EESB05 Midterm First seven chapters and intro readings are testable. Lecture is testable.

. Review Lecture 1/2 Soil Origination Soils originate and form from 5 factors 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Climate Biotic Topography Parent material Time

There are two types of weathering 1. Physical (break down by other rock) 2. Biogeochemical (physical and chemical change) Both types of these weathering occur above parent materials, A, B, C horizons. Weathered A, B, C, horizon Unweather Bedrock Sand is a small rock. Clay is a combination of physical and chemical properties. Four processes that drive formation of soil horizons 1. Addition precipitation, volcanos, eruptions, vegetations, can come from up top or bottom (organic horizon undecomposed roots) 2. Losses plant uptake, runoff (Climate, Precipitation, Calcium leaching, flows down futher) 3. Translocation moving element in soil, up or down, evapouration (salt moving down) 4. Transformation changing element in the soil (chemical alteration of clay flocculation) The development and chronosequence of each soil profile. (See SEPARATE SHEET)

Review Lecture 3 Soil Physical Properties Rocks to Soils 1. Physical Weathering sand, breakdown of rocks - Disruption, disintegration, fragmentation of rock structure 2. Chemical Weathering clay, super small - Agents, H2O, CO2, O2 - Through the process of solution, hydrolysis, hydration, oxid-redox Particle size, Largest to Smallest Sand -> Silt -> Clay Soil Volume Composition Made up of Minerals 45%, Organic 5%, (Air 20-30%, Water 20-30% - often fluctuate up/down) Texture Soil texture is important and (nearly) permanent feature of soil Physical, chemical, biological properties related to texture. Interface of root and soil environment

Composition and size of soil texture classes Soil structure, is how soil is held together, house is the texture, shapes of room is the structure. Sand is like a cube of 8cm by 8cm by 8cm. (Block-like structure, visible by eye) Clay is the smaller feature which is like the spaces that fill up the cube. Clay is very small but lots of surface area. It contains silica layers They are like sheets of a book.

Sand is Macro, while Clay is Macro and Micro Physical properties and surface area NOTE: Adsorption, swelling, and other physical properties follow the same general trend that their intensities go up rapidly as the colloidal size is approached. Finer texture of soil, greater effective surface exposed by particles

Water-holding capacity (High to Low) Clay -> Silt -> Sand Drainage Rate (High to Low) Sand -> Silt -> Clay Resistance to pH change (High to Low) Clay -> Silt -> Sand Soil Structure 1. Spheroidal granular, crumb, very good for agricultural soil, closely related to organic matter 2. Platelike texturized, appears in Bt luvisol, inherited from parent material of soil, or cause by compaction 3. Blocklike particularly in humid condition 4. Prismlike common in soils of arid and semiarid region, appears in Solonetz, upward movement of water Drainage Granular and single grain have rapid drainage of water through soil (lots of droplets) Prismatic and blocky moderate (medium droplets) Massive and platy slow (one droplet) Soil aggregation and aggregate stability Organic matter Roots of hyphae Plant and fungal debris Chemical: flocculation

Macro and Micro-pores Porosity: influence on soil density, soil aeration and gas exchange, water movement in soils, and water holding capacity. Sandy soils show large (macro-) pores, which have less total pore space and has a coarse texture which is denser. Clayey aggregates are solid and contain no pore spaces within them. This is the reason why surface soils with coarse texture are usually denser than those with finer textures.

Soil Density See Separate Sheet Soil Compaction Sand grain, well sorted, loose packing Variety of grain sizes, well grade, loose packing, compaction of particles into a tight packing arrangement increases bulk density of the material and decreases its porosity Engineer look at well sorted, tight packing Increase in bulk density, less space for other particles, reducing plant growth and crop yields.

Growth in relation to Bulk Density Soil Colour Indicates the composition of the soil and the conditions of the soil o Degree of chemical weathering o Organic matter content o Aeration and drainage o Accumulation of salt Influenced by the content of o Organic matter (dark brown or black colour) o Water (gleying, mottling [oxidation-reduction]) o Iron and Magnesium (oxidation yellow or red soil indicates the presence of iron oxides) Sand, loam, and clay soils are subjected to different loosening or pressure.

Munell System Soil colour is compared using this system Colours are assigned a series of letter-number symbols to determine hue, value, chroma Hue dominant spectral colour Value lightness or darkness of a colour Chroma strength or purity of the dominant colour

Review Lecture 4 Soil Water Polarity and H-bonding of water Asymmetrical molecule creating polarity Negative and attracts cations Positive end attracted to the negatively charged clays Hydrogen bonding resulting in adhesion and cohesion

Basic forces involved in the attraction and retention of water Forces of cohesion are between water-water molecules Forces of adhesion are between water and solid surfaces Forces are results of H-bonding Adhesive or adsorptive force diminishes rapidly with distance from the solid surface Cohesion of one water molecule to another results in water molecules forming temporary clusters that are constantly changing in size and shape as individuals water molecules break free or join up with others Cohesion between water molecules also allow the solid to indirectly restrict the freedom of water for some distance beyond solid-liquid interface

Surface tension Capillarity Two forces adhesion and surface tension (cohesion) Meniscus is formed from the combination of two tensions Upwards cohesion in a tube Downwards adhesion in a tube Smaller and closer pores are, slower but higher water will rise Micropores in clay are small enough to hold water against the force of gravity Macropores in sand cannot hold water against the force of gravity Clays are micropores, greater capillarity rise, smaller surface area, greater adhesion Greater attraction for other water molecules (cohesion) than air above Comparative forces acting on water molecules at the surface and beneath the surface. Forces acting below the surface are equal in all directions since each water molecule is attracted equally by neighbouring water molecules At the surface, the attraction of the air for the water molecules is much less than water molecules for each other There is a net downward force on surface on surface molecules The result is like a compressed film, membrane at the surface the meniscus

Soil Water Potentials Differences in energy levels affect water flow (- or +) energy consume or produced as water moves in comparison to free water (0 potential) Difference in energy level of water from one site to another determines the direction and rate of water movement in soil Potential energy is defined as ability to do work Total water potential: sum of gravitational, osmotic, and matric potentials

Gravitational Potential In saturated conditions Gravity pulls water downwards Energy level of soil water at higher elevation in the profile is greater than water at lower elevation Soil water located higher in the soil profile therefore has higher potential energy than water deeper in the soil profile Reference state = reference elevation

Osmotic Potential Osmotic forces attraction of water to ions and other solutes Reduces energy state of water in the soil solution Osmotic potential is always negative or zero because dissolved solutes can only lower the potential energy of water Reference state = pure water Mostly in saline or highly fertilized soils (Solonetz soil) *Freshwater moving to Saltwater

Matric Potential Goes against Gravity and Concentrations Matric forces are which soil particles hold and attract water molecules (cohesion and adhesion, capillarity) Reduces energy state of water near particle surfaces (matrix) Water held under tension has less potential energy per unit quantity of water than reference water (free water); therefore has a lower (negative) water potential Water moves upwards against gravity High energy, high matrix, thick film of water to low energy thin matrix, high tension, dry tension

Water availability Gravitational in macropores drained by gravity (saturation) In micropores (air pockets), matrix drives the increased tension in field capacity Water around soil particles is the wilting point, thick becomes thin from Matrix Potential

Therefore saturation (lots of water) to field capacity (water to be removed) to wilting point (drained) Greater volume of soil water content in clays than sands Silt-loam has the most available water, highest field capacity, best agricultural soil Field-capacity: matric potential in equilibrium with gravitational potential

Soil water potentials in the field Saturated moves up through the rainfall or irrigation Saturated is below the water table, unsaturated above

Water movement: Hydraulic conductivity Water moves through soil as saturated flow or unsaturated flow o Saturated flow: soil pores are completely filled with water o Unsaturated flow: larger pores in the soil are filled with air, leaving only the smaller pores to hold and transmit water Hydraulic conductivity: the ease with which the soil pores permit water movement o Depends on the type of soil, porosity, and the configuration of the soil pores

Saturated flow and hydraulic conductivity Gravitational Saturated Matrix Unsaturated Wilting Point Vapour

Preferential flow cracks, earthworms, root cannels Unsaturated flow: matrix potential gradient Infiltration Both saturated and unsaturated flow is involved Water enters ground surface Rate at which soil is able to absorb rainfall or irrigation High rate in loamy sand Low rate in expansive clay Tractor makes inferential holes Wet soil to dry soil, tight water held, rate of water vapour Water moves slower Thinner layer, slower and slower

Wetting Fronts Changes in the horizon, different wetting fronts Different in dry lighter-coloured soil and darkened soil by the percolating water

Movement of soil water Capillary Forces Dominant process in unsaturated soils Radial movement, anyway movement Sands: less water but faster movement Clays: more water but slower movement Attractive force which lifts water above a free water surface against the force of gravity

Gravitational Forces Dominant process in saturated soils Downward movement

Stratified soils: Fine material over coarse material Sandy soils provide less attraction for water than finer-textured soils Must be saturated before it flush straight down

Review Lecture 5 Soil Aeration and Porosity Factor affecting O2 availability in soil Soil macro-porosity (texture/structure) Gaseous interchange Soil water content (proportion of porosity filled with air versus water) O2 consumption by organisms rates of respiration in the soil Texture is a main role in O2 availability Structure is how closely held in O2 availability *Organic soil has the least oxygen level, due to no oxygen, undecomposed roots o Saturated anaerobic O2 needed to decomposed o Roots and organism perspire, therefore consuming O2

Diffusion Results of increase O2 and decrease in CO2

Gradient pulls O2 into soil pore 1. Diffusion 2. Mass Flow Soil surface mass flow Much lower for diffusion Plant growth on drainage gradient: the effect of oxygen availability on plant growth Lack of O2, deprivation of plant roots Over irrigation, flooding, and waterlogging can cause hypoxic and anoxic problems often leading acute oxygen deprivation of plant roots by saturating pores in the soil

Role of Oxygen Strong oxidizing agent electron acceptor Involves Gleysol soil o Lines in mottling due to anaerobic to aerobic, oxidation-reduction change in O2