min filtrate as the WL when the 30-min filtrate volume exceeds the capacity of the filtrate receive (cylinder). However, in some cases exact calculation is needed and the following expression can be used:

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Drilling Mud Formulation (Density Calculation)

Pilot testing is frequently necessary to compute the volume of solids added to a

mixture from a knowledge of its mass and density. It is generally assumed that: The total volume = sum of the component volumes
The density of the mixture is given as follows:

m = (m1 + m2 + -----+ mn)/v1+v2+--------+vn)

However, for concentrated solutions of salts such as NaCl and CaCl2, the

assumption of ideal solution is INVALID. The resulting total volume and density are determined from tables.
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Treatment & Conditioning of WaterBased Fluids

Treatment of water-base fluid requires certain operations such as:

Mud-up - to increase the volume of available fluid; Water-back or dilution - to decrease the viscosity; Thinning - to reduce viscosity by adding water or chemicals Emulsification - to add small volume of oil; Density control* - add weighting material or remove solids Solid control* - removal of undesirable solids and addition of desirable solids Chemical treatment* - chemicals are added to enhance certain mud properties, e.g. pH > 9.5 deflocculation Contaminant removal* and filtration control*
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Density Control
Density control involves the removal of solids or the addition of solid (weighting up). Solids removed are the drilled cuttings (undesirable) and there are four methods used.
Screening - shale shaker Forced settling - desander, desilter, centrifuge, & hydrocyclone Chemical flocculation - addition of chemicals to flocculate Dilution - addition of water

The equipment mentioned above are arranged in order of clay size, solid removal and dilution occurs upstream and chemical addition occurs downstream Unweighted fluids - use in series: shale shaker desander desilter centrifuge Weighted fluids - use shale shaker hydro-cyclones (a combination called mud cleaner) centrifuge.
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Density Control Additives Procedure

This process is considered as IDEAL mixing because solids are inert (generally insoluble) Three cases generally treated
Case 1 - normal addition of weighting material (limited or unlimited volume) Case 2 - addition of large amount of weighting material with the addition of water. Why? Weighing material has large surface area, hence adsorbs some water from the fluid leading to high Generally add 1 gal of water /sack = 1gal/100 lbm Case 3 - addition of weighting material after dilution (addition of water) of the old mud.
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Case 1: Normal Addition of Weighting Material

This is the normal addition of weighting material (limited or unlimited volume)
Recall ideal mixing, hence in general

v2 = v1 + vB= v1 + mB/B; m2= m1 + mB 2v2= 1v1 + mB

Solving equations 1 and 2 simultaneously:

(1) (2)

Volume balance Mass Balance

2, 1, B density of new mud, old mud, and barite, respectively v1 = v2{(B - 2)/(B- 1)} mB = (v2 - v1)B v2 = v1{(B - 1)/(B- 2)}
For unlimited case v2 is the final volume For limited case, some old mud must be discarded

(3) (4) (5)

VB

V1

V2
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Case 2 - Addition of Large Amount of Weighting Material with the Addition of Water
This is the addition of large amount of weighting material with the addition of water.
Here also ideal mixing applies but complex

v2 = v1 + vB + vw = v1+ mB/B + mBvwB 2v2 = 1v1 + mB + wmBvwB

(1) (2)

Volume balance Mass balance

2, 1, B,, w density of new mud, old mud, barite, & water respectively vwB = 1 gal water/sack = 0.01 gal water/lbm
Solving equations 1 and 2 simultaneously:

VB Vw
(3) (4) (5)

v1 = v2{(BX - 2)/(BX - 1)} where X = (1 + wvwB)/(1 + BvwB) mB = (v2 - v1)B/(1 + BvwB)

V1

V2
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Advantage of Oil-Based Fluids

Good/stable rheological properties at temp as high as 500oF, Used for drilling active shale, salt, water sensitive formations; Effective against corrosion; Superior lubricating characteristics; Permits mud densities as low as 7.5 lbm/gal, hence used to drill

subnormal;
Good for filtration control.

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Disadvantage of Oil-Based Fluids

Higher initial cost; Requires more stringent environmental/pollution control

procedures, and hence used much less frequently;

Reduced effectiveness of logging tools; Detection of gas kicks is more difficult because of gas solubility in

the oil phase;

High cutting disposal costs.

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Mechanisms of Differential Pressure Sticking

This figure shows the mechanism for differential pressure sticking which distinguishes it from other causes of stuck pipe such as: Insufficient cutting removal; and Borehole collapse.

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Questions

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