Benefits of GIS

Less Data Redundancy, More Timely Information, Easy Analysis of Information,

Improved Management of Resources, Adaptable to Change, Expanded Opportunities
for Analysis, Valuable Tool for Decision Management

Necessity of GIS?
.Finding relationships and patterns and anomalies that are not apparent to the eye.
1.To update the information

.Overlaying and interpreting many different types of information for the same area.

• Viewing data for an area at many different scales. These applications make use of
GIS as a desktop mapping tool and as a convenient digital light table

Why Study GIS?

• 80% of local government activities estimated to be geographically based
– plats, zoning, public works (streets, water supply, sewers), garbage
collection, land ownership and valuation
• a significant portion of state government has a geographical component
– natural resource management
– highways and transportation
• businesses use GIS for a very wide array of applications
– retail site selection & customer analysis
– logistics: vehicle tracking & routing
– natural resource exploration (groundwater,soil,petroleum, etc.)
– precision agriculture
– civil engineering and construction
• scientific research employs GIS
– geography, geology, botany
– anthropology, sociology, economics, political science
– Epidemiology, criminology

Examples of Applied GIS

• Urban Planning, Management & Policy
– Zoning, subdivision planning
– Land acquisition
– Economic development
– Code enforcement
– Housing renovation programs
– Emergency response
– Crime analysis
– Tax assessment
• Environmental Engineering
– Monitoring environmental risk
– Modeling stormwater runoff
– Management of watersheds, floodplains, wetlands, forests, aquifers
 – Environmental Impact Analysis
– Hazardous or toxic facility siting
– Groundwater modeling and contamination tracking
• Political Science
– Redistricting
– Analysis of election results
– Predictive modeling

• Civil Engineering/Utility
– Locating underground facilities
– Designing alignment for freeways, transit
– Coordination of infrastructure maintenance
• Business
– Demographic Analysis
– Market Penetration/ Share Analysis
– Site Selection
• Education Administration
– Attendance Area Maintenance
– Enrollment Projections
– School Bus Routing
• Real Estate
– Neighborhood land prices
– Traffic Impact Analysis
– Determination of Highest and Best Use
• Health Care
– Epidemiology
– Needs Analysis
– Service Inventory

Advantages of GIS
• GIS is good at…
– handling spatial data
– visualisation of spatial data
– integrating spatial data
– framework for:
• analysis and modelling
• decision support

TIN: Triangulated Irregular Network Surface

Elevation points (nodes) chosen based on relief complexity and their location
(x,y,z) determined.
Elevation points connected to form a set of triangular polygons & represented in a
vector structure.
Attribute data stored or associated via relational
DBMS (e.g. slope, aspect, soils, etc.)
 Advantages over raster:
• fewer points
• captures discontinuities (e.g ridges)
• slope and aspect easily recorded
Relating to other polygons for map overlay can be compute intensive (many
polygons)
2
1
A E
B 3
D C F
H4 G
6 5

Unsupervised Classification

In an unsupervised classification, the objective is to group multiband spectral

response patterns into clusters that are statistically separable. Thus, a small range of
digital numbers (DNs) for, say 3 bands, can fix one cluster that is set apart from a
specified range combination for another cluster (and so forth). Separation will
depend on the parameters chosen to differentiate. This can be visualized with the aid
of this diagram, taken from Sabins, Remote Sensing: Principles and Interpretation.
2nd Ed. for four classes: A = Agriculture; d= Desert; M = Mountains; W = Water.

From F.F. Sabins, Jr., Remote Sensing: Principles and Interpretation. 2nd Ed., ©
1987. Reproduced by permission of W.H. Freeman & Co., New York City.

These can be modified so that the total number of clusters can vary
arbitrarily. When the separations are carried out on the computer, each pixel in an
image will be assigned to one of the clusters as being most similar to it in DN
combination values. Generally, in an area within an image, multiple pixels in the
same cluster will correspond to some (initially unknown) ground feature or class so
that patterns of gray levels will result in a new image depicting the spatial
distribution of the clusters. These levels can then be assigned colors to produce a
cluster "map". The trick then becomes one of trying to relate the different clusters to
meaningful ground categories. This must be done by either being adequately familiar
with the major classes expected in the scene under study or, where feasible, by
visiting the scene itself - ground truthing - and visually correlating map patterns to
their ground counterparts. Since the classes are not selected beforehand, this
method is said to be unsupervised.

The Idrisi image processing program employs a simplified approach to

unsupervised classification. Input data consist of the DN values of the registered
pixels for the 3 bands used to make any of the color composites. Algorithms calculate
the cluster values from these bands. The maximum number of clusters is
automatically determined by the parameters selected in the processing. This typically
has the effect of producing so many clusters that the resulting classified image
becomes too cluttered and thus more difficult to interpret in terms of assigned
classes. To improve the interpretability, the number of classes has been limited to 15
(reduction from an initial 28).

The first unsupervised classification operates on the color composite made from
bands 2, 3, and 4. Examine the resulting image

and try to make some sense of the color patterns as indicators of the ground classes
you have learned about in the above paragraphs. A likely conclusion that you will
reach: some of the patterns do well in singling out some of the features in some
parts of the Morro Bay subscene. But, many individual areas represented by clusters
do not appear to correlate that well with what you thought was there. Unfortunately,
what is happening is a rather artificial subdivision of spectral responses from small
segments of the surface, in some instances simply the effect of slight variations in
surface orientation that changes the reflectances or perhaps the influence of what
was termed "mixed pixels" in the Overview. When we try another composite,

bands 4, 7, and 1, the new resulting classification has most of the same problems as
encountered with the first composite. We are forced to conclude that unsupervised
classification is too much of a generalization and that the clusters only roughly match
some of the actual classes. Its value is mainly as a guide to the spectral content of a
scene to aid in making a preliminary interpretation prior to conducting the much
more powerful supervised classification procedures

Supervised Classification

Supervised classification is much more effectual in terms of accuracy in

mapping substantial classes whose validity depends largely on the cognition and
skills of the image specialist. The strategy is simple: conventional classes (real and
familiar) or meaningful (but somewhat artificial) classes are recognized in the scene
from prior knowledge such as personal experience with the region in question, or by
identification using thematic maps or actual on-site visits. This allows one to choose
and set up discrete classes (thus supervising selection) to which identifying category
names are then assigned. Training sites, areas representing each known land cover
category that appear fairly homogeneous on the image (as determined by similarity
in tone or color within shapes delineating the category), are located and
circumscribed by polygonal boundaries drawn (using the computer mouse) on the
image display. For each class thus outlined, mean values and variances of the DNs
for each band used to classify are calculated from all pixels enclosed in the site(s)
(more than one polygon can be established for any class). When DNs are plotted as
functions of the band sequence (increasing with wavelength), the result is a spectral
signature or spectral response curve for that class (in reality for the assemblage of
materials within the site that interact with the incoming radiation). Classification now
proceeds by statistical processing in which every pixel is compared with the various
signatures and assigned to the class whose signature comes closest (a few in a scene
do not match and remain unclassified; these may belong to a class not recognized or
defined).

Many of the classes to be constituted for the Morro Bay scene are almost self-
evident - ocean water, waves, beach, marsh, shadows. In practice, we could further
sequester several such classes, as for example, distinguishing between ocean and
bay waters, but their gross similarities in spectral properties would probably make
separation difficult. Other classes that are likely variants of one another - such as
slopes that either face the morning sun as Landsat flew over versus slopes facing
away - might be warranted. Some classes are broad-based, being representative of
two or more related surface materials that might be separable at high resolution but
are inexactly expressed in the TM image: in this category we can include trees,
forest, and heavily vegetated areas (golf course; farm fields).

For the first attempt at a supervised classification, 13 discretional classes

have been formalized. The outlines of their training sites are traced on the true color
(bands 1,2,3) composite, as shown (their site colors are assigned here for display
convenience and do not correspond to their class equivalent colors in the maps
shown on the next page).

Note that Idrisi does not actually name them (they are numbered and given names
[tied to the numbers]) during the stage when signatures are made. Several classes
gain their data from more than one training site. Idrisi has a module, SIGCOMP, that
plots the signature of each class. Here we show plots for clear seawater (light blue)
and water with three different sediment densities (green, brown, blue-green) and
surf waves (yellow-green).

It also has a program that presents pixel information for each signature, recording
the number of pixels contributing to the data, and the mean, maximum, minimum,
and standard deviation of DN values for each signature. To help you get a deeper feel
for the numerical inputs involved in these calculations, we have reproduced a
simplified version of these data in the following table:

You can deduce from the table on the previous page, that, dependent on the actual
standard deviations (not shown), most of the signatures have combinations of DN values
that would appear to allow their distinctions from one another. Two classes - Urban 1 and
Cleared [Ground] - are quite similar in the first four bands but apparently are different
enough in bands 5 and 7 to suppose that they are separable. The range of variations in the
thermal band 6 is much smaller than in other bands, suggesting its limitation as an
efficient separator. However, as will be seen below, its addition to the Maximum
Likelihood Classification increases the spatial homogeneity of some classifications

MAPS AND PROJECTIONS

A map is a picture or visual Representation showing places, and their relationship to
each other. It also symbolizes the features or conditions of those locations”.

Map projections are attempts to Portray the surface of the earth or a portion of the earth
on a flat Surface ie 3D surface to 2D.

Analog Map vs. Digital Map

• An analog map is a printed drawing on a piece of paper or a scanned image of a
map. It is static.
• A digital map is a data set stored in a computer in digital form (not as a picture.) It
is not static, and the flexibility of digital maps is vastly greater than paper maps.
• Inherent in this concept is the point that data on which the map is based is
available to examine or question.
 • Analysis capabilities are much greater with digital maps, and reporting outputs are
available in more formats, and faster.
]
Aspatial data – WHAT IT IS
is usually an attribute (descriptor) of the spatial feature. example: a county name, the
elevation value of a 10 by 10 meter cell in a grid, a river name or chemical contamination
level; road name or street address.
Aspatial phenomena such as ideas or beliefs that cannot be associated with a spatial entity
are difficult to include in GIS. Spatial surrogates can sometimes be found.

Spatial Elements and Spatial Measurement Levels

Classes GIS Spatial Analytical Operations

1. Reclassifying Maps

2. Overlaying Maps
Image Processing and Analysis
• Introduction
Image Processing and Analysis can be defined as the "act of examining
images for the purpose of identifying objects and judging their significance“.
Image analyst study the remotely sensed data and attempt through logical
process in detecting, identifying, classifying, measuring and evaluating the
significance of physical and cultural objects, their patterns and spatial relationship

• Digital image analysis is usually conducted using Raster data structures - each
image is treated as an array of values.
• It offers advantages for manipulation of pixel values by image processing
system, as it is easy to find and locate pixels and their values.
• Disadvantages becomes apparent when one needs to represent the array of
pixels as discrete patches or regions

How to Improve Your Image?

• Analysis of remotely sensed data is done using various image processing
techniques and methods that includes:
Analog image processing
Digital image processing.

DIP
• Digital Image Processing is a collection of techniques for the manipulation of
digital images by computers.
• The raw data received from the imaging sensors on the satellite platforms
contains flaws and deficiencies.
• To overcome these flaws and deficiencies in order to get the originality of the
data, it needs to undergo several steps of processing.
 • This will vary from image to image depending on the type of image format,
initial condition of the image and the information of interest and the
composition of the image scene.
• Digital Image Processing undergoes three general steps:
Pre-processing
Display and enhancement
Information extraction

Pre-processing
• The digital imageries are subjected to several corrections such as geometric,
radiometric and atmospheric, though all these correction might not be
necessarily be applied in all cases.
• After pre-processing is complete, the analyst may use feature extraction to
reduce the dimensionality of the data. T
• Thus feature extraction is the process of isolating the most useful components
of the data for further study while discarding the less useful aspects (errors,
noise etc).

Image Enhancement
• Operations are carried out to improve the interpretability of the image by
increasing apparent contrast among various features in the scene. The
enhancement techniques depend upon two factors mainly
• The digital data (i.e. with spectral bands and resolution)
• The objectives of interpretation
• As an image enhancement technique often drastically alters the original
numeric data, it is normally used only for visual (manual) interpretation and
not for further numeric analysis.
• Common enhancements include image reduction, image rectification, image
magnification, transect extraction, contrast adjustments, band ratioing,
spatial filtering, Fourier transformations, principal component analysis and
texture transformation

Information Extraction
• It is the last step toward the final output of the image analysis.
• After pre-processing and image enhancement the remotely sensed data is
subjected to quantitative analysis to assign individual pixels to specific
classes.
• Classification of the image is based on the known and unknown identity to
classify the remainder of the image consisting of those pixels of unknown
identity.
• After classification is complete, it is necessary to evaluate its accuracy by
comparing the categories on the classified images with the areas of known
identity on the ground.
• The final result of the analysis consists of maps (or images), data and a
report. These three components of the result provide the user with full
information concerning the source data, the method of analysis and the
outcome and its reliability.

Pre-Processing of the Remotely Sensed Images

• When remotely sensed data is received from the imaging sensors on the
satellite platforms it contains flaws and deficiencies. Pre-processing refers to
those operations that are preliminary to the main analysis. Preprocessing
 includes a wide range of operations from the very simple to extremes of
abstractness and complexity. These categorized as follow:
Feature Extraction
Radiometric Corrections
Geometric Corrections
Atmospheric Correction

Feature Extraction
• Feature Extraction does not mean geographical features visible on the image
but rather "statistical" characteristics of image data like individual bands or
combination of band values that carry information concerning systematic
variation within the scene.
• Thus in a multi spectral data it helps in portraying the necessity elements of
the image. It also reduces the number of spectral bands that has to be
analyzed.
• After the feature extraction is complete the analyst can work with the desired
channels or bands, but in turn the individual bandwidths are more potent for
information.
• Finally such a pre-processing increases the speed and reduces the cost of
analysis.

Radiometric Corrections
• Radiometric Corrections are carried out when an image data is recorded by
the sensors they contain errors in the measured brightness values of the
pixels. These errors are referred as radiometric errors and can result from the
• Instruments used to record the data
• From the effect of the atmosphere
• Radiometric processing influences the brightness values of an image to
correct for sensor malfunctions or to adjust the values to compensate for
atmospheric degradation. Radiometric distortion can be of two types:
• The relative distribution of brightness over an image in a given band can be
different to that in the ground scene.
• The relative brightness of a single pixel from band to band can be distorted
compared with spectral reflectance character of the corresponding region on
the ground.
Low-Pass (Smoothing) Filters
Low-pass filters reveal underlying two-dimensional waveform with
a long wavelength or low frequency image contrast at the expense of higher
spatial frequencies. Low-frequency information allows the identification of the
background pattern, and produces an output image in which the detail has been
smoothed or removed from the original.

A 2-dimensional moving-average filter is defined in terms of its

dimensions which must be odd, positive and integral but not necessarily equal,
and its coefficients. The output DN is found by dividing the sum of the products of
corresponding convolution kernel and image elements often divided by the
number of kernel elements.

A similar effect is given from a median filter where the convolution

kernel is a description of the PSF weights. Choosing the median value from the
moving window does a better job of suppressing noise and preserving edges than
the mean filter.
 Adaptive filters have kernel coefficients calculated for each window
position based on the mean and variance of the original DN in the underlying
image.

High-Pass (Sharpening) Filters

Simply subtracting the low-frequency image resulting from a low
pass filter from the original image can enhance high spatial frequencies. High
-frequency information allows us either to isolate or to amplify the local detail. If
the high-frequency detail is amplified by adding back to the image some multiple
of the high frequency component extracted by the filter, then the result is a
sharper, de-blurred image.

High-pass convolution filters can be designed by representing a

PSF with positive centre weightr and negative surrounding weights. A typical 3x3
Laplacian filter has a kernal with a high central value, 0 at each corner, and -1 at
the centre of each edge. Such filters can be biased in certain directions for
enhancement of edges.

A high-pass filtering can be performed simply based on the

mathematical concepts of derivatives, i.e., gradients in DN throughout the image.
Since images are not continuous functions, calculus is dispensed with and instead
derivatives are estimated from the differences in the DN of adjacent pixels in the
x,y or diagonal directions. Directional first differencing aims at emphasising edges
in image.
• Classification generally comprises four steps:
• Pre-processing, e.g., atmospheric, correction, noise suppression, band
ratioing, Principal Component Analysis, etc.
• Training - selection of the particular features which best describe the pattern
• Decision - choice of suitable method for comparing the image patterns with
the target patterns.
• Assessing the accuracy of the classification
• The informational data are classified into systems:

Supervised
Unsupervised

Supervised Classification
In this system each pixel is supervised for the categorization of the
data by specifying to the computer algorithm, numerical descriptors of various
class types. There are three basic steps involved in typical supervised
classification
Training Stage
The analyst identifies the training area and develops a numerical
description of the spectral attributes of the class or land cover type. During the
training stage the location, size, shape and orientation of each pixel type for each
class.
Classification Stage
Each pixel is categorised into landcover class to which it closely
resembles. If the pixel is not similar to the training data, then it is labeled as
unknown. Numerical mathematical approaches to the spectral pattern recognition
have been classified into various categories.
• Measurements on Scatter Diagram
Each pixel value is plotted on the graph as the scatter diagram indicating the
category of the class. In this case the 2-dimensional digital values attributed
to each pixel is plottes on the graph
• Minimum Distance to Mean Classifier/Centroid Classifier
This is a simple classification strategies. First the mean vector for each
category is determined from the average DN in each band for each class. An
unknown pixel can then be classified by computing the distance from its
spectral position to each of the means and assigning it to the class with the
closest mean. One limitation of this technique is that it overlooks the different
degrees of variation.
Parallelpiped Classifier
• For each class the estimate of the maximum and minimum DN in each band is
determine. Then parallelpiped are constructeds o as to enclose the scatter in
each theme. Then each pixel is tested to see if it falls inside any of the
parallelpiped and has limitation
• A pixel may fall outside the parallelpiped and remained unclassified.
• Theme data are so strongly corrected such that a pixel vector that
plots at some distance from the theme scatter may yet fall within the
decision box and be classified erroneously.
• Sometimes parallelpiped may overlap in which case the decision
becomes more complicated then boundary are slipped.
Gaussian Maximum Likelihood Classifier
This method determines the variance and covariance of each
theme providing the probability function. This is then used to classify an unknown
pixel by calculating for each class, the probability that it lies in that class. The
pixel is then assigned to the most likely class or if its probability value fail to
reach any close defined threshold in any of the class, be labeled as unclassified.
Reducing data dimensionally before hand is a\one approach to speeding the
process up.
Unsupervised Classification
This system of classification does not utilize training data as the
basis of classification. This classifier involves algorithms that examine the
unknown pixels in the image and aggregate them into a number of classes based
on the natural groupings or cluster present in the image. The classes that result
from this type of classification are spectral classes. Unsupervised classification is
the identification, labeling and mapping of these natural classes. This method is
usually used when there is less information about the data before classification.
There are several mathematical strategies to represent the clusters of data in
spectral space.
Sequential Clustering
• In this method the pixels are analysed one at a time pixel by pixel and line by
line. The spectral distance between each analysed pixel and previously
defined cluster means are calculated. If the distance is greater than some
threshold value, the pixel begins a new cluster otherwise it contributes to the
nearest existing clusters in which case cluster mean is recalculated. Clusters
are merged if too many of them are formed by adjusting the threshold value
of the cluster means.
Statistical Clustering
• It overlooks the spatial relationship between adjacent pixels. The algorithm
uses 3x3 windows in which all pixels have similar vector in space. The process
has two steps
 – Testing for homogeneity within the window of pixels under
consideration.
– Cluster merging and deletion
• Here the windows are moved one at time through the image avoiding the
overlap. The mean and standard derivation are calculated for each band of
the window. The smaller the standard deviation for a given band the greater
the homogenity of the window. These values are then compared by the user
specified parameter for delineating the upper and lower limit of the standard
deviation. If the window passes the homogenity test it forms cluster. Clusters
are created untill then number exceeds the user defined maximum number of
clusters at which point some are merged or deleted according to their
weighting and spectral distances.
• Iso Data Clustering (Iterative Self Organising Data Analysis Techniques)
Its repeatedly performs an entire classification and recalculates the statistics.
The procedure begins with a set of arbitrarily defined cluster means, usually
located evenly through the spectral space. After each iteration new means are
calculated and the process is repeated until there is some difference between
iterations. This method produces good result for the data that are not
normally distributed and is also not biased by any section of the image.
RGB Clustering
• It is quick method for 3 band, 8 bit data. The algorithm plots all pixels in
spectral space and then divides this space into 32 x 32 x 32 clusters. A cluster
is required to have minimum number of pixels to become a class. RGB
Clustering is not baised to any part of the data.

Advantages of Remote Sensing

• Remote sensing is unobtrusive if the sensor passively records the EMR reflected
or emitted by the object of interest. Passive remote sensing does not disturb the
object or area of interest.
• Remote sensing devices may be programmed to collect data systematically, such
as within a 9 × 9 in. frame of vertical aerial photography. This systematic data
collection can remove the sampling bias introduced in some in situ investigations.
• Under controlled conditions, remote sensing can provide fundamental
biophysical information, including x,y location, z elevation or depth, biomass,
temperature, and moisture content.
• Remote sensing–derived information is now critical to the successful modeling of
numerous natural (e.g., water-supply estimation; eutrophication studies; nonpoint
source pollution) and cultural (e.g., land-use conversion at the urban fringe;
water-demand estimation; population estimation) processes.
Limitations of Remote Sensing
• The greatest limitation is that it is often oversold. Remote sensing is not a
panacea that provides all the information needed to conduct physical, biological,
or social science research. It provides some spatial, spectral, and temporal
information of value in a manner that we hope is efficient and economical.
• Human beings select the appropriate remote sensing system to collect the data,
specify the various resolutions of the remote sensor data, calibrate the sensor,
select the platform that will carry the sensor, determine when the data will be
collected, and specify how the data are processed. Human method-produced error
 may be introduced as the remote sensing instrument and mission parameters are
specified.
• Powerful active remote sensor systems that emit their own electromagnetic
radiation (e.g., LIDAR, RADAR, SONAR) can be intrusive and affect the
phenomenon being investigated. Additional research is required to determine how
intrusive these active sensors can be.
• Remote sensing instruments may become uncalibrated, resulting in uncalibrated
remote sensor data.
• Remote sensor data may be expensive to collect and analyze. Hopefully, the
information extracted from the remote sensor data justifies the expense.

Integrated Analytical Functions in a GIS

Most GIS's provide the capability to build complex models by combining primitive
analytical functions. Systems vary as to the complexity provided for spatial modelling,
and the specific functions that are available. However, most systems provide a standard
set of primitive analytical functions that are accessible to the user in some logical manner.
Aronoff identifies four categories of GIS analysis functions. These are :

Retrieval, Reclassification, and Generalization;

Topological Overlay Techniques;
Neighbourhood Operations; and
Connectivity Functions.

The range of analysis techniques in these categories is very large. Accordingly, this
section of the book focuses on providing an overview of the fundamental primitive
functions that are most often utilized in spatial analyses.

Retrieval, Reclassification and Generalization

Perhaps the initial GIS analysis that any user undertakes is the retrieval and/or
reclassification of data. Retrieval operations occur on both spatial and attribute data.
Often data is selected by an attribute subset and viewed graphically. Retrieval involves
the selective search, manipulation, and output of data without the requirement to modify
the geographic location of the features involved.
Reclassification involves the selection and presentation of a selected layer of data based
on the classes or values of a specific attribute, e.g. cover group. It involves looking at an
attribute, or a series of attributes, for a single data layer and classifying the data layer
based on the range of values of the attribute. Accordingly, features adjacent to one
another that have a common value, e.g. cover group, but differ in other characteristics,
e.g. tree height, species, will be treated and appear as one class. In raster based GIS
software, numerical values are often used to indicate classes. Reclassification is an
attribute generalization technique. Typically this function makes use of polygon
patterning techniques such as crosshatching and/or color shading for graphic
representation.
In a vector based GIS, boundaries between polygons of common reclassed values should
be dissolved to create a cleaner map of homogeneous continuity.
Raster reclassification intrinsically involves boundary dissolving. The dissolving of map
boundaries based on a specific attribute value often results in a new data layer being
created. This is often done for visual clarity in the creation of derived maps. Almost all
GIS software provides the capability to easily dissolve boundaries based on the results of
a reclassification. Some systems allow the user to create a new data layer for the
reclassification while others simply dissolve the boundaries during data output.
One can see how the querying capability of the DBMS is a necessity in the
reclassification process. The ability and process for displaying the results of
reclassification, a map or report, will vary depending on the GIS. In some systems the
querying process is independent from data display functions, while in others they are
integrated and querying is done in a graphics mode. The exact process for undertaking a
reclassification varies greatly from GIS to GIS. Some will store results of the query in
query sets independent from the DBMS, while others store the results in a newly created
attribute column in the DBMS. The approach varies drastically depending on the
architecture of the GIS software

Topological Overlay
The capability to overlay multiple data layers in a vertical fashion is the most required
and common technique in geographic data processing. In fact, the use of a topological
data structure can be traced back to the need for overlaying vector data layers. With the
advent of the concepts of mathematical topology polygon overlay has become the most
popular geoprocessing tool, and the basis of any functional GIS software package.
Topological overlay is predominantly concerned with overlaying polygon data with
polygon data, e.g. soils and forest cover. However, there are requirements for overlaying
point, linear, and polygon data in selected combinations, e.g. point in polygon, line in
polygon, and polygon on polygon are the most common. Vector and raster based software
differ considerably in their approach to topological overlay.
Raster based software is oriented towards arithmetic overlay operations, e.g. the addition,
subtraction, division, multiplication of data layers. The nature of the one attribute map
approach, typical of the raster data model, usually provides a more flexible and efficient
overlay capability. The raster data model affords a strong numerically modelling
(quantitative analysis) modelling capability. Most sophisticated spatial modelling is
undertaken within the raster domain.
In vector based systems topological overlay is achieved by the creation of a new
topological network from two or more existing networks. This requires the rebuilding of
topological tables, e.g. arc, node, polygon, and therefore can be time consuming and CPU
intensive. The result of a topological overlay in the vector domain is a new topological
network that will contain attributes of the original input data layers. In this way selected
queries can then be undertaken of the original layer, e.g. soils and forest cover, to
determine where specific situations occur, e.g. deciduous forest cover where drainage is
poor.
Most GIS software makes use of a consistent logic for the overlay of multiple data layers.
The rules of Boolean logic are used to operate on the attributes and spatial properties of
geographic features. Boolean algebra uses the operators AND, OR, XOR, NOT to see
whether a particular condition is true or false. Boolean logic represents all possible
combinations of spatial interaction between different features. The implementation of
Boolean operators is often transparent to the user.

Generally, GIS software implements the overlay of different vector data layers by
combining the spatial and attribute data files of the layers to create a new data layer.
Again, different GIS software utilize varying approaches for the display and reporting of
overlay results. Some systems require that topological overlay occur on only two data
layers at a time, creating a third layer. This pairwise approach requires the nesting of
multiple overlays to generate a final overlay product, if more than two data layers are
involved. This can result in numerous intermediate or temporary data layers. Some
systems create a complete topological structure at the data verification stage, and the user
merely submits a query string for the combined topological data. Other systems allow the
user to overlay multiple data layers at one time. Each approach has its drawbacks
depending on the application and the nature of the implementation. Determining the most
appropriate method is based on the type of application, practical considerations such as
data volumes and CPU power, and other considerations such personnel and time
requirements. Overall, the flexibility provided to the operator and the level of
performance varies widely among GIS software offerings.

Neighbourhood Operations
Neighbourhood operations evaluate the characteristics of an area surrounding a specific
location. Virtually all GIS software provides some form of neighbourhood analysis. A
range of different neighbourhood functions exist. The analysis of topographic features,
e.g. the relief of the landscape, is normally categorized as being a neighbourhood
operation. This involves a variety of point interpolation techniques including slope and
aspect calculations, contour generation, and Thiessen polygons. Interpolation is defined
as the method of predicting unknown values using known values of neighbouring
locations. Interpolation is utilized most often with point based elevation data.
Elevation data usually takes the form of irregular or regular spaced points. Irregularly
space points are stored in a Triangular Irregular Network (TIN). A TIN is a vector
topological network of triangular facets generated by joining the irregular points with
straight line segments. The TIN structure is utilized when irregular data is available,
predominantly in vector based systems. TIN is a vector data model for 3-D data.

An alternative in storing elevation data is the regular point Digital Elevation Model
(DEM). The term DEM usually refers to a grid of regularly space elevation points. These
points are usually stored with a raster data model. Most GIS software offerings provide
three dimensional analysis capabilities in a separate module of the software. Again, they
vary considerably with respect to their functionality and the level of integration between
the 3-D module and the other more typical analysis functions.
Without doubt the most common neighbourhood function is buffering. Buffering involves
the ability to create distance buffers around selected features, be it points, lines, or areas.
Buffers are created as polygons because they represent an area around a feature.
Buffering is also referred to as corridor or zone generation with the raster data model.
Usually, the results of a buffering process are utilized in a topological overlay with
another data layer. For example, to determine the volume of timber within a selected
distance of a cutline, the user would first buffer the cutline data layer. They would then
overlay the resultant buffer data layer, a buffer polygon, with the forest cover data layer
in a clipping fashion. This would result in a new data layer that only contained the forest
cover within the buffer zone. Since all attributes are maintained in the topological overlay
and buffering processes, a map or report could then be generated.
Buffering is typically used with point or linear features. The generation of buffers for
selected features is frequently based on a distance from that feature, or on a specific
attribute of that feature. For example, some features may have a greater zone of influence
due to specific characteristics, e.g. a primary highway would generally have a greater
influence than a gravel road. Accordingly, different size buffers can be generated for
features within a data layer based on selected attribute values or feature types.
Connectivity Analysis
The distinguishing feature of connectivity operations is that they use functions that
accumulate values over an area being traversed. Most often these include the analysis of
surfaces and networks. Connectivity functions include proximity analysis, network
analysis, spread functions, and three dimensional surface analysis such as visibility and
perspective viewing. This category of analysis techniques is the least developed in
commercial GIS software. Consequently, there is often a great difference in the
functionality offered between GIS software offerings. Raster based systems often provide
the more sophisticated surface analysis capabilities while vector based systems tend to
focus on linear network analysis capabilities. However, this appears to be changing as
GIS software becomes more sophisticated, and multi-disciplinary applications require a
more comprehensive and integrated functionality. Some GIS offerings provide both
vector and raster analysis capabilities. Only in these systems will one fund a full range of
connectivity analysis techniques.

Proximity analysis techniques are primarily concerned with the proximity of one feature
to another. Usually proximity is defined as the ability to identify any feature that is near
any other feature based on location, attribute value, or a specific distance. A simple
example is identifying all the forest stands that are within 100 metres of a gravel road, but
not necessarily adjacent to it. It is important to note that neighbourhood buffering is often
categorized as being a proximity analysis capability. Depending on the particular GIS
software package, the data model employed, and the operational architecture of the
software it may be difficult to distinguish proximity analysis and buffering.

Proximity analysis is often used in urban based applications to consider areas of

influence, and ownership queries. Proximity to roads and engineering infrastructure is
typically important for development planning, tax calculations, and utility billing.

The identification of adjacency is another proximity analysis function. Adjacency is

defined as the ability to identify any feature having certain attributes that exhibit
adjacency with other selected features having certain attributes. A typical example is the
ability to identify all forest stands of a specific type, e.g. specie, adjacent to a gravel road
Network analysis is a widely used analysis technique. Network analysis techniques can
be characterized by their use of feature networks. Feature networks are almost entirely
comprised of linear features. Hydrographic hierarchies and transportation networks are
prime examples. Two example network analysis techniques are the allocation of values to
selected features within the network to determine capacity zones, and the determination
of shortest path between connected points or nodes within the network based on attribute
values. This is often referred to as route optimization. Attribute values may be as simple
as minimal distance, or more complex involving a model using several attributes defining
rate of flow, impedance, and cost.
These include the following functions :
user definable vertical exaggeration, viewing azimuth, and
elevation angle;
identification of viewsheds, e.g. seen versus unseen areas;
the draping of features, e.g. point, lines, and shaded polygons
onto the perspective surface;
generation of shaded relief models simulating illumination;
generation of cross section profiles;
presentation of symbology on the 3-D surface; and
line of sight perspective views from user defined viewpoints.

While the primitive analytical functions have been presented the reader should be aware
that a wide range of more specific and detailed capabilities do exist.

MAPS AND MAP ANALYSIS

What Are Maps?

Maps are two-dimensional (flat) representations of three-dimensional spaces. People have
been making maps for over 4,000 years, and they've come a long way. We used to rely on
explorers to visit faraway places before a map could be made. We still have explorers that
travel the Earth (and beyond) to discover and map new places, but now we can also make
and update maps with information sent from satellites in space.

All maps have five basic elements to help you understand them (numbers match image
below):

1. A title, to tell you the "who," "where," and "when" about the
map
2. Orientation (north, south, east, or west)
3. Scale to determine distance
4. A legend that explains the shapes, colors, and symbols used
5. A grid or coordinates that help show where the map fits into a
larger global area
Mapmaking
The science and art of mapmaking is called cartography. From cave paintings and ancient
European maps to new maps of the 21st century, people have created and used maps to
help define, explain, and navigate their way across the planet and beyond.

Where maps were once hand-drawn on paper, most modern cartographers now use a
variety of computer graphics programs to generate new maps. For example, we have
technologies like Global Positioning System (GPS) for navigation and Geographic
Information Systems (GIS) to analyze and display information.

There are two main types of maps:

Reference maps help us navigate. They show things like roads, city capitals, bus stops,
stars in the Milky Way, or rooms in a museum.

Thematic maps help us interpret specific kinds of information. For example, maps may
show the population of city, the weather in another country, or the types of animals living
in a national park.
Maps are used by everyone from geographers to travelers to hikers to airline pilots. No
matter what content is shown by maps, they can transport us places far away or help us
explore the areas near our homes.

A. INTRODUCTION

• maps are the main source of data for GIS

• the traditions of cartography are fundamentally important to GIS
• GIS has roots in the analysis of information on maps, and overcomes many of the
limitations of manual analysis
• this unit is about cartography and its relationship to GIS - how does GIS differ
from cartography, particularly automated cartography, which uses computers to
make maps?

B. WHAT IS A MAP?

Definition

• according to the International Cartographic Association, a map is:

o a representation, normally to scale and on a flat medium, of a selection of
material or abstract features on, or in relation to, the surface of the Earth

Maps show more than the Earth's surface

• the term "map" is often used in mathematics to convey the notion of transferring
information from one form to another, just as cartographers transfer information
from the surface of the Earth to a sheet of paper
 • the term "map" is used loosely to refer to any visual display of information,
particularly if it is abstract, generalized or schematic

Cartographic abstraction

• production of a map requires:

o selection of the few features in the real world to include
o classification of selected features into groups (i.e. bridges, churches,
railways)
o simplification of jagged lines like coastlines
o exaggeration of features to be included that are to small to show at the
scale of the map
o symbolization to represent the different classes of features chosen

Types of maps

• in practice we normally think of two types of map:

• topographic map - a reference tool, showing the outlines of selected natural and
man-made features of the Earth
o often acts as a frame for other information
o "Topography" refers to the shape of the surface, represented by contours
and/or shading, but topographic maps also show roads and other
prominent features
• thematic map - a tool to communicate geographical concepts such as the
distribution of population densities, climate, movement of goods, land use etc.

Thematic maps in GIS

• several types of thematic map are important in GIS:

• a choropleth map uses reporting zones such as counties or census tracts to show
data such as average incomes, percent female, or rates of mortality
o the boundaries of the zones are established independently of the data, and
may be used to report many different sets of data
• an area class map shows zones of constant attributes, such as vegetation, soil type,
or forest species
o the boundaries are different for each map as they are determined by the
variation of the attribute being mapped, e.g. breaks of soil type may occur
independently of breaks of vegetation
• an isopleth map shows an imaginary surface by means of lines joining points of
equal value, "isolines" (e.g. contours on a topographic map)
o used for phenomena which vary smoothly across the map, such as
temperature, pressure, rainfall or population density

Line maps versus photo maps

• an important distinction for GIS is between a line map and a photo map
 • a line map shows features by conventional symbols or by boundaries
• a photo map is derived from a photographic image taken from the air
o features are interpreted by the eye as it views the map
o certain features may be identified by overprinting labels
o photomaps are relatively cheap to make but are rarely completely free of
distortions

Characteristics of maps

• maps are often stylized, generalized or abstracted, requiring careful interpretation

• usually out of date
• show only a static situation - one slice in time
• often highly elegant/artistic
• easy to use to answer certain types of questions:
o how do I get there from here?
o what is at this point?
• difficult or time-consuming to answer other types:
o what is the area of this lake?
o what places can I see from this TV tower?
o what does that thematic map show at the point I'm interested in on this
topographic map?

The concept of scale

• the scale of a map is the ratio between distances on the map and corresponding
distances in the real world
o if a map has a scale of 1:50,000, then 1 cm on the map equals 50,000 cm
or 0.5 km on the Earth's surface
• the use of the terms "small scale" and "large scale" is often confused, so it is
important to be consistent
o a large scale map shows great detail, small features
 representative fraction is large, e.g. 1/10,000
o a small scale map shows only large features
 representative fraction is small, e.g. 1/250,000
• the scale controls not only how features are shown, but what features are shown
o a 1:2,500 map will show individual houses and lamp posts while a
1:100,000 will not
• different scales are used in different countries
o in the US, 1:100,000 is the largest scale at which complete coverage of the
continental states exists, but there is limited coverage at 1:62,500 and
1:24,000
o in the UK, there is complete coverage at much larger scales (1:1,250 to
1:10,000)

Map projections
 • the Earth's surface is curved but as it must be shown on a flat sheet, some
distortion is inevitable
o distortion is least for when the map only shows small areas, and greatest
when a map attempts to show the entire surface of the Earth
• a projection is a method by which the curved surface of the earth is represented on
a flat surface
o it involves the use of mathematical transformations between the location
of places on the earth and their projected locations on the plane
• numerous projections have been invented, and arguments continue about which is
best for which purposes
• projections can be identified by the distortions which they avoid - in general a
projection can belong to only one of these classes:
o equal area projections preserve the area of features by assigning them an
area on the map which is proportional to their area on the earth - these are
useful for applications which require measuring area, and are popular in
GIS
o conformal projections preserve the shape of small features, and show
directions (bearings) correctly - they are useful for navigation
o equidistant projections preserve distances to places from one or two points

C. WHAT ARE MAPS USED FOR?

• traditionally, maps are used as aids to navigation, as reference documents, and as

wall decorations
• maps have four roles today:

Data display

• maps provide useful ways of displaying information in a meaningful way

o in practice, the cost of making and printing a map is high, so its contents
are often a compromise between different needs

Data stores

• as a means of storing data, maps can be very efficient, high density stores
o a typical 1:50,000 map might have 1,000 place names on it
 the distances between all possible pairs of these 1,000 places
would run to (1,000 x 999 / 2) or 499,500 numbers if stored in a
table instead of scaled off the map when needed
o the information printed on the typical 1:50,000 topographic map sheet in
the UK requires 25 million bytes of storage when it is converted to digital
form, equivalent to one standard computer tape, or 10 full-length novels
 the information on all British topographic maps would require 150
gigabytes (150x109 bytes)

Spatial indexes
 • a map can show the boundaries of areas (e.g. land use zones, soil or rock types)
and identify each area with a label
o a separate manual with corresponding entries may provide greater detail
about each area

Data analysis tool

• maps are used in analysis to:

o make or test hypotheses, such as the identification of cancer clusters
o examine the relationship between two distributions using simple
transparent overlays

D. THE USE OF MAPS FOR INVENTORY AND ANALYSIS

• the following examples demonstrate how maps have been used for sophisticated
applications in inventory and analysis, and point out some limitations

Measuring land use change

• example, two major land use surveys were carried out in the UK, in the late 1930s
by Sir Dudley Stamp and in the 1960s by Professor Alice Coleman
o the results were published as maps
o in order to compare changes in land use between 1930s and 1960s, the
area of each land use type was measured using a hand planimeter and
counting overlaid dots
• despite interest in measuring the amount of change of land use through time,
particularly from agricultural to

urban, few results were produced using this method because the traditional
techniques are slow and tedious, and because of the difficulty of overlaying or
working from very different map sources

Landscape architecture

• Ian McHarg pioneered the use of transparent map overlays for planning locations
of highways, transmission corridors and other facilities in environmentally
sensitive areas (McHarg, 1969)
• despite the popularity of this technique and numerous applications, this method
remains cumbersome and imprecise

E. AUTOMATED AND COMPUTER-ASSISTED CARTOGRAPHY

Changeover to computer mapping

 • personalities were critically important in the 1960s and early 1970s - individual
interests determined the direction and focus of research and development in
computer cartography (see Rhind, 1988)
• impetus for change began in two communities:

1. scientists wishing to make maps quickly to see the results of modeling, or to

display data from large archives already in digital form, e.g. census tables

o quality was not a major concern

o SYMAP was the first significant package for this purpose, released by the
Harvard Lab in 1967

2. cartographers seeking to reduce the cost and time of map production and
editing

o hardware costs limited interest in this technology prior to 1980 to the

major mapping agencies
o the costs of computing have dropped dramatically, by an order of
magnitude every six years
 what costs $1 to compute in 1989 would have cost $10 in 1983 and
$100,000 in 1959
 the development of the microcomputer and the launch of the IBM
PC in 1983 have had enormous influence
o an early belief that the entire map-making process could be automated
diminished by 1975 because of difficulties of generalization and design
 has resurfaced in the context of Expert Systems where the
computer chooses the proper techniques based on characteristics of
the data, scale, map purpose, etc.
• today, far more maps are made by computer than by hand
o now few mapmakers are trained cartographers
• also, it is now clear that once created, digital data can serve purposes other than
map-making, so it has additional value

Advantages of computer cartography

• lower cost for simple maps, faster production

• greater flexibility in output - easy scale or projection change - maps can be
tailored to user needs
• other uses for digital data

Disadvantages of computer cartography

• relatively few full-scale systems have been shown to be truly cost-effective in

practice, despite early promise
• high capital cost, though this is now much reduced
• computer methods do not ensure production of maps of high quality
 o there is a perceived loss of regard for the "cartographic tradition" with the
consequent production of "cartojunk"

GIS and Computer Cartography

• computer cartography has a primary goal of producing maps

o systems have advanced tools for map layout, placement of labels, large
symbol and font libraries, interfaces for expensive, high quality output
devices
• however, it is not an analytical tool
o therefore, unlike data for GIS, cartographic data does not need to be stored
in ways which allow, for example, analysis of relationships between
different themes such as population density and housing prices or the
routing of flows along connecting highway or river segments

F. GIS COMPARED TO MAPS

Data stores

• spatial data stored in digital format in a GIS allows for rapid access for traditional
as well as innovative purposes
• nature of maps creates difficulties when used as sources for digital data
o most GIS take no account of differences between datasets derived from
maps at different scales
o idiosyncrasies (e.g. generalization procedures) in maps become "locked
in" to the data derived from them
o such errors often become apparent only during later processing of digital
data derived from them
• however, maps still remain an excellent way of compiling spatial information, e.g.
field survey
o maps can be designed to be easy to convert to digital form, e.g. by the use
of different colors which have distinct signatures when scanned by
electronic sensors
• as well maps can be produced by GISs as cheap, high density stores of
information for the end user
o however, consistent, accurate retrieval of data from maps is difficult
o only limited amounts of data can be shown due to constraints of the paper
medium

Data indexes

• this function can be performed much better by a good GIS due to the ability to
provide multiple and efficient cross-referencing and searching

Data analysis tools

 • GIS is a powerful tool for map analysis
o traditional impediments to the accurate and rapid measurement of area or
to map overlay no longer exist
o many new techniques in spatial analysis are becoming available

Data display tools

• electronic display offers significant advantages over the paper map

o ability to browse across an area without interruption by map sheet
boundaries
o ability to zoom and change scale freely
o potential for the animation of time dependent data
o display in "3 dimensions" (perspective views), with "real-time" rotation of
viewing angle
o potential for continuous scales of intensity and the use of color and
shading independent of the constraints of the printing process, ability to
change colors as required for interpretation
• one of a kind, special purpose products are possible and inexpensive

Projections

Projection System

Maps are flat, but the surfaces they represent are curved. Transforming, three-
dimensional space onto a two dimensional map is called "projection". This process
inevitably distorts at least one of the following properties:

• Shape,
• Area,
• Distance,
• Direction, and often more.

It is known that a globe is a true representation of the earth, which is divided into various
sectors by the lines of latitudes and longitudes. This network is called 'graticule'. A map
projection denotes the preparation of the graticule on a flat surface.

Theoretically map projection might be defined as "a systematic drawing of parallels of

latitude and meridians of longitudes on a plane surface for the whole earth or a part of it
on a certain scale so that any point on the earth surface may correspond to that on the
drawing."

Necessity of Map Projection

An ordinary globe is rendered useless for reference to a small country. It is not possible to
make a globe on a very large scale. Say, if anyone wants to make a globe on a scale of
one inch to a mile, the radius will be 330 ft. It is difficult to make and handle such a globe
and uncomfortable to carry it in the field for reference. Not only topographical maps of
different scales but also atlas and wall maps would not have been possibly made without
the use of certain projections. So a globe is least useful or helpful in the field of practical
purposes. Moreover it is neither easy to compare different regions over the globe in
detail, nor convenient to measure distances over it. Therefore for different types of maps
different projections have been evolved in accordance with the scale and purpose of the
map.

Selection of Map Projection

There is no ideal map projection, but representation for a given purpose can be achieved.
The selection of projection is made on the basis of the following:

The location and the extension of the feature of the globe.

1. The shape of the boundary to be projected.

2. The deformations or distortions of a map to be minimized.

The mathematical model to be applied to preserve some identity of graphical features

• Based on these characteristics the utility of the projection is ascertained.

Classification
Potentially there exits an unlimited number of map projections possessing one property or
the other. The natures of these properties are so complex that they often possess one or
more common properties. There is no projection, which can be grouped, in a single class.
Moreover, if one attempts to obtain a rational classification of map projection, it will be
rather difficult to achieve it. There can be as many classifications as many bases.

Depending on different bases the following classifications may be suggested:

Basis Classes
1. Method of Construction 1. Perspective
2. Non-perspective
2. Preserved qualities 1. Homolographic / Equal Area
2. Orthomorphic / Conformal
3. Developable surface area 1. Cylindrical
2. Conical
3. Azimuthal / Zenithal
4. Conventional
4. Position of tangent surface 1. Polar
2. Equation/Normal
3. Oblique
5. Position of viewpoint or light 1. Gnomonic
2. Stereographic
3. Orthographic
4. Others

Classification based on methods of construction

Mathematically the term 'projection' means the determination of points on the plane
as viewed from a fixed point. But in cartography it may not be necessarily restricted
to 'perspective' or geometrical projection. On the globe the meridians and parallels are
circles. When they are transferred on a plane surface, they become intersecting lines,
curved or straight. If we stick a flat paper over the globe, it will not coincide with it
over a large surface without being creased. The paper will touch the globe only at one
point, so that the other sectors will be projected over plane in a distorted form. The
projection with the help of light will give a shadowed picture of the globe which is
distorted in those parts which are farther from the point where the paper touches it.
The amount of distortion increases with the increase in distance from the tangential
point. But only a few of the projections imply this perspective method.

The majority of projections represent an arrangement of lines of latitude and

longitude in conformity with some principles so as to minimize the amount of
distortion. With the help of mathematical calculations true relation between latitude
and longitudes is maintained. Thus various processes of non-perspective projections
have been devised.

Classification based on preserved qualities

While transferring the globe on a plane surface some facts should be kept in view:

1. Preservation of area,
2. Preservation of shape,
3. Preservation of bearing i.e. direction and distance.

It is, however, very difficult to make such a projection even for a small country, in which
all the above qualities may be well preserved. Any one quality may be thoroughly
achieved by a certain map projection only at the cost of others.

According to the quality they preserve, projections may be classified into three
groups :-

1. Equal area (Homolographic projection),

2. Correct shape (Orthomorphic or Conformal projection),
3. True bearing (Azimuthal projection).
Classification based on developable surface area
There are some surfaces over which the sphere may be projected. After projection such
surfaces may be cut open onto flat surface. These developable surfaces include

1. Cylinder and
2. Cone.

Cylindrical Projection
When the graticule is prepared on the surface of a hollow cylinder it is called Cylindrical
Projection.
Normal Cylindrical Projection - This is a perspective cylindrical projection. When a
cylinder is wrapped round the globe so as to touch it along the equator, and the light is
placed at the centre, the true cylindrical projection is obtained.

1. Limitations:
The scale is true only along the equator. The exaggeration of the parallel scale as
well as the meridian scale would be very greatly increasing away from the
equator. The poles can't be shown, because their distances from the equator
becomes infinite.

2. Simple Cylindrical Projection - It is also called Equidistant Cylindrical Projection

as both the parallels and meridians are equidistant. The whole network represents
a series of equal squares. All the parallels are equal to the equator and all the
meridians are half of the equator in length. The projection is neither equal area nor
orthomorphic.

Limitations :
The scale along the equator is true. The meridian scale is correct everywhere
because the parallels are drawn at their true distances. Latitudinal scale increases
away from the equator. This leads to great distortion in shape and exaggeration of
area in high latitudes.

3. Cylindrical Equal Area Projection - This cylindrical projection was introduced by

Lambert. The properties are almost the same. The area between two parallels is
made equal to the corresponding surface on the sphere at the cost of great
distortion in shape towards higher latitudes; this is why it is an equal area
projection.

Limitations: Same as (ii).

General Properties of Cylindrical Projection

• Cylindricals are true at the equator and the distortion increases as on moves
towards the poles.
• Good for areas in the tropics
Conical Projection
A cone may be imagined to touch the globe of a convenient size along any circle (other
than a great circle) but the most useful case will be the normal one in which the apex of
the cone will lie vertically above the pole on the earth's axis produced and the surface of
the cone will be tangent to the sphere along some parallel of latitude. It is called 'standard
parallel'.

If the selected parallel (SP) is nearer the pole the vertex of the cone will be closer to it
and subsequently the angle at the apex will be increasing proportionately. When the pole
itself becomes the selected parallel, the angle of the apex will become 180 degrees, and
the surface of the cone will be similar to the tangent plane of Zenithal Projection.

On the other hand, when the selected parallel is nearer to the equator, the vertex of the
cone will be moving farther away from the pole. in case equator is the selected parallel,
the vertex will be at an infinite distance, and the cone will become a cylinder.
Thus the Cylindrical and Zenithal Projections may be regarded as special cases of
Conical Projections.

Properties

• Conics are true along some parallel somewhere between the equator and the pole
and the distortion increases away from this standard.
• Good for Temperate Zone areas

Zenithal Projection
In Zenithal Projection a flat paper is supposed to touch the globe at one point and the
light may be kept at another point so as to reflect or project the lines of latitude and
longitude on the plane. Here the globe is viewed from a point vertically above it, so these
are called Zenithal Projections. They are also called 'azimuthal' because the bearings are
all true from the central point.

In respect of the plane's position touching the globe, Zenithal Projection is of three main
classes :-

1. Normal or Equatorial Zenithal (where the plane touches the globe at equator),
2. Polar Zenithal (where the plane touches the globe at pole),
3. Oblique Zenithal (where the plane touches the globe at any other point).

According to the location of the view point Zenithal Projection is of three types :-

1. Gnomonic / Central (view point lies at the centre of the globe),

2. Stereographic (view point lies at the opposite pole)
3. Orthographic (view point lies at the infinity).

Properties
 • Azimuthals are true only at their centre point, but generally distortion is worst at
the edge of the map.
• Good for polar areas.

Principles of Map Projections

Map projections are systematic transformations that allow the orderly representation of
the Earth's spherical graticule on a flat map. Mathematically speaking, map projections
are transformations of geographic co-ordinates (latitude, longitude) into the Cartesian (x,
y) co-ordinate space of the map. Some map projections can be constructed geometrically.
All map projections can be represented by mathematical equations that convert
geographic co-ordinates into map co-ordinates.

It is important to recognize that the approximately spherical geometry of the Earth cannot
be represented on a flat map without introducing distortion. All map projections distort
distance and directional relationships that are correctly represented on a globe. If we are
mapping a small area such as the City of Waterloo, we can safely ignore the effect of the
curvature of the Earth's surface but if we are mapping a larger area such as Canada,
distortion cannot be avoided. To understand why this is so, imagine trying to afix a
postage stamp showing a map of Waterloo to a large beach ball. Because the postage
stamp occupies only a small portion of the surface area of the beach ball and the
curvature of the ball is slight within this area, it is easy to attach the stamp without
stretching it or introducing wrinkles. Now imagine placing another stamp of the same
size, this time showing a map of Canada, on a ping pong ball. Because the stamp
occupies a much larger proportion of the surface area of the ping pong ball, the curvature
of the ball within the area covered by the stamp is significant. It is impossible to afix the
stamp without introducing wrinkles. In general, the larger the area being mapped, the
greater the problem of distortion becomes, and the greater care is required in choosing a
suitable map projection.

The Earth's graticule has the following properties:

• all parallels of latitude are parallel

• parallels are equally spaced along meridians
• meridians are equally spaced along parallels
• meridians of longitude are half great circles and converge at the poles
• meridians and parallels intersect at right angles
• quadrilaterals formed by the same two parallels and having the same longitudinal
dimensions have the same areas
• area scale is uniform
• distance scale is uniform

These properties may or may not be correctly representated on a flat map, depending on
the type of projection employed. Determining which properties are correctly represented
on the map can be useful in identifying different projections and in understanding the
inherent pattern of distortion.
The term 'projection' comes from the notion of placing a light source inside a transparent
globe and projecting shadows of the meridians, parallels and other geographic features
onto a sheet of paper placed tangent to the globe. Several useful map projections can be
constructed in this way. Such projections are called perspective projections. Different
perspective projections can be produced by changing the position of the light source.
Gnomonic projections place the light source at the centre of the globe, stereographic
projections place the light source at the antipode of the point of tangency, and
orthographic projections place the light source an infinite distance from the point of
tangency, resulting in parallel light rays. Changing the position of the light source alters
the pattern of parallels and meridians on the map, resulting in maps that have different
geometric properties.

Perspective Projections

Sequence of Transformations

The process of producing a flat map of the Earth can be thought of as a sequence of
transformations. Irregularities in the shape of the geoid make it difficult to model
mathematically. Thus the first step in the process is to model the Earth by a simpler solid
object having the same surface area as the Earth. For large scale maps that show a small
portion of the Earth's surface but in great detail, the Earth is modelled using an ellipsoid
since this gives a better approximation to the true shape of the Earth than a perfect
sphere. National mapping agencies in different countries around the world use different
ellipsoids, adjusting the lengths of the polar and equatorial radii to get the best fit within
their region of interest. For small scale maps that show a large area with little detail, a
spherical model is used since it is mathematically simpler and at small scales, distortion
due to irregularities in the Earth's shape can be considered negligible.

Once a suitable solid model has been selected, the next step is to reduce the size of the
model to the desired scale of the map, producing a 'generating globe'. Map scale is
defined as the ratio of map distance to ground distance. For the generating globe, scale
can be calculated as the ratio of the radius of the generating globe to the radius of a
sphere having the same surface area as the Earth (6,307.9 km). This scale becomes the
nominal scale of the map. However, because of the distortions introduced in representing
the spherical globe on a flat map, the actual scale of the map will vary from place to
place. On many projections, true linear scale is maintained only along one or two
standard lines. Comparison of actual map scale at different locations with the nominal
map scale provides one method of analyzing the pattern of distortion in a map.

The final step in the process is to project the Earth's graticule from the generating globe
onto a developable surface. Any surface that can be flattened is considered to be a
developable surface. Different surfaces and projection methods are used to obtain maps
with different geometric properties.
Classification of Map Projections

Although an infinite number of map projections are theoretically possible, approximately

400 projections have been described in the literature and only a few dozen of these are
widely used. Nevertheless, it is useful to develop a classification of map projections as an
aid to understanding their properties and to selecting an appropriate map projection for a
particular purpose. Map projections can be classified in terms of the geometric properties
that are correctly represented on the map and by their method of construction.

Geometric Properties

As has been noted above, all map projections distort some of the geometric relationships
that are correctly represented on the globe. It is not possible to represent all distances or
all angles correctly on a single map. However, it is possible to produce maps that
correctly represented selected geometric characteristics.Consideration of basic properties
gives rise to four classes of map projections: equivalent, equidistant, azimuthal and
conformal. Projections that do not fall into one of these classes are sometimes called
compromise projections.

Equivalent Projections

Maps that maintain constant areal scale over the entire surface of the map are called equal
area or equivalent projections. A wide variety of equivalent projections have been
developed in attempts to minimize distortion of other geometric properties while
maintaining constant areal scale. Equivalent projections are used extensively for thematic
maps that show distribitions of phenomena such as population, agricultural land, forested
areas, etc.

Equidistant Projections

Equidistant projections preserver correct linear scale over some portion of the map. It is
not possible to represent all distances correctly. However, it is possible to produce a
projection such that all distances from one or two points are true to scale or a projection
on which all distances measured perpendicular to a standard line are true to scale.

Azimuthal Projections

Azimuthal (or zenithal) projections correctly represent selected angular relationships. As

with distances, not all angular relationships can be represented correctly on a single map.
But it is possible to correctly represent all angular relationships about a single point.

Conformal Projections

The defining property of conformal projections is that at any point on the map, the scale
is the same in all directions about the point. The implication of this property is that angles
about the point are shown correctly and one would therefore expect shapes of areas to be
correctly represented. However, because map scale varies from point to point, the
property of correct representation of angles applies only to angles having infinitely short
sides. Shapes of infinitely small areas are preserved on the map but shapes of larger areas
are distorted.

Compromise Projections

While many map projections seek to optimize one of the above four geometric properties,
some projections do not attempt to maintain any of the above properties but instead
attempt to seek a balance between different properties. Thus, for example, while a
projection might not be conformal or equivalent, it might maintain minimal distortion of
shapes and areas within the region such as Canada or the United States. Such projections
are referred to as compromise projections and are often used as the basis for thematic
maps.

Other Geometric Properties

In addition to the basic properties of equivalence, equidistance, azimuth and

conformality, some projections have special properties such as great circles being
represented by straight lines, small circles on the globe being represented as circles on the
map, or lines of constant compass directions (loxodromes or rhumb lines) being
represented as straight lines. Since these properties are unique to particular projections,
they are not useful for purposes of developing a general classification, but they are
important for specific map purposes.

Method of Construction

Projections can also be classified based on their method of construction. This involves
consideration of the type of projection surface used as well as the positioning and
orientation of the projection surface relative to the generating globe. The type of
projection surface determines the basic pattern of the graticule on the map. Positioning
the projection surface tangent or secant to the generating globe modifies the pattern of
distortion in the map. Re-orienting the projection surface can be used to achieve minimal
distortion within the region of greatest interest.

Projection Surface

Map projections can be thought of as being draw on one of three developable surfaces - a
plane, cylinder or cone. Although a cylinder and a cone are not flat surfaces, either can be
flattened by cutting along its length and then unrolling the surface. Although distortion is
introduced in projecting from the sphere to the developable surface, no further distortion
occurs as a result of the unrolling process. Since a plane is already flat, no unrolling is
necessary.

The type of projection surface determines the basic pattern of the graticule and the
general pattern of distortion in the map. The following discussion is based on the 'normal'
orientation of the projection surface, i.e. a plane tangent at the pole, a cylinder tangent
along the Equator or a cone tangent along s selected parallel of latitude other than the
Equator.

All projections to a plane are azimuthal projections. With the plane tangent to the
generating globe at either the north or south pole, meridians are represented as radial
straight lines and parallels of latitude appear as concentric circles. Different azimuthal
projections are obtained by varying the spacing of the parallels. All share the same
general pattern of distortion with distortion increasing with distance from the point of
tangency.

For projections to a cylinder tangent to the globe along the Equator, the characteristic
pattern of the graticule is a rectangular grid. Meridians of longitude are equally spaced
along the Equator and parallels of latitude are represented as parallel lines having the
same length as the Equator. There is no distortion along the Equator which is the line of
tangency between the projection surface and the generating globe. However, distortion
increases with distance from the Equator.

Conic projections offer greater variety since the steepness of the cone can be varied,
allowing a cone to be placed tangent to the generating globe along any parallel of
latitude. However, the basic pattern remains unchanged. Meridians of longitude are
represented as radial lines through the apex of the cone and paralllels of latitude are
represented as concentric circular arcs. There is no distortion along the standard parallel
which is the line of tangency between the projection surface and the generating globe.
Distortion increases with distance from the standard parallel. Once again, projections
preserving different geometric properties can be produced by modifying the spacing
between parallels.

There is a class of projections that cannot be constructed by simply modifying the

spacing on parallels on one of the three projections surfaces. Such projections are called
mathematical or conventional projections. They are best thought of as projections defined
by a set of rules governing the shape of the graticule. For example, we could specify that
we want an equivalent projection that represents the entire Earth as an ellipse, has
parallels shown as parallel straight lines, and has meridians equally spaced along the
parallels. The resulting projection shares some characteristics with cylindrical projections
but the graticule does not form a rectangular grid and distortion increases with distance
from the intersection of the Equator and central meridian of the map.

Case

The preceding discussion assumed that the projection surface is always placed tangent to
globe at a point or along a line. However, it is also possible to assume that the projection
surface is placed secant to the globe. A plane placed secant to the globe intersects the
globe along a small circle. This small circle will be represented true to scale on the map.
A cone or cylinder placed secant to the globe will intersect the globe along two circles.
Both circles will be represented true to scale on the map.
While it is convenient to use the tangent case for purposes of illustrating the principles of
map projections, secant case projections are often preferred because the give a more even
distribution of distortion over the entire area of the map.

Aspect

Aspect refers to the orientation of the projection surface relative to the generating globe.
Normal aspect aligns the axis of rotation of the projection surface with the axis of
rotation of the generating globe. For a cone, this implies that the apex of the cone lies on
a line connecting the north and south poles and the cone is tangent to the globe along a
parallel of latitude (tangent case) or intersects the globe along two parallels of latitude
(secant case). A cylinder can be thought of as an infinitely steep cone. In normal
orientation, it is tangent along the Equator or interects the globe along two parallels of
latitude equidistant north and south of the Equator. Similarly, a plane can be thought of as
an infinitely flat cone. Its axis of rotation is thus perpendicular to the plane. In normal
orientation, it is tangent at the pole or intersects the generating globe along a parallel of
latitude.

Transverse aspect rotates the projection surface 90 degrees relative to the generating
globe. The result is a plane tangent at some point on the Equator, a cylinder tangent along
an opposing pair of meridians of longitude, or a cone whose axis of rotation lies in the
plane of the Equator. Transverse aspect is rarely used with conic projections but is
relatively common in the case of azimuthal and cylindrical projections.

Any other orientation of the projection surface with respect to the generating globe is
referred to as oblique aspect. Oblique azimuthal projections are frequently used to
generate maps centred on particular locations, e.g. a map of the world centred on Toronto.
Oblique cylindrical and conic projections are possible but are less common.

Common Map Projections

The following table summarizes several commonly used map projections based on type
of projection surface and geometric properties. Click on the column headings to access
documents containing more detailed descriptions of the projections listed in the table.

Choosing an Appropriate Map Projection

Selecting an appropriate projection for a particular map requires consideration of the

purpose of the map and the region to be represented on the map. In general, the purpose
of the map determines the geometric properties that are most important. For example, if
the purpose of the map is to show route information, an azimuthal projection is likely to
be the best choice. If the purpose of the map is to show a population density distribution,
then an equivalent projection would be a better choice. General reference maps might use
a conformal projection or a compromise projection that does not distort shapes and areas
too severely.
Consideration of the area to be mapped determines the method of construction to be used.
Cylindrical projections are generally used for maps of the entire Earth since they tend to
avoid the extreme distortion that occurs on azimuthal and conic projections in areas that
are distant from the standard point or line(s). In normal orientation, cylindrical
projections have a narrow band along the Equator in which distortion of all geometric
characteristics is minimized, making them suitable for representation of tropical regions.
This pattern of distortion also makes transverse cylindrical projections suitable for
mapping areas that have a long north-south but narrow east-west extent.

Conic projections are generally used to represent mid-latitude regions in either the
northern or southern hemispheres. By choosing a standard parallel near the centre of the
region of interest, distortion of geometric characteristics on the map can be minimized.
Distortion can be further reduced by using the secant case of conic projections. This
results in two standard parallels which are usually chosen to ensure that approximately
two thirds of the area to be mapped lies between the standard parallels.

Azimuthal projections are frequently used for mapping the polar regions but can be
centred on any location on the Earth's surface. Because of the radial pattern of distortion
(increasing with distance from the point of tangency), azimuthal projections are alos
useful for mapping areas having approximately equal north-south and east-west extents.
However, they are often chosen because of their correct representation of distance and
directional relationships about the point of tangency or because of their special properties
with respect to representation great and small circles.

Azimuthal map projections

Normal Azimuthal Projections

Azimuthal projections are projections to a plane placed tangent to the globe at a point. In
normal (or polar) aspect, the point of tangency is either the north or south pole and
meridians of longitude are represented as radial straight lines through th pole while
parallels of latitude appear as concentric circles. Distortion in the map increases with
distance from the point of tangency. Since distortion is minimal near the point of
tangency, azimuthal projections are useful for representing areas having approximately
equal extents in the north-south and east-west directions.

All normal azimuthal projections share the same basic pattern of radial meridians and
concentric parallels. Different projections are obtained by modifying the spacing of
parallels along the meridians to preserve selected geometric properties.

Perspective Projections

Perspective projections can all be constructed geometrically based on the assumption of a

light source and a transparent globe. Rays of light from the light source cast shadows of
meridians and parallels onto the projection surface. Different geometric properties can be
obtained by changing the position of the light source with respect to the generating globe.

Gnomonic

The gnomonic projection is a perspective projection with the light source located at the
centre of the generating globe. Meridians appear as radial straight lines and parallels are
represented as concentric circles. The spacing of parallels and deformation of areas and
angles increases rapidly with distance from the pole, which is the point of tangency. Only
an area within about 60 degrees from the point of tangency can be represented on the
map, since beyond this range, distortion becomes extreme. The gnomonic projection is
the oldest map projection. Thales of Meletus (about 600 BC) is usually given credit for
its development. The gnomonic projection has the special property that all great circles
are represented by straight lines on the map. It is therefore useful for navigation and is
often used in conjunction with the Mercator projection for compass navigation.

Stereographic

The sterographic projection positions the light source at the antipode of the point of
tangency. Thus if the north pole is the point of tangency, the light source would be at the
south pole. The spacing of parallels increases with distance from the pole, but not as
rapidly as was the case with the gnomonic projection. As a result, deformation of areas
and angles is less severe and it is possible to show an area of up to about 135 degrees
from the pole on one map, although stereographic projections are usually limited to
showing one hemisphere. The stereographic projection is a conformal projection and is
commonly used for maps of the polar region. The stereographic projection also has an
important special property: with the exception of great circles passing through the pole,
circles on the globe appear as circles or circular arcs on the map. This makes the
stereographic projection useful for representing radial phenomena such as shock waves
from earthquakes.

Orthographic

The orthographic projection assumes that the light source is an infinite distance from the
point of tangency, resulting in the rays of light being parallel to each other and
perpendicular to the projection surface. The resulting projection can show only one
hemisphere. The spacing between parallels decreases towards the Equator. The
orthographic projection has no special properties but it does approximate a perspective
view of the Earth from outer space. It is therefore useful for visualizing spatial
relationships.

Equidistant Projection

The perspective projections correctly represent azimuths about the point of tangency but
do not correctly represent distances. An azimuthal equidistant projection can be produced
by starting with the basic pattern of radial meridians and concentric parallels and
modifying the spacing of the parallels so that they are equally spaced along the
meridians. The result is an azimuthal projection that can represent the entire Earth on a
single map. All distances measured from the point of tangency are true to scale and
angles about the point of tangency are also correctly represented. Other distance and
angular relationships are distorted. Since distances and angles about the central point are
correct, the azimuthal equidistant projection is useful for representing routes from a
single location to all other locations of interest.

Lambert Equivalent Projection

In similar fashion, the spacing of parallels can be adjusted to produce an azimuthal

equivalent projection. Whereas the azimuthal equidistant projection was obtained by
making the spacing of parallels equal to the arc distance between parallels on the globe,
the azimuthal equivalent projection is obtained by making the spacing of parallels equal
to the chord distance between parallels on the globe.On this projection, the spacing
between parallels decreases with distance from the pole in order to compensate for the
stretching that occurs along parallels of latitude. As with the azimuthal equidistant
projection, the azimuthal equivalent projection can represent the entire Earth although it
is often limited to showing one hemisphere.

Cylindrical map projections

Normal Cylindrical Projections

The normal aspect for cylindrical projections assumes that the cylinder is tangent to the
globe along the Equator. In this orientation, the graticule appears as a rectangular grid.
Meridians of longitude are straight lines, equally spaced along, and perpendicular to the
Equator. Parallels of latitude are represented as straight line parallel to and having the
same length as the Equator. In the tangent case, the Equator is true to scale and distortion
increases with distance from the Equator. In the secant case, the standard parallels which
lie equidistant north and south of the Equator are true to scale and distortion increases
with distance from the standard lines. As was the case with normal azimuthal projections,
normal cylindrical projections having different geometric properties can be obtained by
modifying the spacing of the parallels of latitude.

Perspective Projections

Perspective projections to a cylinder are less important than perspective projections to a

plane because they do not share the same special properties. Nevertheless, perspective
projections are useful in illustrating the basic pattern of cylindrical projections.

Gnomonic

The cylindrical gnomonic projection illustrates the basic pattern of normal cylindrical
projections. The principles are the same as for the azimuthal gnomonic projection. A light
source positioned at the centre of the globe casts shadows of the graticule on the
projection surface, which in this instance, is a cylinder placed tangent to the globe along
the Equator. The Equator is shown as true to scale on the map, and as is typical of
cylindrical projections, there is a narrow band along the Equator in which distortion of all
geometric characteristics is minimal. The spacing of parallels increases rapidly toward
the poles. The polar regions cannot be represented since the poles would be located an
infinite distance from the Equator. The cylindrical gnomonic projection has no useful
properties other than showing the basic pattern of the graticule on cylindrical projections.

Stereographic

Cylindrical stereographic projections are rarely used, although Gall's stereographic

projection has been proposed as compromise projection having less distortion of
distances than the cylindrical gnomonic projection and less distortion of shapes than the
cylindrical orthographic projection.

Orthographic

The cylindrical orthographic projection assumes that the light source is an infinite
distance from the projection surface, resulting in parallel rays of light. The spacing
between parallels decreases with distance from the Equator. This compression of north-
south distances exactly compensates for the stretching of east-west distances towards the
poles, resulting in an equivalent projection. However, because of the extreme distortion
of shapes, especially in the polar regions, other equivalent projections are generally
preferred.

Cylindrical Equidistant Projection

As was the case with azimuthal projections, the spacing between parallels can be
modified to produce an equidistant projection. On this projection, parallels of latitude are
equally spaced along meridians, the distance between parallels being equal to the arc
length between parallels on the generating globe. Distances measured along the Equator
(tangent case) or standard parallels (secant case) and distances measured along any
meridian are true to scale. However, other distances are distorted. The cylindrical
equidistant projection is also called an equirectangular projection or plate carre.

Cylindrical Equivalent Projections

The cylindrical orthographic projection is the basic cylindrical equivalent projection.

However, because of extreme distortion of shapes in the polar regions, it is not a popular
choice. Numerous alternatives have been developed. These are referred to as pseudo-
cylindrical or conventional projections since they cannot be constructed from the basic
perspective cylindrical projections by simply adjusting the spacing of the parallels.
Sinusoidal Projection

The sinusoidal projection can be constructed from the the cylindrical equidistant
projection by rescaling the parallels of latitude so that they are all true to scale. On this
projection, the central meridian is a straight line, half the legnth of the Equator. Other
meridians are curved lines, equally spaced along all parallels. The result is an equivalent
projection. Distortion on this projection is minimal at the intersection of the central
meridian and the Equator and generally increases with distance from this point. This
makes the projection well-suited to maps of a single continent such as Africa or South
America.

To minimize distortion of shapes near the edges of the map, an interrupted Sinusoidal
projection can be used. This is a composite projection, created by piecing together several
Sinusoidal projections based on different central meridians. For example, if the main
interest is in the land areas, central meridians centred in North America, Eurasia, South
America, Africa and Australasia might be used. Alternatively, if interest is on the oceans,
central meridians might be chosen centered on the world's oceans. Sections of the
resulting projections can be pieced together to obtain an interrupted projection of the
entire world. The resulting map is still an equivalent projection, but has less distortion of
shapes and angles because all regions are relatively close to a central meridian.

Mollweide Projection

The Mollweide is another conventional equivalent projection. On this projection, the

entire Earth is represented within an ellipse. Parallels of latitude are straight lines parallel
to the Equator. The spacing of parallels along the central meridian is calculated to ensure
that all areas on the map are equal to the corresponding areas on the globe. Like the
Sinusoidal projection, distortion is minimal near the intersection of the Equator and the
central meridian and increases toward the edges of the map.

Homolosine Projection

The homolonsine projection is a hybrid projection formed by using a Sinusoidal

projection between 40o 44' N and 40o 44' S. A Mollweide projection is used for areas
outside this range. The resulting projection is an equivalent projection, but avoids the
pointed look of the Sinusoidal projection.

Mercator Conformal Projection

The Mercator projection is a confromal projection. On a conformal projection, the scale

is constant in all directions about each point but scale varies from point to point on the
map. If we consider the parallels, on cylindrical projections, east-west scale increases as
we move towards the poles. Assuming tangent case, only the Equator is represented true
to scale. All other parallels are longer on the map than they are on the globe. In the
extreme case, the pole is subject to an infinite degree of distortion since it has been
stretching into a line having the same length as the Equator, although it is a point on the
globe. Since east-west scale is increasing as we move toward the poles, we must increase
north-south scale by an equal amount in order to obtain a conformal projection.

This projection was invented by Gerhardus Mercator in 1569 as an aid to navigation. It

has the special property that loxodromes or rhumb lines are represented as straight lines
on the map. This projection is often used in conjunction with the azimuthal gnomonic
projection. On the gnomonic projection, great circles appear as straight lines, making it
easy to plot the shortest route between two points. Transferred to the Mercator projection,
the great circle route will appear as a curved line that can be approximated by straight
line segments. The straight line segments on the Mercator projection are easier to follow
since this only requires following a constant compass direction.

Conical map projections

Normal Conic Projections

In normal aspect, the cone is placed tangent to the globe along a parallel of latitude or
secant to the globe, intersecting the globe along two parallels. Meridians are represented
as straight lines radiating from the apex of the cone and parallels of latitude are
represented as concentric circular arcs. The standard parallel(s) is/are true to scale.
Distortion is minimized in a narrow band along the standard parallel(s) and increases
with distance from the standard parallel(s).

Perspective Conic Projection

While perspective conic projections can be constructed, they have no useful geometric
properties and serve only to demonstrate the basic pattern of radial meridians and
concentric parallel arcs.

Equidistant Conic Projection

Conic equidistant projections can be constructed using one or two standard parallels. As
with azimuthal and cylindrical projections, the equidistant conic projections are obtained
by adjusting the spacing of the parallels so that they are equally spaced along meridians
and the distance between the parallels on the map is equal to the arc length between
parallels on the generating globe. Distances measured along all meridians and along the
standard parallel(s) are true to scale but other distances are distorted.

Simple Conic

The simple conic projection uses one standard parallel (tangent case). Any parallel of
latitude can be selected as the standard parallel. Parallels are equally spaced along
meridians with the distance between parallels being equally to the arc length between
parallels on the globe. Adjustment of the spacing of the parallels results in the pole being
represented by a circular arc rather than by a point as is the case on a perspective conic
projection.

De l'Isles

De l'Iles projection is an equidistant conic projection but with two standard parallels. It
thus represent the secant case of the simple conic. Both standard parallels are true to scale
on the map. Parallels located between the two standard parallels are shorter than their true
length on the globe, while parallels outside the two standard parallels are longer than
their true length on the globe. Use of two standard parallels gives a more even
distribution of distortion and reduces distortion near the north and south extremes of the
map. As with the simple conic, distances along the two standard lines and distances along
all meridians are true to scale but other distances are distorted.

Equivalent Conic Projections

Equivalent projections modify the spacing of parallels to maintain constant areal scale.
The two most common conic equivalent projections are Alber's projection, which is a true
conic projection, and Bonne's projection, which is a pseudo-conic projection.

Alber's

Alber's projection is constructed by modifying the spacing of parallels to obtain an

equivalent projection. The meridians are represented the same as on the simple conic, but
the spacing between parallels is adjusted to maintain constant areal scale. Areas the size
of Canada or the United States can be mapped with little distortion of distances and
shapes. The Alber's projection is extensively used in the United States as the basis for
state plane co-ordinate systems used for topographic maps.

Bonne's

Bonne's projection is a pseudo-conic projection that is directly analogous to the

Sinusoidal projection. It is constructed by starting with a simple conic projection in which
the parallels are equally spaced along the meridians. The parallels are then scaled to be
true to scale. The result is an equivalent projection that can represent the entire world
although it is usually limited to areas less than a hemisphere. Bonne's projection was used
by France as the basis for their topographic maps.

Lambert Conformal Conic Projection

The Lambert conformal conic projection is analgous to the Mercator projection. Both are
conformal projections, meaning that at any point, scale is constant in all directions about
the point. As a result, shapes of small areas are represented with minimal distortion but
shapes of larger areas are distorted because of changes in scale from point to point. As
with the Mercator projection, the Lambert conformal projection is constructed by
adjusting the spacing of the parallels so that the stretching of the map in the east-west
direction is exactly matched by stretching in the north-south direction. The projection can
be constructed using either one or two standard parallels. Use of two standard parallels is
more common because it gives a better distribution of distortion over the entire map. The
Lambert conformal projection is extensively used for maps of Canada and Ontario.

Use of Transverse and Oblique Projections

Many of the maps that we see in atlases or other publications are drawn in normal aspect,
i.e. on a plane tangent at the pole, a cylinder tangent along the Equator, or cone tangent
along some parallel of latitude. However, there are occasions when a transverse or
oblique projection is a more appropriate choice. For example, we know that on
cylindrical projections, there is a narrow band along the line of tangency within which
there is little distortion of any geometric characteristics. In normal orientation, this band
straddles the Equator. If we rotate the cylinder 90 degrees, the line of tangency becomes
an opposing pair of meridians. This configuration is well suited to mapping regions such
as Great Britain or Chile that have a relatively long north-south extent but comparatively
narrow east-west extent. The same logic would support use of an oblique cylindrical
projection for mapping regions that have a long, thin shape that is not oriented north-
south or east-west.

Transverse and oblique conic projections are almost never used, although transverse
conic projections with the apex of the cone centred over the Pacific Ocean might be
useful for mapping the Pacific rim. Oblique and transverse azimuthal projections are
quite common and are often used to show routes to and from a particular city or to map
small areas with approximately equal spatial extents in all directions..

Constructing Transverse and Oblique Projections

Oblique and transverse projections are often difficult to produce maually but can be
easily produced using computer software that generates maps based on latitude and
longitude co-ordinates describing the locations of geographic features. Generating
transverse or oblique projections can be thought of as a two stage process. The first step
is to create a new spherical co-ordinate system based on an aribtrary projection pole. In
the diagram below, the point P has been selected as the projection pole. For a transverse
projection, P would be a point on the Equator but for an oblique projection, P can be any
point other than the poles that is not on the Equator. The line PC, connecting P with the
centre of the globe, becomes the axis of the new spherical co-ordinate system. The
'equator' of the new co-ordinate system is a plane passing through the centre of the globe,
perpendicular to the axis of the projection. The intersection of this plane with the
meridian PN, becomes the origin (O) of the new spherical co-ordinate system. The
'latitude' (h) and 'longitude' (a) of any point Q in the new co-ordinate system can be
calculated using equations from spherical trigonometry given the latitude and longitude
of points P and Q in the normal geographic co-ordinate system. Once locations on the
earth's surface have been transformed into the new co-ordinate system, the procedures
used to create normal azimuthal, cylindrical or conic projections can be applied to the
transformed co-ordinates to obtain oblique or transverse projections.