GODANDTHESTATE

BYMIKHAILBAKUNIN

Godslasteraar.org

 ChapterI Whoisright,theidealistsorthematerialists?Thequestion,oncestatedinthisway,hesitation becomesimpossible.Undoubtedlytheidealistsarewrongandthematerialistsright.Yes,facts arebeforeideas;yes,theideal,asProudhonsaid,isbutaflower,whoserootliesinthematerial conditionsofexistence.Yes,thewholehistoryofhumanity,intellectualandmoral,politicaland social,isbutareflectionofitseconomichistory. Allbranchesofmodemscience,oftrueanddisinterestedscience,concurinproclaimingthis grandtruth,fundamentalanddecisive:Thesocialworld,properlyspeaking,thehumanworld inshort,humanityisnothingotherthanthelastandsupremedevelopmentatleastonour planetandasfarasweknowthehighestmanifestationofanimality.Butaseverydevelopment necessarilyimpliesanegation,thatofitsbaseorpointofdeparture,humanityisatthesame timeandessentiallythedeliberateandgradualnegationoftheanimalelementinman;anditis preciselythisnegation,asrationalasitisnatural,andrationalonlybecausenaturalatonce historicalandlogical,asinevitableasthedevelopmentandrealizationofallthenaturallawsin theworldthatconstitutesandcreatestheideal,theworldofintellectualandmoral convictions,ideas. Yes,ourfirstancestors,ourAdamsandourEves,were,ifnotgorillas,verynearrelativesof gorillas,omnivorous,intelligentandferociousbeasts,endowedinahigherdegreethanthe animalsofanotherspecieswithtwopreciousfacultiesthepowertothinkandthedesireto rebel. Thesefaculties,combiningtheirprogressiveactioninhistory,representtheessentialfactor, thenegativepowerinthepositivedevelopmentofhumananimality,andcreateconsequently allthatconstituteshumanityinman. TheBible,whichisaveryinterestingandhereandthereveryprofoundbookwhenconsidered asoneoftheoldestsurvivingmanifestationsofhumanwisdomandfancy,expressesthistruth verynaivelyinitsmythoforiginalsin.Jehovah,whoofallthegoodgodsadoredbymenwas certainlythemostjealous,themostvain,themostferocious,themostunjust,themost bloodthirsty,themostdespotic,andthemosthostiletohumandignityandlibertyJehovahhad justcreatedAdamandEve,tosatisfyweknownotwhatcaprice;nodoubttowhileawayhis time,whichmustweighheavyonhishandsinhiseternalegoisticsolitude,orthathemighthave somenewslaves.Hegenerouslyplacedattheirdisposalthewholeearth,withallitsfruitsand animals,andsetbutasinglelimittothiscompleteenjoyment.Heexpresslyforbadethemfrom touchingthefruitofthetreeofknowledge.Hewished,therefore,thatman,destituteofall understandingofhimself,shouldremainaneternalbeast,everonallfoursbeforetheeternal God,hiscreatorandhismaster.ButherestepsinSatan,theeternalrebel,thefirstfreethinker andtheemancipatorofworlds.Hemakesmanashamedofhisbestialignoranceandobedience; heemancipateshim,stampsuponhisbrowthesealoflibertyandhumanity,inurginghimto disobeyandeatofthefruitofknowledge. Weknowwhatfollowed.ThegoodGod,whoseforesight,whichisoneofthedivinefaculties, shouldhavewarnedhimofwhatwouldhappen,flewintoaterribleandridiculousrage;he

cursedSatan,man,andtheworldcreatedbyhimself,strikinghimselfsotospeakinhisown creation,aschildrendowhentheygetangry;and,notcontentwithsmitingourancestors themselves,hecursedtheminallthegenerationstocome,innocentofthecrimecommittedby theirforefathers.OurCatholicandProtestanttheologianslookuponthatasveryprofoundand veryjust,preciselybecauseitismonstrouslyiniquitousandabsurd.Then,rememberingthathe wasnotonlyaGodofvengeanceandwrath,butalsoaGodoflove,afterhavingtormentedthe existenceofafewmilliardsofpoorhumanbeingsandcondemnedthemtoaneternalhell,he tookpityontherest,and,tosavethemandreconcilehiseternalanddivinelovewithhiseternal anddivineanger,alwaysgreedyforvictimsandblood,hesentintotheworld,asanexpiatory victim,hisonlyson,thathemightbekilledbymen.Thatiscalledthemysteryofthe Redemption,thebasisofalltheChristianreligions.Still,ifthedivineSaviorhadsavedthe humanworld!Butno;intheparadisepromisedbyChrist,asweknow,suchbeingtheformal announcement,theelectwillnumberveryfew.Therest,theimmensemajorityofthe generationspresentandtocome,willburneternallyinhell.Inthemeantime,toconsoleus, God,everjust,evergood,handsovertheearthtothegovernmentoftheNapoleonThirds,of theWilliamFirsts,oftheFerdinandsofAustria,andoftheAlexandersofalltheRussias. Sucharetheabsurdtalesthataretoldandthemonstrousdoctrinesthataretaught,inthefull lightofthenineteenthcentury,inallthepublicschoolsofEurope,attheexpresscommandof thegovernment.Theycallthiscivilizingthepeople!Isitnotplainthatallthesegovernmentsare systematicpoisoners,interestedstupefiesofthemasses? Ihavewanderedfrommysubject,becauseangergetsholdofmewheneverIthinkofthebase andcriminalmeanswhichtheyemploytokeepthenationsinperpetualslavery,undoubtedly thattheymaybethebetterabletofleecethem.Ofwhatconsequencearethecrimesofallthe Tropmannsintheworldcomparedwiththiscrimeoftreasonagainsthumanitycommitteddaily, inbroadday,overthewholesurfaceofthecivilizedworld,bythosewhodaretocallthemselves theguardiansandthefathersofthepeople?Ireturntothemythoforiginalsin. GodadmittedthatSatanwasright;herecognizedthatthedevildidnotdeceiveAdamandEve inpromisingthemknowledgeandlibertyasarewardfortheactofdisobediencewhichhebad inducedthemtocommit;for,immediatelytheyhadeatenoftheforbiddenfruit,Godhimself said(seeBible):Behold,manisbecomeasoftheGods,knowingbothgoodandevil;prevent him,therefore,fromeatingofthefruitofeternallife,lesthebecomeimmortallikeOurselves. Letusdisregardnowthefabulousportionofthismythandconsideritstruemeaning,whichis veryclear.Manhasemancipatedhimself;hehasseparatedhimselffromanimalityand constitutedhimselfaman;hehasbegunhisdistinctivelyhumanhistoryanddevelopmentbyan actofdisobedienceandsciencethatis,byrebellionandbythought. Threeelementsor,ifyoulike,threefundamentalprinciplesconstitutetheessentialconditions ofallhumandevelopment,collectiveorindividual,inhistory: (1)humananimality; (2)thought;and (3)rebellion.

Tothefirstproperlycorrespondssocialandprivateeconomy;tothesecond,science;tothe third,liberty. Idealistsofallschools,aristocratsandbourgeois,theologiansandmetaphysicians,politicians andmoralists,religionists,philosophers,orpoets,notforgettingtheliberaleconomists unboundedworshippersoftheideal,asweknowaremuchoffendedwhentoldthatman,with hismagnificentintelligence,hissublimeideas,andhisboundlessaspirations,is,likeallelse existingintheworld,nothingbutmatter,onlyaproductofvilematter. Wemayanswerthatthematterofwhichmaterialistsspeak,matterspontaneouslyand eternallymobile,active,productive,matterchemicallyororganicallydeterminedand manifestedbythepropertiesorforces,mechanical,physical,animal,andintelligent,which necessarilybelongtoitthatthismatterhasnothingincommonwiththevilematterofthe idealists.Thelatter,aproductoftheirfalseabstraction,isindeedastupid,inanimate,immobile thing,incapableofgivingbirthtothesmallestproduct,acaputmortuum,anuglyfancyin contrasttothebeautifulfancywhichtheycallGod;astheoppositeofthissupremebeing, matter,theirmatter,strippedbythatconstitutesitsrealnature,necessarilyrepresentssupreme nothingness.Theyhavetakenawayintelligence,life,allitsdeterminingqualities,activerelations orforces,motionitself,withoutwhichmatterwouldnotevenhaveweight,leavingitnothing butimpenetrabilityandabsoluteimmobilityinspace;theyhaveattributedallthesenatural forces,properties,andmanifestationstotheimaginarybeingcreatedbytheirabstractfancy; then,interchangingrles,theyhavecalledthisproductoftheirimagination,thisphantom,this Godwhoisnothing,supremeBeingand,asanecessaryconsequence,havedeclaredthatthe realbeing,matter,theworld,isnothing.Afterwhichtheygravelytellusthatthismatteris incapableofproducinganything,notevenofsettingitselfinmotion,andconsequentlymust havebeencreatedbytheirGod. AttheendofthisbookIexposedthefallaciesandtrulyrevoltingabsurditiestowhichoneis inevitablyledbythisimaginationofaGod,lethimbeconsideredasapersonalbeing,the creatorandorganizerofworlds;orevenasimpersonal,akindofdivinesoulspreadoverthe wholeuniverseandconstitutingthusitseternalprinciple;orlethimbeanidea,infiniteand divine,alwayspresentandactiveintheworld,andalwaysmanifestedbythetotalityofmaterial anddefinitebeings.HereIshalldealwithonepointonly. Thegradualdevelopmentofthematerialworld,aswellasoforganicanimallifeandofthe historicallyprogressiveintelligenceofman,individuallyorsocially,isperfectlyconceivable.Itis awhollynaturalmovementfromthesimpletothecomplex,fromthelowertothehigher,from theinferiortothesuperior;amovementinconformitywithallourdailyexperiences,and consequentlyinconformityalsowithournaturallogic,withthedistinctivelawsofourmind, whichbeingformedanddevelopedonlybytheaidofthesesameexperiences;is,sotospeak, butthemental,cerebralreproductionorreflectedsummarythereof. Thesystemoftheidealistsisquitethecontraryofthis.Itisthereversalofallhuman experiencesandofthatuniversalandcommongoodsensewhichistheessentialconditionofall humanunderstanding,andwhich,inrisingfromthesimpleandunanimouslyrecognizedtruth thattwicetwoarefourtothesublimestandmostcomplexscientificconsiderationsadmitting, moreover,nothingthathasnotstoodtheseveresttestsofexperienceorobservationofthings andfactsbecomestheonlyseriousbasisofhumanknowledge.

Veryfarfrompursuingthenaturalorderfromthelowertothehigher,fromtheinferiortothe superior,andfromtherelativelysimpletothemorecomplex;insteadofwiselyandrationally accompanyingtheprogressiveandrealmovementfromtheworldcalledinorganictotheworld organic,vegetables,animal,andthendistinctivelyhumanfromchemicalmatterorchemical beingtolivingmatterorlivingbeing,andfromlivingbeingtothinkingbeingtheidealists, obsessed,blinded,andpushedonbythedivinephantomwhichtheyhaveinheritedfrom theology,takepreciselytheoppositecourse.Theygofromthehighertothelower,fromthe superiortotheinferior,fromthecomplextothesimple.TheybeginwithGod,eitherasaperson orasdivinesubstanceoridea,andthefirststepthattheytakeisaterriblefallfromthesublime heightsoftheeternalidealintothemireofthematerialworld;fromabsoluteperfectioninto absoluteimperfection;fromthoughttobeing,orrather,fromsupremebeingtonothing.When, how,andwhythedivinebeing,eternal,infinite,absolutelyperfect,probablywearyofhimself, decideduponthisdesperatesaltomortaleissomethingwhichnoidealist,notheologian,no metaphysician,nopoet,haseverbeenabletounderstandhimselforexplaintotheprofane.All religions,pastandpresent,andallthesystemsoftranscendentalphilosophyhingeonthis uniqueandiniquitousmystery.[1]Holymen,inspiredlawgivers,prophets,messiahs,have searcheditforlife,andfoundonlytormentanddeath.Liketheancientsphinx,ithasdevoured them,becausetheycouldnotexplainit.GreatphilosophersfromHeraclitusandPlatodownto Descartes,Spinoza:Leibnitz,Kant,Fichte,Schelling,andHegel,nottomentiontheIndian philosophers,havewrittenheapsofvolumesandbuiltsystemsasingeniousassublime,inwhich theyhavesaidbythewaymanybeautifulandgrandthingsanddiscoveredimmortaltruths,but theyhaveleftthismystery,theprincipalobjectoftheirtranscendentalinvestigations,as unfathomableasbefore.ThegiganticeffortsofthemostWonderfulgeniusesthattheworldhas known,andwho,oneafteranother,foratleastthirtycenturies,haveundertakenanewthis laborofSisyphus,haveresultedonlyinrenderingthismysterystillmoreincomprehensible.Isit tobehopedthatitwillbeunveiledtousbytheroutinespeculationsofsomepedanticdisciple ofanartificiallywarmedovermetaphysicsatatimewhenalllivingandseriousspiritshave abandonedthatambiguoussciencebornofacompromisehistoricallyexplicablenodoubt betweentheunreasonoffaithandsoundscientificreason? Itisevidentthatthisterriblemysteryisinexplicablethatis,absurd,becauseonlytheabsurd admitsofnoexplanation.Itisevidentthatwhoeverfindsitessentialtohishappinessandlife mustrenouncehisreason,andreturn,ifhecan,tonaive,blind,stupidfaith,torepeatwith Tertullianusandallsincerebelieversthesewords,whichsumuptheveryquintessenceof theology:Credoquiaabsurdum.Thenalldiscussionceases,andnothingremainsbutthe triumphantstupidityoffaith.Butimmediatelytherearisesanotherquestion:Howcomesan intelligentandwellinformedmanevertofeeltheneedofbelievinginthismystery? NothingismorenaturalthanthatthebeliefinGod,thecreator,regulator,judge,master, curser,savior,andbenefactoroftheworld,shouldstillprevailamongthepeople,especiallyin theruraldistricts,whereitismorewidespreadthanamongtheproletariatofthecities.The people,unfortunately,arestillveryignorant,andarekeptinignorancebythesystematicefforts ofallthegovernments,whoconsiderthisignorance,notwithoutgoodreason,asoneofthe essentialconditionsoftheirownpower.Weighteddownbytheirdailylabor,deprivedofleisure, ofintellectualintercourse,ofreading,inshortofallthemeansandagoodportionofthe stimulantsthatdevelopthoughtinmen,thepeoplegenerallyacceptreligioustraditionswithout criticismandinalump.Thesetraditionssurroundthemfrominfancyinallthesituationsoflife, andartificiallysustainedintheirmindsbyamultitudeofofficialpoisonersofallsorts,priests

andlaymen,aretransformedthereinintoasortofmentalandmoralbabit,toooftenmore powerfuleventhantheirnaturalgoodsense. Thereisanotherreasonwhichexplainsandinsomesortjustifiestheabsurdbeliefsofthe peoplenamely,thewretchedsituationtowhichtheyfindthemselvesfatallycondemnedby theeconomicorganizationofsocietyinthemostcivilizedcountriesofEurope.Reduced, intellectuallyandmorallyaswellasmaterially,totheminimumofhumanexistence,confinedin theirlifelikeaprisonerinhisprison,withouthorizon,withoutoutlet,withoutevenafutureif webelievetheeconomists,thepeoplewouldhavethesingularlynarrowsoulsandblunted instinctsofthebourgeoisiftheydidnotfeeladesiretoescape;butofescapetherearebut threemethodstwochimericalandathirdreal.Thefirsttwoarethedramshopandthechurch, debaucheryofthebodyordebaucheryofthemind;thethirdissocialrevolution.HenceI concludethislastwillbemuchmorepotentthanallthetheologicalpropagandismofthe freethinkerstodestroytotheirlastvestigethereligiousbeliefsanddissolutehabitsofthe people,beliefsandhabitsmuchmoreintimatelyconnectedthanisgenerallysupposed.In substitutingfortheatonceillusoryandbrutalenjoymentsofbodilyandspirituallicentiousness theenjoyments,asrefinedastheyarereal,ofhumanitydevelopedineachandall,thesocial revolutionalonewillhavethepowertocloseatthesametimeallthedramshopsandallthe churches. Tillthenthepeople.Takenasawhole,willbelieve;and,iftheyhavenoreasontobelieve, theywillhaveatleastaright. Thereisaclassofpeoplewho,iftheydonotbelieve,mustatleastmakeasemblanceof believing.Thisclasscomprisingallthetormentors,alltheoppressors,andalltheexploitersof humanity;priests,monarchs,statesmen,soldiers,publicandprivatefinanciers,officialsofall sorts,policemen,gendarmes,jailersandexecutioners,monopolists,capitalists,taxleeches, contractorsandlandlords,lawyers,economists,politiciansofallshades,downtothesmallest vendorofsweetmeats,allwillrepeatinunisonthosewordsofVoltaire: IfGoddidnotexist,itwouldbenecessarytoinventhim.For,youunderstand,thepeople musthaveareligion.Thatisthesafetyvalve. Thereexists,finally,asomewhatnumerousclassofhonestbuttimidsoulswho,toointelligent totaketheChristiandogmasseriously,rejectthemindetail,buthaveneitherthecouragenor thestrengthnorthenecessaryresolutiontosummarilyrenouncethemaltogether.They abandontoyourcriticismallthespecialabsurditiesofreligion,theyturnuptheirnosesatallthe miracles,buttheyclingdesperatelytotheprincipalabsurdity;thesourceofalltheothers,tothe miraclethatexplainsandjustifiesalltheothermiracles,theexistenceofGod.TheirGodisnot thevigorousandpowerfulbeing,thebrutallypositiveGodoftheology.Itisanebulous, diaphanous,illusorybeingthatvanishesintonothingatthefirstattempttograspit;itisa mirage,anignisfatugs;thatneitherwarmsnorilluminates.Andyettheyholdfasttoit,and believethat,wereittodisappear,allwoulddisappearwithit.Theyareuncertain,sicklysouls, whohavelosttheirreckoninginthepresentcivilisation,belongingtoneitherthepresentnor thefuture,palephantomseternallysuspendedbetweenheavenandearth,andoccupying exactlythesamepositionbetweenthepoliticsofthebourgeoisandtheSocialismofthe proletariat.Theyhaveneitherthepowernorthewishnorthedeterminationtofollowouttheir thought,andtheywastetheirtimeandpainsinconstantlyendeavouringtoreconcilethe irreconcilable.InpubliclifetheseareknownasbourgeoisSocialists.

Withthem,oragainstthem,discussionisoutofthequestion.Theyaretoopuny. Butthereareafewillustriousmenofwhomnoonewilldaretospeakwithoutrespect,and whosevigoroushealth,strengthofmind,andgoodintentionnoonewilldreamofcallingin question.IneedonlycitethenamesofMazzini,Michelet,Quinet,JohnStuartMill.[2]Generous andstrongsouls,greathearts,greatminds,greatwriters,andthefirsttheheroicand revolutionaryregeneratorofagreatnation,theyareallapostlesofidealismandbitterdespisers andadversariesofmaterialism,andconsequentlyofSocialismalso,inphilosophyaswellasin politics. Againstthem,then,wemustdiscussthisquestion. First,letitberemarkedthatnotoneoftheillustriousmenIhavejustnamednoranyother idealisticthinkerofanyconsequenceinourdayhasgivenanyattentiontothelogicalsideofthis questionproperlyspeaking.Notonehastriedtosettlephilosophicallythepossibilityofthe divinesaltomortale;fromthepureandeternalregionsofspiritintothemireofthematerial world.Havetheyfearedtoapproachthisirreconcilablecontradictionanddespairedofsolvingit afterthefailuresofthegreatestgeniusesofhistory,orhavetheylookeduponitasalready sufficientlywellsettled?Thatistheirsecret.Thefactisthattheyhaveneglectedthetheoretical demonstrationoftheexistenceofaGod,andhavedevelopedonlyitspracticalmotivesand consequences.Theyhavetreateditasafactuniversallyaccepted,and,assuch,nolonger susceptibleofanydoubtwhatever,forsoleproofthereoflimitingthemselvestothe establishmentoftheantiquityandthisveryuniversalityofthebeliefinGod. Thisimposingunanimity,intheeyesofmanyillustriousmenandwriterstoquoteonlythe mostfamousofthemwhoeloquentlyexpressedit,JosephdeMaistreandthegreatItalian patriot,GiuseppeMazziniisofmorevaluethanallthedemonstrationsofscience;andifthe reasoningofasmallnumberoflogicalandevenverypowerful,butisolated,thinkersisagainst it,somuchtheworse,theysay,forthesethinkersandtheirlogic,foruniversalconsent,the generalandprimitiveadoptionofanidea,hasalwaysbeenconsideredthemosttriumphant testimonytoitstruth.TheIsentimentofthewholeworld,aconvictionthatisfoundand maintainedalwaysandeverywhere,cannotbemistaken;itmusthaveitsrootinanecessity absolutelyinherentintheverynatureofman.Andsinceithasbeenestablishedthatallpeoples, pastandpresent,havebelievedandstillbelieveintheexistenceofGod,itisclearthatthose whohavethemisfortunetodoubtit,whateverthelogicthatledthemtothisdoubt,are abnormalexceptions,monsters. Thus,then,theantiquity;anduniversality;ofabeliefshouldberegarded,contrarytoall scienceandalllogic,assufficientandunimpeachableproofofitstruth.Why? UntilthedaysofCopernicusandGalileoeverybodybelievedthatthesunrevolvedaboutthe earth.Wasnoteverybodymistaken?Whatismoreancientandmoreuniversalthanslavery? Cannibalismperhaps.Fromtheoriginofhistoricsocietydowntothepresentdaytherehasbeen alwaysandeverywhereexploitationofthecompulsorylabourofthemassesslaves,serfs,or wageworkersbysomedominantminority;oppressionofthepeoplebytheChurchandbythe State.Mustitbeconcludedthatthisexploitationandthisoppressionarenecessitiesabsolutely inherentintheveryexistenceofhumansociety?Theseareexampleswhichshowthatthe argumentofthechampionsofGodprovesnothing.

Nothing,infact,isasuniversalorasancientastheiniquitousandabsurd;truthandjustice,on thecontrary,aretheleastuniversal,theyoungestfeaturesinthedevelopmentofhuman society.Inthisfact,too,liestheexplanationofaconstanthistoricalphenomenonnamely,the persecutionofwhichthosewhofirstproclaimthetruthhavebeenandcontinuetobethe objectsatthehandsoftheofficial,privileged,andinterestedrepresentativesofuniversaland ancientbeliefs,andoftenalsoatthehandsofthesamemasseswho,afterhavingtortured them,alwaysendbyadoptingtheirideasandrenderingthemvictorious. TousmaterialistsandRevolutionarySocialists,thereisnothingastonishingorterrifyinginthis historicalphenomenon.Stronginourconscience,inourloveoftruthatallhazards,inthat passionforlogicwhichofitselfaloneconstitutesagreatpowerandoutsideofwhichthereisno thought;stronginourpassionforjusticeandinourunshakeablefaithinthetriumphof humanityoveralltheoreticalandpracticalbestialities;strong,finally,inthemutualconfidence andsupportgiveneachotherbythefewwhoshareourconvictionsweresignourselvestoall theconsequencesofthishistoricalphenomenon,inwhichweseethemanifestationofasocial lawasnatural,asnecessary,andasinvariableasalltheotherlawswhichgoverntheworld. Thislawisalogical,inevitableconsequenceoftheanimalorigin;ofhumansociety;forinface ofallthescientific,physiological,psychological,andhistoricalproofsaccumulatedatthepresent day,aswellasinfaceoftheexploitsoftheGermansconqueringFrance,whichnowfurnishso strikingademonstrationthereof,itisnolongerpossibletoreallydoubtthisorigin.Butfromthe momentthatthisanimaloriginofmanisaccepted,allisexplained.Historythenappearstousas therevolutionarynegation,nowslow,apathetic,sluggish,nowpassionateandpowerful,ofthe past.Itconsistspreciselyintheprogressivenegationoftheprimitiveanimalityofmanbythe developmentofhishumanity.Man,awildbeast,cousinofthegorilla,hasemergedfromthe profounddarknessofanimalinstinctintothelightofthemind,whichexplainsinawholly naturalwayallhispastmistakesandpartiallyconsolesusforhispresenterrors.Hehasgoneout fromanimalslavery,andpassingthroughdivineslavery,atemporaryconditionbetweenhis animalityandhishumanity,heisnowmarchingontotheconquestandrealisationofhuman liberty.Whenceitresultsthattheantiquityofabelief,ofanidea,farfromprovinganythingin itsfavour,ought,onthecontrary,toleadustosuspectit.Forbehindusisouranimalityand beforeusourhumanity;humanlight,theonlythingthatcanwarmandenlightenus,theonly thingthatcanemancipateus,giveusdignity,freedom,andhappiness,andrealisefraternity amongus,isneveratthebeginning,but,relativelytotheepochinwhichwelive,alwaysatthe endofhistory.Letus,then,neverlookback,letuslookeverforward;forforwardisoursunlight, forwardoursalvation.Ifitisjustifiable,andevenusefulandnecessary,toturnbacktostudyour past,itisonlyinordertoestablishwhatwehavebeenandwhatwemustnolongerbe,whatwe havebelievedandthoughtandwhatwemustnolongerbelieveorthink,whatwehavedone andwhatwemustdonevermore. Somuchforantiquity.Asfortheuniversality;ofanerror,itprovesbutonethingthe similarity,ifnottheperfectidentity,ofhumannatureinallagesandunderallskies.And,sinceit isestablishedthatallpeoples,atallperiodsoftheirlife,havebelievedandstillbelieveinGod, wemustsimplyconcludethatthedivineidea,anoutcomeofourselves,isanerrorhistorically necessaryinthedevelopmentofhumanity,andaskwhyandhowitwasproducedinhistoryand whyanimmensemajorityofthehumanracestillacceptitasatruth. Untilweshallaccounttoourselvesforthemannerinwhichtheideaofasupernaturalor divineworldwasdevelopedandhadtobedevelopedinthehistoricalevolutionofthehuman

conscience,allourscientificconvictionofitsabsurditywillbeinvain;untilthenweshallnever succeedindestroyingitintheopinionofthemajority,becauseweshallneverbeabletoattack itintheverydepthsofthehutmanbeingwhereithadbirth.Condemnedtoafruitlessstruggle, withoutissueandwithoutend,weshouldforeverhavetocontentourselveswithfightingit solelyonthesurface,initsinnumerablemanifestations,whoseabsurditywillbescarcelybeaten downbytheblowsofcommonsensebeforeitwillreappearinanewformnolessnonsensical. Whiletherootofalltheabsurditiesthattormenttheworld,beliefinGod,remainsintact,itwill neverfailtobringforthnewoffspring.Thus,atthepresenttime,incertainsectionsofthe highestsociety,SpiritualismtendstoestablishitselfupontheruinsofChristianity. Itisnotonlyintheinterestofthemasses,itisinthatofthehealthofourownminds,thatwe shouldstrivetounderstandthehistoricgenesis,thesuccessionofcauseswhichdevelopedand producedtheideaofGodintheconsciousnessofmen.Invainshallwecallandbelieve ourselvesAtheists,untilwecomprehendthesecauses,for,untilthen,weshallalwayssuffer ourselvestobemoreorlessgovernedbytheclamoursofthisuniversalconsciencewhosesecret wehavenotdiscovered;and,consideringthenaturalweaknessofeventhestrongestindividual againsttheallpowerfulinfluenceofthesocialsurroundingsthattrammelhim,wearealwaysin dangerofrelapsingsoonerorlater,inonewayoranother,intotheabyssofreligiousabsurdity. Examplesoftheseshamefulconversionsarefrequentinsocietytoday. ChapterII Ihavestatedthechiefpracticalreasonofthepowerstillexercisedtodayoverthemassesby religiousbeliefs.Thesemysticaltendenciesdonotsignifyinmansomuchanaberrationofmind asadeepdiscontentatHeart.Theyaretheinstinctiveandpassionateprotestofthehuman beingagainstthenarrowness,theplatitudes,thesorrows,andtheshameofawretched existence.Forthismalady,Ihavealreadysaid,thereisbutoneremedySocialRevolution. InthemeantimeIhaveendeavoredtoshowthecausesresponsibleforthebirthandhistorical developmentofreligioushallucinationsinthehumanconscience.Hereitismypurposetotreat thisquestionoftheexistenceofaGod,orofthedivineoriginoftheworldandofman,solely fromthestandpointofitsmoralandsocialutility,andIshallsayonlyafewwords,tobetter explainmythought,regardingthetheoreticalgroundsofthisbelief. Allreligions,withtheirgods,theirdemigods,andtheirprophets,theirmessiahsandtheir saints,werecreatedbythecredulousfancyofmenwhohadnotattainedthefulldevelopment andfullpossessionoftheirfaculties.Consequently,thereligiousheavenisnothingbutamirage inwhichman,exaltedbyignoranceandfaith,discovershisownimage,butenlargedand reversedthatis,divinized.Thehistoryofreligion,ofthebirth,grandeur,anddeclineofthe godswhohavesucceededoneanotherinhumanbelief,isnothing,therefore,butthe developmentofthecollectiveintelligenceandconscienceofmankind.Asfastasthey discovered,inthecourseoftheirhistoricallyprogressiveadvance,eitherinthemselvesorin externalnature,apower,aquality,orevenanygreatdefectwhatever,theyattributedthemto theirgods,afterhavingexaggeratedandenlargedthembeyondmeasure,afterthemannerof children,byanactoftheirreligiousfancy.Thankstothismodestyandpiousgenerosityof believingandcredulousmen,heavenhasgrownrichwiththespoilsoftheearth,and,bya

necessaryconsequence,thericherheavenbecame,themorewretchedbecamehumanityand theearth.Godonceinstalled,hewasnaturallyproclaimedthecause,reason,arbiterand absolutedisposerofallthings:theworldthenceforthwasnothing,Godwasall;andman,his realcreator,afterhavingunknowinglyextractedhimfromthevoid,boweddownbeforehim, worshippedhim,andavowedhimselfhiscreatureandhisslave. Christianityispreciselythereligionparexcellence,becauseitexhibitsandmanifests,tothe fullestextent,theverynatureandessenceofeveryreligioussystem,whichisthe impoverishment,enslavement,andannihilationofhumanityforthebenefitofdivinity. Godbeingeverything,therealworldandmanarenothing.Godbeingtruth,justice,goodness, beauty,power,andlife,manisfalsehood,iniquity,evil,ugliness,impotence,anddeath.God beingmaster,manistheslave.Incapableoffindingjustice,truth,andeternallifebyhisown effort,hecanattainthemonlythroughadivinerevelation.Butwhoeversaysrevelationsays revealers,messiahs,prophets,priests,andlegislatorsinspiredbyGodhimself;andthese,once recognizedastherepresentativesofdivinityonearth,astheholyinstructorsofhumanity, chosenbyGodhimselftodirectitinthepathofsalvation,necessarilyexerciseabsolutepower. Allmenowethempassiveandunlimitedobedience;foragainstthedivinereasonthereisno humanreason,andagainstthejusticeofGodnoterrestrialjusticeholds.SlavesofGod,men mustalsobeslavesofChurchandState,insofarastheStateisconsecratedbytheChurch.This truthChristianity,betterthanallotherreligionsthatexistorhaveexisted,understood,not exceptingeventheoldOrientalreligions,whichincludedonlydistinctandprivilegednations, whileChristianityaspirestoembraceentirehumanity;andthistruthRomanCatholicism,alone amongalltheChristiansects,hasproclaimedandrealizedwithrigorouslogic.Thatiswhy Christianityistheabsolutereligion,thefinalreligion;whytheApostolicandRomanChurchis theonlyconsistent,legitimate,anddivinechurch. Withallduerespect,then,tothemetaphysiciansandreligiousidealists,philosophers, politicians,orpoets:TheideaofGodimpliestheabdicationofhumanreasonandjustice;itis themostdecisivenegationofhumanliberty,andnecessarilyendsintheenslavementof mankind,bothintheoryandpractice. Unless,then,wedesiretheenslavementanddegradationofmankind,astheJesuitsdesireit, asthemmiers,pietists,orProtestantMethodistsdesireit,wemaynot,mustnotmakethe slightestconcessioneithertotheGodoftheologyortotheGodofmetaphysics.Hewho,inthis mysticalalphabet,beginswithAwillinevitablyendwithZ;hewhodesirestoworshipGodmust harbornochildishillusionsaboutthematter,butbravelyrenouncehislibertyandhumanity. IfGodis,manisaslave;now,mancanandmustbefree;then,Goddoesnotexist. Idefyanyonewhomsoevertoavoidthiscircle;now,therefore,letallchoose. Isitnecessarytopointouttowhatextentandinwhatmannerreligionsdebaseandcorrupt thepeople?Theydestroytheirreason,theprincipalinstrumentofhumanemancipation,and reducethemtoimbecility,theessentialconditionoftheirslavery.Theydishonorhumanlabor, andmakeitasignandsourceofservitude.Theykilltheideaandsentimentofhumanjustice, evertippingthebalancetothesideoftriumphantknaves,privilegedobjectsofdivine indulgence.Theykillhumanprideanddignity,protectingonlythecringingandhumble.They stifleintheheartofnationseveryfeelingofhumanfraternity,fillingitwithdivinecruelty instead.

Allreligionsarecruel,allfoundedonblood;forallrestprincipallyontheideaofsacrificethat is,ontheperpetualimmolationofhumanitytotheinsatiablevengeanceofdivinity.Inthis bloodymysterymanisalwaysthevictim,andthepriestamanalso,butamanprivilegedby graceisthedivineexecutioner.Thatexplainswhythepriestsofallreligions,thebest,themost humane,thegentlest,almostalwayshaveatthebottomoftheirheartsand,ifnotintheir hearts,intheirimaginations,intheirminds(andweknowthefearfulinfluenceofeitheronthe heartsofmen)somethingcruelandsanguinary. Noneknowallthisbetterthanourillustriouscontemporaryidealists.Theyarelearnedmen, whoknowhistorybyheart;and,astheyareatthesametimelivingmen,greatsoulspenetrated withasincereandprofoundloveforthewelfareofhumanity,theyhavecursedandbrandedall thesemisdeeds,allthesecrimesofreligionwithaneloquenceunparalleled.Theyrejectwith indignationallsolidaritywiththeGodofpositivereligionsandwithhisrepresentatives,past, present,andonearth. TheGodwhomtheyadore,orwhomtheythinktheyadore,isdistinguishedfromthereal godsofhistorypreciselyinthisthatheisnotatallapositivegod,definedinanywaywhatever, theologicallyorevenmetaphysically.HeisneitherthesupremebeingofRobespierreandJ.J. Rousseau,northepantheisticgodofSpinoza,noreventheatonceimmanent,transcendental, andveryequivocalgodofHegel.Theytakegoodcarenottogivehimanypositivedefinition whatever,feelingverystronglythatanydefinitionwouldsubjecthimtothedissolvingpowerof criticism.Theywillnotsaywhetherbeisapersonalorimpersonalgod,whetherhecreatedor didnotcreatetheworld;theywillnotevenspeakofhisdivineprovidence.Allthatmight compromisehim.TheycontentthemselveswithsayingGodandnothingmore.But,then, whatistheirGod?Notevenanidea;itisanaspiration. Itisthegenericnameofallthatseemsgrand,good,beautiful,noble,humantothem.But why,then,dotheynotsay,Man.Ah!becauseKingWilliamofPrussiaandNapoleonIII,andall theircompeersarelikewisemen:whichbothersthemverymuch.Realhumanitypresentsa mixtureofallIthatismostsublimeandbeautifulwithallthatisvilestandmostmonstrousin theworld.Howdotheygetoverthis?Why,theycallonedivineandtheotherbestial, representingdivinityandanimalityastwopoles,betweenwhichtheyplacehumanity.They eitherwillnotorcannotunderstandthatthesethreetermsarereallybutone,andthatto separatethemistodestroythem. Theyarenotstrongonlogic,andonemightsaythattheydespiseit.Thatiswhatdistinguishes themfromthepantheisticalanddeisticalmetaphysicians,andgivestheirideasthecharacterof apracticalidealism,drawingitsinspirationmuchlessfromtheseveredevelopmentofathought thanfromtheexperiences,Imightalmostsaytheemotions,historicalandcollectiveaswellas individual,oflife.Thisgivestheirpropagandaanappearanceofwealthandvitalpower,butan appearanceonly;forlifeitselfbecomessterilewhenparalyzedbyalogicalcontradiction. Thiscontradictionlieshere:theywishGod,andtheywishhumanity.Theypersistin connectingtwotermswhich,onceseparated,cancometogetheragainonlytodestroyeach other.Theysayinasinglebreath:Godandthelibertyofman,Godandthedignity,justice, equality,fraternity,prosperityofmenregardlessofthefatallogicbyvirtueofwhich,ifGod exists,allthesethingsarecondemnedtononexistence.For,ifGodis,heisnecessarilythe eternal,supreme,absolutemaster,and,ifsuchamasterexists,manisaslave;now,ifheisa slave,neitherjustice,norequality,norfraternity,norprosperityarepossibleforhim.Invain,

flyinginthefaceofgoodsenseandalltheteachingsofhistory,dotheyrepresenttheirGodas animatedbythetenderestloveofhumanliberty:amaster,whoeverhemaybeandhowever liberalhemaydesiretoshowhimself,remainsnonethelessalwaysamaster.Hisexistence necessarilyimpliestheslaveryofallthatisbeneathhim.Therefore,ifGodexisted,onlyinone waycouldheservehumanlibertybyceasingtoexist. Ajealousloverofhumanliberty,anddeemingittheabsoluteconditionofallthatweadmire andrespectinhumanity,IreversethephraseofVoltaire,andsaythat,ifGodreallyexisted,it wouldbenecessarytoabolishhim. Theseverelogicthatdictatesthesewordsisfartooevidenttorequireadevelopmentofthis argument.Anditseemstomeimpossiblethattheillustriousmen,whosenamessocelebrated andsojustlyrespectedIhavecited,shouldnothavebeenstruckbyitthemselves,andshould nothaveperceivedthecontradictioninwhichtheyinvolvethemselvesinspeakingofGodand humanlibertyatonce.Tohavedisregardedit,theymusthaveconsideredthisinconsistencyor logicallicensepracticallynecessarytohumanityswellbeing. Perhaps,too,whilespeakingoflibertyassomethingveryrespectableandverydearintheir eyes,theygivethetermameaningquitedifferentfromtheconceptionentertainedbyus, materialistsandRevolutionarySocialists.Indeed,theyneverspeakofitwithoutimmediately addinganotherword,authorityawordandathingwhichwedetestwithallourheart. Whatisauthority?Isittheinevitablepowerofthenaturallawswhichmanifestthemselvesin thenecessaryconcatenationandsuccessionofphenomenainthephysicalandsocialworlds? Indeed,againsttheselawsrevoltisnotonlyforbiddenitisevenimpossible.Wemay misunderstandthemornotknowthematall,butwecannotdisobeythem;becausethey constitutethebasisandfundamentalconditionsofourexistence;theyenvelopus,penetrateus, regulateallourmovements,thoughts,andacts;evenwhenwebelievethatwedisobeythem, weonlyshowtheiromnipotence. Yes,weareabsolutelytheslavesoftheselaws.Butinsuchslaverythereisnohumiliation,or, rather,itisnotslaveryatall.Forslaverysupposesanexternalmaster,alegislatoroutsideofhim whomhecommands,whiletheselawsarenotoutsideofus;theyareinherentinus;they constituteourbeing,ourwholebeing,physicallyintellectually,andmorally:welive,we breathe,weact,wethink,wewishonlythroughtheselaws.Withoutthemwearenothing,we arenot.Whence,then,couldwederivethepowerandthewishtorebelagainstthem? Inhisrelationtonaturallawsbutonelibertyispossibletomanthatofrecognizingand applyingthemonaneverextendingscaleinconformitywiththeobjectofcollectiveand individualemancipationorhumanizationwhichhepursues.Theselaws,oncerecognized, exerciseanauthoritywhichisneverdisputedbythemassofmen.Onemust,forinstance,beat bottomeitherafooloratheologianoratleastametaphysician,jurist,orbourgeoiseconomist torebelagainstthelawbywhichtwicetwomakefour.Onemusthavefaithtoimaginethatfire willnotburnnorwaterdrown,except,indeed,recoursebehadtosomesubterfugefoundedin itsturnonsomeothernaturallaw.Buttheserevolts,or,rather,theseattemptsatorfoolish fanciesofanimpossiblerevolt,aredecidedly,theexception;for,ingeneral,itmaybesaidthat themassofmen,intheirdailylives,acknowledgethegovernmentofcommonsensethatis,of thesumofthenaturallawsgenerallyrecognizedinanalmostabsolutefashion.

Thegreatmisfortuneisthatalargenumberofnaturallaws,alreadyestablishedassuchby science,remainunknowntothemasses,thankstothewatchfulnessofthesetutelary governmentsthatexist,asweknow,onlyforthegoodofthepeople.Thereisanotherdifficulty namely,thatthemajorportionofthenaturallawsconnectedwiththedevelopmentofhuman society,whicharequiteasnecessary,invariable,fatal,asthelawsthatgovernthephysical world,havenotbeendulyestablishedandrecognizedbyscienceitself. Oncetheyshallhavebeenrecognizedbyscience,andthenfromscience,bymeansofan extensivesystemofpopulareducationandinstruction,shallhavepassedintotheconsciousness ofall,thequestionoflibertywillbeentirelysolved.Themoststubbornauthoritiesmustadmit thatthentherewillbenoneedeitherofpoliticalorganizationordirectionorlegislation,three thingswhich,whethertheyemanatefromthewillofthesovereignorfromthevoteofa parliamentelectedbyuniversalsuffrage,andevenshouldtheyconformtothesystemofnatural lawswhichhasneverbeenthecaseandneverwillbethecasearealwaysequallyfataland hostiletothelibertyofthemassesfromtheveryfactthattheyimposeuponthemasystemof externalandthereforedespoticlaws. Thelibertyofmanconsistssolelyinthis:thatheobeysnaturallawsbecausehehashimself recognizedthemassuch,andnotbecausetheyhavebeenexternallyimposeduponhimbyany extrinsicwillwhatever,divineorhuman,collectiveorindividual. Supposealearnedacademy,composedofthemostillustriousrepresentativesofscience; supposethisacademychargedwithlegislationforandtheorganizationofsociety,andthat, inspiredonlybythepurestloveoftruth,itframesnonebutlawsinabsoluteharmonywiththe latestdiscoveriesofscience.Well,Imaintain,formypart,thatsuchlegislationandsuch organizationwouldbeamonstrosity,andthatfortworeasons:first,thathumanscienceis alwaysandnecessarilyimperfect,andthat,comparingwhatithasdiscoveredwithwhatremains tobediscovered,wemaysaythatitisstillinitscradle.Sothatwerewetotrytoforcethe practicallifeofmen,collectiveaswellasindividual,intostrictandexclusiveconformitywiththe latestdataofscience,weshouldcondemnsocietyaswellasindividualstosuffermartyrdomon abedofProcrustes,whichwouldsoonendbydislocatingandstiflingthem,lifeeverremaining aninfinitelygreaterthingthanscience. Thesecondreasonisthis:asocietywhichshouldobeylegislationemanatingfromascientific academy,notbecauseitunderstooditselftherationalcharacterofthislegislation(inwhichcase theexistenceoftheacademywouldbecomeuseless),butbecausethislegislation,emanating fromtheacademy,wasimposedinthenameofasciencewhichitveneratedwithout comprehendingsuchasocietywouldbeasociety,notofmen,butofbrutes.Itwouldbea secondeditionofthosemissionsinParaguaywhichsubmittedsolongtothegovernmentofthe Jesuits.Itwouldsurelyandrapidlydescendtotheloweststageofidiocy. Butthereisstillathirdreasonwhichwouldrendersuchagovernmentimpossiblenamely thatascientificacademyinvestedwithasovereignty,sotospeak,absolute,evenifitwere composedofthemostillustriousmen,wouldinfalliblyandsoonendinitsownmoraland intellectualcorruption.Eventoday,withthefewprivilegesallowedthem,suchisthehistoryof allacademies.Thegreatestscientificgenius,fromthemomentthathebecomesan academician,anofficiallylicensedsavant,inevitablylapsesintosluggishness.Heloseshis spontaneity,hisrevolutionaryhardihood,andthattroublesomeandsavageenergy characteristicofthegrandestgeniuses,evercalledtodestroyoldtotteringworldsandlaythe

foundationsofnew.Heundoubtedlygainsinpoliteness,inutilitarianandpracticalwisdom, whathelosesinpowerofthought.Inaword,hebecomescorrupted. Itisthecharacteristicofprivilegeandofeveryprivilegedpositiontokillthemindandheartof men.Theprivilegedman,whetherpoliticallyoreconomically,isamandepravedinmindand heart.Thatisasociallawwhichadmitsofnoexception,andisasapplicabletoentirenationsas toclasses,corporations,andindividuals.Itisthelawofequality,thesupremeconditionof libertyandhumanity.Theprincipalobjectofthistreatiseispreciselytodemonstratethistruth inallthemanifestationsofhumanlife. Ascientificbodytowhichhadbeenconfidedthegovernmentofsocietywouldsoonendby devotingitselfnolongertoscienceatall,buttoquiteanotheraffair;andthataffair,asinthe caseofallestablishedpowers,wouldbeitsowneternalperpetuationbyrenderingthesociety confidedtoitscareevermorestupidandconsequentlymoreinneedofitsgovernmentand direction. Butthatwhichistrueofscientificacademiesisalsotrueofallconstituentandlegislative assemblies,eventhosechosenbyuniversalsuffrage.Inthelattercasetheymayrenewtheir composition,itistrue,butthisdoesnotpreventtheformationinafewyearstimeofabodyof politicians,privilegedinfactthoughnotinlaw,who,devotingthemselvesexclusivelytothe directionofthepublicaffairsofacountry,finallyformasortofpoliticalaristocracyoroligarchy. WitnesstheUnitedStatesofAmericaandSwitzerland. Consequently,noexternallegislationandnoauthorityone,forthatmatter,being inseparablefromtheother,andbothtendingtotheservitudeofsocietyandthedegradationof thelegislatorsthemselves. DoesitfollowthatIrejectallauthority?Farfrommesuchathought.Inthematterofboots,I refertotheauthorityofthebootmaker;concerninghouses,canals,orrailroads,Iconsultthatof thearchitectorengineer.ForsuchorsuchspecialknowledgeIapplytosuchorsuchasavant. ButIallowneitherthebootmakernorthearchitectnorthesavanttoimposehisauthorityupon me.Ilistentothemfreelyandwithalltherespectmeritedbytheirintelligence,theircharacter, theirknowledge,reservingalwaysmyincontestablerightofcriticismcensure.Idonotcontent myselfwithconsultingauthorityinanyspecialbranch;Iconsultseveral;Icomparetheir opinions,andchoosethatwhichseemstomethesoundest.ButIrecognizenoinfallible authority,eveninspecialquestions;consequently,whateverrespectImayhaveforthehonesty andthesincerityofsuchorsuchanindividual,Ihavenoabsolutefaithinanyperson.Sucha faithwouldbefataltomyreason,tomyliberty,andeventothesuccessofmyundertakings;it wouldimmediatelytransformmeintoastupidslave,aninstrumentofthewillandinterestsof others. IfIbowbeforetheauthorityofthespecialistsandavowmyreadinesstofollow,toacertain extentandaslongasmayseemtomenecessary,theirindicationsandeventheirdirections,itis becausetheirauthorityisimposeduponmebynoone,neitherbymennorbyGod.OtherwiseI wouldrepelthemwithhorror,andbidthedeviltaketheircounsels,theirdirections,andtheir services,certainthattheywouldmakemepay,bythelossofmylibertyandselfrespect,for suchscrapsoftruth,wrappedinamultitudeoflies,astheymightgiveme. Ibowbeforetheauthorityofspecialmenbecauseitisimposeduponmebymyownreason.I amconsciousofmyinabilitytograsp,inallitsdetailsandpositivedevelopments,anyverylarge

portionofhumanknowledge.Thegreatestintelligencewouldnotbeequaltoacomprehension ofthewhole.Thenceresults,forscienceaswellasforindustry,thenecessityofthedivisionand associationoflabor.IreceiveandIgivesuchishumanlife.Eachdirectsandisdirectedinhis turn.Thereforethereisnofixedandconstantauthority,butacontinualexchangeofmutual, temporary,and,aboveall,voluntaryauthorityandsubordination. Thissamereasonforbidsme,then,torecognizeafixed,constant,anduniversalauthority, becausethereisnouniversalman,nomancapableofgraspinginthatwealthofdetail,without whichtheapplicationofsciencetolifeisimpossible,allthesciences,allthebranchesofsocial life.Andifsuchuniversalitycouldeverberealizedinasingleman,andifbewishedtotake advantagethereoftoimposehisauthorityuponus,itwouldbenecessarytodrivethismanout ofsociety,becausehisauthoritywouldinevitablyreducealltheotherstoslaveryandimbecility. Idonotthinkthatsocietyoughttomaltreatmenofgeniusasithasdonehitherto;butneither doIthinkitshouldindulgethemtoofar,stilllessaccordthemanyprivilegesorexclusiverights whatsoever;andthatforthreereasons:first,becauseitwouldoftenmistakeacharlatanfora manofgenius;second,because,throughsuchasystemofprivileges,itmighttransformintoa charlatanevenarealmanofgenius,demoralizehim,anddegradehim;and,finally,becauseit wouldestablishamasteroveritself. Tosumup.Werecognize,then,theabsoluteauthorityofscience,becausethesoleobjectof scienceisthementalreproduction,aswellconsideredandsystematicaspossible,ofthenatural lawsinherentinthematerial,intellectual,andmorallifeofboththephysicalandthesocial worlds,thesetwoworldsconstituting,infact,butoneandthesamenaturalworld.Outsideof thisonlylegitimateauthority,legitimatebecauserationalandinharmonywithhumanliberty, wedeclareallotherauthoritiesfalse,arbitraryandfatal. Werecognizetheabsoluteauthorityofscience,butwerejecttheinfallibilityanduniversality ofthesavant.InourchurchifImaybepermittedtouseforamomentanexpressionwhichIso detest:ChurchandStatearemytwobtesnoiresinourchurch,asintheProtestantchurch, wehaveachief,aninvisibleChrist,science;and,liketheProtestants,morelogicaleventhanthe Protestants,wewillsufferneitherpope,norcouncil,norconclavesofinfalliblecardinals,nor bishops,norevenpriests.OurChristdiffersfromtheProtestantandChristianChristinthisthat thelatterisapersonalbeing,oursimpersonal;theChristianChrist,alreadycompletedinan eternalpast,presentshimselfasaperfectbeing,whilethecompletionandperfectionofour Christ,science,areeverinthefuture:whichisequivalenttosayingthattheywillneverbe realized.Therefore,inrecognizingabsolutescienceastheonlyabsoluteauthority,weinnoway compromiseourliberty. Imeanbythewordsabsolutescience,whichwouldreproduceideally,toitsfullestextent andinallitsinfinitedetail,theuniverse,thesystemorcoordinationofallthenaturallaws manifestedbytheincessantdevelopmentoftheworld.Itisevidentthatsuchascience,the sublimeobjectofalltheeffortsofthehumanmind,willneverbefullyandabsolutelyrealized. OurChrist,then,willremaineternallyunfinished,whichmustconsiderablytakedownthepride ofhislicensedrepresentativesamongus.AgainstthatGodtheSoninwhosenametheyassume toimposeuponustheirinsolentandpedanticauthority,weappealtoGodtheFather,whois therealworld,reallife,ofwhichhe(theSon)isonlyatooimperfectexpression,whilstwereal beings,living,working,struggling,loving,aspiring,enjoying,andsuffering,areitsimmediate representatives.

But,whilerejectingtheabsolute,universal,andinfallibleauthorityofmenofscience,we willinglybowbeforetherespectable,althoughrelative,quitetemporary,andveryrestricted authorityoftherepresentativesofspecialsciences,askingnothingbetterthantoconsultthem byturns,andverygratefulforsuchpreciousinformationastheymayextendtous,oncondition oftheirwillingnesstoreceivefromusonoccasionswhen,andconcerningmattersaboutwhich, wearemorelearnedthanthey.Ingeneral,weasknothingbetterthantoseemenendowed withgreatknowledge,greatexperience,greatminds,and,aboveall,greathearts,exerciseover usanaturalandlegitimateinfluence,freelyaccepted,andneverimposedinthenameofany officialauthoritywhatsoever,celestialorterrestrial.Weacceptallnaturalauthoritiesandall influencesoffact,butnoneofright;foreveryauthorityoreveryinfluenceofright,officially imposedassuch,becomingdirectlyanoppressionandafalsehood,wouldinevitablyimpose uponus,asIbelieveIhavesufficientlyshown,slaveryandabsurdity. Inaword,werejectalllegislation,allauthority,andallprivileged,licensed,official,andlegal influence,eventhougharisingfromuniversalsuffrage,convincedthatitcanturnonlytothe advantageofadominantminorityofexploitersagainsttheinterestsoftheimmensemajorityin subjectiontothem. ThisisthesenseinwhichwearereallyAnarchists. Themodernidealistsunderstandauthorityinquiteadifferentway.Althoughfreefromthe traditionalsuperstitionsofalltheexistingpositivereligions,theyneverthelessattachtothisidea ofauthorityadivine,anabsolutemeaning.Thisauthorityisnotthatofatruthmiraculously revealed,northatofatruthrigorouslyandscientificallydemonstrated.Theybaseittoaslight extentuponquasiphilosophicalreasoning,andtoalargeextentalsoonsentiment,ideally, abstractlypoetical.Theirreligionis,asitwere,alastattempttodiviniseallthatconstitutes humanityinmen. Thisisjusttheoppositeoftheworkthatwearedoing.Onbehalfofhumanliberty,dignityand prosperity,webelieveitourdutytorecoverfromheaventhegoodswhichithasstolenand returnthemtoearth.They,onthecontrary,endeavouringtocommitafinalreligiouslyheroic larceny,wouldrestoretoheaven,thatdivinerobber,finallyunmasked,thegrandest,finestand noblestofhumanityspossessions.Itisnowthefreethinkersturntopillageheavenbytheir audaciouspietyandscientificanalysis. Theidealistsundoubtedlybelievethathumanideasanddeeds,inordertoexercisegreater authorityamongmen,mustbeinvestedwithadivinesanction.Howisthissanctionmanifested? Notbyamiracle,asinthepositivereligions,butbytheverygrandeurofsanctityoftheideas anddeeds:whateverisgrand,whateverisbeautiful,whateverisnoble,whateverisjust,is considereddivine.Inthisnewreligiousculteverymaninspiredbytheseideas,bythesedeeds, becomesapriest,directlyconsecratedbyGodhimself.Andtheproof?Heneedsnonebeyond theverygrandeuroftheideaswhichheexpressesandthedeedswhichheperforms.Theseare soholythattheycanhavebeeninspiredonlybyGod. Such,insofewwords,istheirwholephilosophy:aphilosophyofsentiments,notofreal thoughts,asortofmetaphysicalpietism.Thisseemsharmless,butitisnotsoatall,andthevery precise,verynarrowandverybarrendoctrinehiddenundertheintangiblevaguenessofthese poeticformsleadstothesamedisastrousresultsthatallthepositivereligionsleadtonamely, themostcompletenegationofhumanlibertyanddignity.

Toproclaimasdivineallthatisgrand,just,noble,andbeautifulinhumanityistotacitlyadmit thathumanityofitselfwouldhavebeenunabletoproduceitthatis,that,abandonedtoitself, itsownnatureismiserable,iniquitous,base,andugly.Thuswecomebacktotheessenceofall religioninotherwords,tothedisparagementofhumanityforthegreatergloryofdivinity.And fromthemomentthatthenaturalinferiorityofmanandhisfundamentalincapacitytoriseby hisowneffort,unaidedbyanydivineinspiration,tothecomprehensionofjustandtrueideas, areadmitted,itbecomesnecessarytoadmitalsoallthetheological,political,andsocial consequencesofthepositivereligions.FromthemomentthatGod,theperfectandsupreme being,ispositedfacetofacewithhumanity,divinemediators,theelect,theinspiredofGod springfromtheearthtoenlighten,direct,andgoverninhisnamethehumanrace. MaywenotsupposethatallmenareequallyinspiredbyGod?Then,surely,thereisno furtheruseformediators.Butthissuppositionisimpossible,becauseitistooclearly contradictedbythefacts.Itwouldcompelustoattributetodivineinspirationalltheabsurdities anderrorswhichappear,andallthehorrors,follies,basedeeds,andcowardlyactionswhichare committed,intheworld.Butperhaps,then,onlyafewmenaredivinelyinspired,thegreatmen ofhistory,thevirtuousgeniuses,astheillustriousItaliancitizenandprophet,GiuseppeMazzini, calledthem.ImmediatelyinspiredbyGodhimselfandsupporteduponuniversalconsent expressedbypopularsuffrageDioePopolo;suchastheseshouldbecalledtothe governmentofhumansocieties.[3] ButhereweareagainfallenbackundertheyokeofChurchandState.Itistruethatinthis neworganization,indebtedforitsexistence,likealltheoldpoliticalorganisations,tothegrace ofGod,butsupportedthistimeatleastsofarasformisconcerned,asanecessaryconcession tothespiritofmoderntimes,andjustasinthepreamblesoftheimperialdecreesofNapoleon III.onthe(pretended)willofthepeople,theChurchwillnolongercallitselfChurch;itwillcall itselfSchool.Whatmattersit?OnthebenchesofthisSchoolwillbeseatednotchildrenonly; therewillbefoundtheeternalminor,thepupilconfessedlyforeverincompetenttopasshis examinations,risetotheknowledgeofhisteachers,anddispensewiththeirdisciplinethe people.[4] TheStatewillnolongercallitselfMonarchy;itwillcallitselfRepublic:butitwillbenonethe lesstheStatethatis,atutelageofficiallyandregularlyestablishedbyaminorityofcompetent men,menofvirtuousgeniusortalent,whowillwatchandguidetheconductofthisgreat, incorrigible,andterriblechild,thepeople.TheprofessorsoftheSchoolandthefunctionariesof theStatewillcallthemselvesrepublicans;buttheywillbenonethelesstutors,shepherds,and thepeoplewillremainwhattheyhavebeenhithertofromalleternity,aflock.Bewareof shearers,forwherethereisaflocktherenecessarilymustbeshepherdsalsotoshearand devourit. Thepeople,inthissystem,willbetheperpetualscholarandpupil.Inspiteofitssovereignty, whollyfictitious,itwillcontinuetoserveastheinstrumentofthoughts,wills,andconsequently interestsnotitsown.Betweenthissituationandwhatwecallliberty,theonlyrealliberty,there isanabyss.Itwillbetheoldoppressionandoldslaveryundernewforms;andwherethereis slaverythereismisery,brutishness,realsocialmaterialism,amongtheprivilegedclassesaswell asamongthemasses.

Indefyinghumanthingstheidealistsalwaysendinthetriumphofabrutalmaterialism.And thisforaverysimplereason:thedivineevaporatesandrisestoitsowncountry,heaven,while thebrutalaloneremainsactuallyonearth. Yes,thenecessaryconsequenceoftheoreticalidealismispracticallythemostbrutal materialism;not,undoubtedly,amongthosewhosincerelypreachittheusualresultasfaras theyareconcernedbeingthattheyareconstrainedtoseealltheireffortsstruckwithsterility butamongthosewhotrytorealisetheirpreceptsinlife,andinallsocietysofarasitallows itselftobedominatedbyidealisticdoctrines. Todemonstratethisgeneralfact,whichmayappearstrangeatfirst,butwhichexplainsitself naturallyenoughuponfurtherreflection,historicalproofsarenotlacking. ComparethelasttwocivilisationsoftheancientworldtheGreekandtheRoman.Whichis themostmaterialistic,themostnatural,initspointofdeparture,andthemosthumanlyidealin itsresults?UndoubtedlytheGreekcivilisation.Whichonthecontrary,isthemostabstractly idealinitspointofdeparturesacrificingthemateriallibertyofthemantotheideallibertyof thecitizen,representedbytheabstractionofjudiciallaw,andthenaturaldevelopmentof humansocietytotheabstractionoftheStateandwhichbecameneverthelessthemostbrutal initsconsequences?TheRomancivilisation,certainly.ItistruethattheGreekcivilisation,likeall theancientcivilisations,includingthatofRome,wasexclusivelynationalandbasedonslavery. But,inspiteofthesetwoimmensedefects,theformernonethelessconceivedandrealisedthe ideaofhumanity;itennobledandreallyidealisedthelifeofmen;ittransformedhumanherds intofreeassociationsoffreemen;itcreatedthroughlibertythesciences,thearts,apoetry,an immortalphilosophy,andtheprimaryconceptsofhumanrespect.Withpoliticalandsocial liberty,itcreatedfreethought.AtthecloseoftheMiddleAges,duringtheperiodofthe Renaissance,thefactthatsomeGreekemigrantsbroughtafewofthoseimmortalbooksinto Italysufficedtoresuscitatelife,liberty,thought,humanity,buriedinthedarkdungeonof Catholicism.Humanemancipation,thatisthenameoftheGreekcivilisation.Andthenameof theRomancivilisation?Conquest,withallitsbrutalconsequences.Anditslastword?The omnipotenceoftheCaesars.Whichmeansthedegradationandenslavementofnationsandof men. Todayeven,whatisitthatkills,whatisitthatcrushesbrutally,materially,inallEuropean countries,libertyandhumanity?ItisthetriumphoftheCaesarianorRomanprinciple. ComparenowtwomoderncivilisationstheItalianandtheGerman.Thefirstundoubtedly represents,initsgeneralcharacter,materialism;thesecond,onthecontrary,represents idealisminitsmostabstract,mostpure,andmosttranscendentalform.Letusseewhatarethe practicalfruitsoftheoneandtheother. Italyhasalreadyrenderedimmenseservicestothecauseofhumanemancipation.Shewas thefirsttoresuscitateandwidelyapplytheprincipleoflibertyinEurope,andtorestoreto humanityitstitlestonobility:industry,commerce,poetry,thearts,thepositivesciences,and freethought.Crushedsincebythreecenturiesofimperialandpapaldespotism,anddraggedin themudbyhergoverningbourgeoisie,shereappearstoday,itistrue,inaverydegraded conditionincomparisonwithwhatsheoncewas.AndyethowmuchshediffersfromGermany! InItaly,inspiteofthisdeclinetemporaryletushopeonemayliveandbreathehumanly, surroundedbyapeoplewhichseemstobebornforliberty.Italy,evenbourgeoisItaly,canpoint

withpridetomenlikeMazziniandGaribaldi..InGermanyonebreathestheatmosphereofan immensepoliticalandsocialslavery,philosophicallyexplainedandacceptedbyagreatpeople withdeliberateresignationandfreewill.HerheroesIspeakalwaysofpresentGermany,notof theGermanyofthefuture;ofaristocratic,bureaucratic,politicalandbourgeoisieGermany,not oftheGermanyoftheproltairesherheroesarequitetheoppositeofMazziniandGaribaldi: theyareWilliamI.,thatferociousandingenuousrepresentativeoftheProtestantGod,Messrs, BismarckandMoltke,GeneralsManteuffelandWerder.Inallherinternationalrelations Germany,fromthebeginningofherexistence,hasbeenslowly,systematicallyinvading, conquering,everreadytoextendherownvoluntaryenslavementintotheterritoryofher neighbours;and,sinceherdefinitiveestablishmentasaunitarypower,shehasbecomea menace,adangertothelibertyofentireEurope.TodayGermanyisservilitybrutaland triumphant. Toshowhowtheoreticalidealismincessantlyandinevitablychangesintopractical materialism,oneneedsonlytocitetheexampleofalltheChristianChurches,and,naturally, firstofall,thatoftheApostolicandRomanChurch.Whatistheremoresublime,intheideal sense,moredisinterested,moreseparatefromalltheinterestsofthisearth,thanthedoctrine ofChristpreachedbythatChurch?Andwhatistheremorebrutallymaterialisticthanthe constantpracticeofthatsameChurchsincetheeighthcentury,fromwhichdatesherdefinitive establishmentasapower?Whathasbeenandstillistheprincipalobjectofallhercontestswith thesovereignsofEurope?Hertemporalgoods,herrevenuesfirst,andthenhertemporal power,herpoliticalprivileges.Wemustdoherthejusticetoacknowledgethatshewasthefirst todiscover,inmodernhistory,thisincontestablebutscarcelyChristiantruththatwealthand power,theeconomicexploitationandthepoliticaloppressionofthemasses,arethetwo inseparabletermsofthereignofdivineidealityonearth:wealthconsolidatingandaugmenting power,powereverdiscoveringandcreatingnewsourcesofwealth,andbothassuring,better thanthemartyrdomandfaithoftheapostles,betterthandivinegrace,thesuccessofthe Christianpropagandism.Thisisahistoricaltruth,andtheProtestantChurchesdonotfailto recogniseiteither.Ispeak,ofcourse,oftheindependentchurchesofEngland,America,and Switzerland,notofthesubjectedchurchesofGermany.Thelatterhavenoinitiativeoftheir own;theydowhattheirmasters,theirtemporalsovereigns,whoareatthesametimetheir spiritualchieftains,orderthemtodo,ItiswellknownthattheProtestantpropagandism, especiallyinEnglandandAmerica,isveryintimatelyconnectedwiththepropagandismofthe material,commercialinterestsofthosetwogreatnations;anditisknownalsothattheobjects ofthelatterpropagandismisnotatalltheenrichmentandmaterialprosperityofthecountries intowhichitpenetratesincompanywiththeWordofGod,butrathertheexploitationofthose countrieswithaviewtotheenrichmentandmaterialprosperityofcertainclasses,whichintheir owncountryareverycovetousandverypiousatthesametime. Inaword,itisnotatalldifficulttoprove,historyinhand,thattheChurch,thatallthe Churches,ChristianandnonChristian,bythesideoftheirspiritualisticpropagandism,and probablytoaccelerateandconsolidatethesuccessthereof,haveneverneglectedtoorganise themselvesintogreatcorporationsfortheeconomicexploitationofthemassesunderthe protectionandwiththedirectandspecialblessingofsomedivinityorother;thatalltheStates, whichoriginally,asweknow,withalltheirpoliticalandjudicialinstitutionsandtheirdominant andprivilegedclasseshavebeenonlytemporalbranchesofthesevariousChurcheshave likewisehadprincipallyinviewthissameexploitationforthebenefitoflayminoritiesindirectly sanctionedbytheChurch;finallyandingeneral,thattheactionofthegoodGodandofallthe

divineidealitiesonearthhasendedatlast,alwaysandeverywhere,infoundingtheprosperous materialismofthefewoverthefanaticalandconstantlyfamishingidealismofthemasses. Wehaveanewproofofthisinwhatweseetoday.Withtheexceptionofthegreatheartsand greatmindswhomIhavebeforereferredtoasmisled,whoaretodaythemostobstinate defendersofidealism?Inthefirstplacesallthesovereigncourts.InFrance,untillately, NapoleonIII.andhiswife,MadameEugnie;alltheirformerministers,courtiers,andex marshals,fromRouherandBazainetoFleuryandPitri;themenandwomenofthisimperial world,whohavesocompletelyidealisedandsavedFrance;theirjournalistsandtheirsavants theCssagnacs,theGirardins,theDuvernois,theVeuillots,theLeverriers,theDumas;theblack phalanxofJesuitsandJesuitessesineverygarb;thewholeupperandmiddlebourgeoisieof France;thedoctrinaireliberals,andtheliberalswithoutdoctrinetheGuizots,theThiers,the JulesFavres,thePelletans,andtheJulesSimons,allobstinatedefendersofthebourgeoisie exploitation.InPrussia,inGermany,WilliamI.,thepresentroyaldemonstratorofthegoodGod onearth;allhisgenerals,allhisofficers,Pomeranianandother;allhisarmy,which,stronginits religiousfaith,hasjustconqueredFranceinthatidealwayweknowsowell.InRussia,theCzar andhiscourt;theMouravieffsandtheBergs,allthebutchersandpiousproselytersofPoland. Everywhere,inshort,religiousorphilosophicalidealism,theonebeingbutthemoreorlessfree translationoftheother,servestodayastheflagofmaterial,bloody,andbrutalforce,of shamelessmaterialexploitation;while,onthecontrary,theflagoftheoreticalmaterialism,the redflagofeconomicequalityandsocialjustice,israisedbythepracticalidealismofthe oppressedandfamishingmasses,tendingtorealisethegreatestlibertyandthehumanrightof eachinthefraternityofallmenontheearth. Whoaretherealidealiststheidealistsnotofabstraction,butoflife,notofheaven,butof earthandwhoarethematerialists? Itisevidentthattheessentialconditionoftheoreticalordivineidealismisthesacrificeof logic,ofhumanreason,therenunciationofscience.Wesee,further,thatindefendingthe doctrinesofidealismonefindshimselfenlistedperforceintheranksoftheoppressorsand exploitersofthemasses.Thesearetwogreatreasonswhich,itwouldseem,shouldbesufficient todriveeverygreatmind,everygreatheart,fromidealism.Howdoesithappenthatour illustriouscontemporaryidealists,whocertainlylackneithermind,norheart,norgoodwill,and whohavedevotedtheirentireexistencetotheserviceofhumanityhowdoesithappenthat theypersistinremainingamongtherepresentativesofadoctrinehenceforthcondemnedand dishonoured? Theymustbeinfluencedbyaverypowerfulmotive.Itcannotbelogicorscience,sincelogic andsciencehavepronouncedtheirverdictagainsttheidealisticdoctrine.Nomorecanitbe personalinterests,sincethesemenareinfinitelyaboveeverythingofthatsort.Itmust,then,be apowerfulmoralmotive.Which?Therecanbebutone.Theseillustriousmenthink,nodoubt, thatidealistictheoriesorbeliefsareessentiallynecessarytothemoraldignityandgrandeurof man,andthatmaterialistictheories,onthecontrary,reducehimtothelevelofthebeasts. Andifthetruthwerejusttheopposite! Everydevelopment,Ihavesaid,impliesthenegationofitspointofdeparture.Thebasisor pointofdeparture,accordingtothematerialisticschool,beingmaterial,thenegationmustbe necessarilyideal.Startingfromthetotalityoftherealworld,orfromwhatisabstractlycalled

matter,itlogicallyarrivesattherealidealisationthatis,atthehumanisation,atthefulland completeemancipationofsociety.Percontra;andforthesamereason,thebasisandpointof departureoftheidealisticschoolbeingideal,itarrivesnecessarilyatthematerialisationof society,attheorganizationofabrutaldespotismandaniniquitousandignobleexploitation, undertheformofChurchandState.Thehistoricaldevelopmentofmanaccordingtothe materialisticschool,isaprogressiveascension;intheidealisticsystemitcanbenothingbuta continuousfall. Whateverhumanquestionwemaydesiretoconsider,wealwaysfindthissameessential contradictionbetweenthetwoschools.Thus,asIhavealreadyobserved,materialismstarts fromanimalitytoestablishhumanity;idealismstartsfromdivinitytoestablishslaveryand condemnthemassestoanendlessanimality.Materialismdeniesfreewillandendsinthe establishmentofliberty;idealism,inthenameofhumandignity,proclaimsfreewill,andonthe ruinsofeverylibertyfoundsauthority.Materialismrejectstheprincipleofauthority,becauseit rightlyconsidersitasthecorollaryofanimality,andbecause,onthecontrary,thetriumphof humanity,theobjectandchiefsignificanceofhistory,canberealisedonlythroughliberty.Ina word,youwillalwaysfindtheidealistsintheveryactofpracticalmaterialism,whileyouwillsee thematerialistspursuingandrealisingthemostgrandlyidealaspirationsandthoughts. History,inthesystemoftheidealists,asIhavesaid,canbenothingbutacontinuousfall.They beginbyaterriblefall,fromwhichtheyneverrecoverbythesaltomortale;fromthesublime regionsofpureandabsoluteideaintomatter.Andintowhatkindofmatter!Notintothe matterwhichiseternallyactiveandmobile,fullofpropertiesandforces,oflifeandintelligence, asweseeitintherealworld;butintoabstractmatter,impoverishedandreducedtoabsolute miserybytheregularlootingofthesePrussiansofthought,thetheologiansandmetaphysicians, whohavestrippeditofeverythingtogiveeverythingtotheiremperor,totheirGod;intothe matterwhich,deprivedofallactionandmovementofitsown,represents,inoppositiontothe divineidea,nothingbutabsolutestupidity,impenetrability,inertiaandimmobility. Thefallissoterriblethatdivinity,thedivinepersonoridea,isflattenedout,loses consciousnessofitself,andnevermorerecoversit.Andinthisdesperatesituationitisstill forcedtoworkmiracles!Forfromthemomentthatmatterbecomesinert,everymovement thattakesplaceintheworld,eventhemostmaterial,isamiracle,canresultonlyfroma providentialintervention,fromtheactionofGoduponmatter.AndtherethispoorDivinity, degradedandhalfannihilatedbyitsfall,liessomethousandsofcenturiesinthisswoon,then awakensslowly,invainendeavouringtograspsomevaguememoryofitself,andeverymove thatitmakesinthisdirectionuponmatterbecomesacreation,anewformation,anewmiracle. Inthiswayitpassesthroughalldegreesofmaterialityandbestialityfirst,gas,simpleor compoundchemicalsubstance,mineral,itthenspreadsovertheearthasvegetableandanimal organizationtillitconcentratesitselfinman.Hereitwouldseemasifitmustbecomeitself again,foritlightsineveryhumanbeinganangelicspark,aparticleofitsowndivinebeing,the immortalsoul. Howdiditmanagetolodgeathingabsolutelyimmaterialinathingabsolutelymaterial;how canthebodycontain,enclose,limit,paralysepurespirit?This,again,isoneofthosequestions whichfaithalone,thatpassionateandstupidaffirmationoftheabsurd,cansolve.Itisthe greatestofmiracles.Here,however,wehaveonlytoestablishtheeffects,thepractical consequencesofthismiracle.

Afterthousandsofcenturiesofvaineffortstocomebacktoitself,Divinity,lostandscattered inthematterwhichitanimatesandsetsinmotion,findsapointofsupport,asortoffocusfor selfconcentration.Thisfocusismanhisimmortalsoulsingularlyimprisonedinamortalbody. Buteachmanconsideredindividuallyisinfinitelytoolimited,toosmall,toenclosethedivine immensity;itcancontainonlyaverysmallparticle,immortallikethewhole,butinfinitely smallerthanthewhole.Itfollowsthatthedivinebeing,theabsolutelyimmaterialbeing,mind,is divisiblelikematter.Anothermysterywhosesolutionmustbelefttofaith. IfGodentirecouldfindlodgmentineachman,theneachmanwouldbeGod.Weshouldhave animmensequantityofGods,eachlimitedbyalltheothersandyetnonethelessinfinitea contradictionwhichwouldimplyamutualdestructionofmen,animpossibilityoftheexistence ofmorethanone.Asfortheparticles,thatisanothermatter;nothingmorerational,indeed, thanthatoneparticleshouldbelimitedbyanotherandbesmallerthanthewhole.Only,here anothercontradictionconfrontsus.Tobelimited,tobegreaterandsmallerareattributesof matter,notofmind.Accordingtothematerialists,itistrue,mindisonlytheworkingofthe whollymaterialorganismofman,andthegreatnessorsmallnessofminddependsabsolutelyon thegreaterorlessmaterialperfectionofthehumanorganism.Butthesesameattributesof relativelimitationandgrandeurcannotbeattributedtomindastheidealistsconceiveit, absolutelyimmaterialmind,mindexistingindependentofmatter.Therecanbeneithergreater norsmallernoranylimitamongminds,forthereisonlyonemindGod.Toaddthatthe infinitelysmallandlimitedparticleswhichconstitutehumansoulsareatthesametime immortalistocarrythecontradictiontoaclimax.Butthisisaquestionoffaith.Letuspasson. HerethenwehaveDivinitytornupandlodged,ininfinitelysmallparticles,inanimmense numberofbeingsofallsexes,ages,races,andcolours.Thisisanexcessivelyinconvenientand unhappysituation,forthedivineparticlesaresolittleacquaintedwitheachotherattheoutset oftheirhumanexistencethattheybeginbydevouringeachother.Moreover,inthemidstof thisstateofbarbarismandwhollyanimalbrutality,thesedivineparticles,humansouls,retainas itwereavagueremembranceoftheirprimitivedivinity,andareirresistiblydrawntowardstheir whole;theyseekeachother,theyseektheirwhole.ItisDivinityitself,scatteredandlostinthe naturalworld,whichlooksforitselfinmen,anditissodemolishedbythismultitudeofhuman prisonsinwhichitfindsitselfstrewn,that,inlookingforitself,itcommitsfollyafterfolly. Beginningwithfetishism,itsearchesforandadoresitself,nowinastone,nowinapieceof wood,nowinarag.Itisquitelikelythatitwouldneverhavesucceededingettingoutoftherag, iftheother;divinitywhichwasnotallowedtofallintomatterandwhichiskeptinastateof purespiritinthesublimeheightsoftheabsoluteideal,orinthecelestialregions,hadnothad pityonit. HereisanewmysterythatofDivinitydividingitselfintotwohalves,bothequallyinfinite,of whichoneGodtheFatherstaysinthepurelyimmaterialregions,andtheotherGodtheSon fallsintomatter.Weshallseedirectly,betweenthesetwoDivinitiesseparatedfromeach other,continuousrelationsestablished,fromabovetobelowandfrombelowtoabove;and theserelations,consideredasasingleeternalandconstantact,willconstitutetheHolyGhost. Such,initsveritabletheologicalandmetaphysicalmeaning,isthegreat,theterriblemysteryof theChristianTrinity. Butletuslosenotimeinabandoningtheseheightstoseewhatisgoingonuponearth.

GodtheFather,seeingfromtheheightofhiseternalsplendourthatthepoorGodtheSon, flattenedoutandastoundedbyhisfall,issoplungedandlostinmatterthatevenhaving reachedhumanstatehehasnotyetrecoveredhimself,decidestocometohisaid.Fromthis immensenumberofparticlesatonceimmortal,divine,andinfinitelysmall,inwhichGodthe Sonhasdisseminatedhimselfsothoroughlythathedoesnotknowhimself,GodtheFather choosesthosemostpleasingtohim,pickshisinspiredpersons,hisprophets,hismenof virtuousgenius,thegreatbenefactorsandlegislatorsofhumanity:Zoroaster,Buddha,Moses, Confucius,Lycurgus,Solon,Socrates,thedivinePlato,andaboveallJesusChrist,thecomplete realisationofGodtheSon,atlastcollectedandconcentratedinasinglehumanperson;allthe apostles,SaintPeter,SaintPaul,SaintJohnbeforeall,ConstantinetheGreat,Mahomet,then Charlemagne,GregoryVIIDante,and,accordingtosome,Lutheralso,VoltaireandRousseau, RobespierreandDanton,andmanyothergreatandholyhistoricalpersonages,allofwhose namesitisimpossibletorecapitulate,butamongwhomI,asaRussian,begthatSaintNicholas maynotbeforgotten. ThenwehavereachedatlastthemanifestationofGoduponearth.ButimmediatelyGod appears,manisreducedtonothing.Itwillbesaidthatheisnotreducedtonothing,sinceheis himselfaparticleofGod.Pardonme!Iadmitthataparticleofadefinite,limitedwhole, howeversmallitbe,isaquantity,apositivegreatness.Butaparticleoftheinfinitelygreat, comparedwithit,isnecessarilyinfinitelysmall,Multiplymilliardsofmilliardsbymilliardsof milliardstheirproductcomparedtotheinfinitelygreat,willbeinfinitelysmall,andthe infinitelysmallisequaltozero.Godiseverything;thereforemanandalltherealworldwithhim, theuniverse,arenothing.Youwillnotescapethisconclusion. Godappears,manisreducedtonothing;andthegreaterDivinitybecomes,themore miserablebecomeshumanity.Thatisthehistoryofallreligions;thatistheeffectofallthe divineinspirationsandlegislations.InhistorythenameofGodistheterribleclubwithwhichall divinelyinspiredmen,thegreatvirtuousgeniuses,havebeatendowntheliberty,dignity, reason,andprosperityofman. WehadfirstthefallofGod.Nowwehaveafallwhichinterestsusmorethatofman,caused solelybytheapparitionofGodmanifestedonearth. Seeinhowprofoundanerrorourdearandillustriousidealistsfindthemselves.Intalkingtous ofGodtheypurpose,theydesire,toelevateus,emancipateus,ennobleus,and,onthe contrary,theycrushanddegradeus.WiththenameofGodtheyimaginethattheycanestablish fraternityamongmen,and,onthecontrary,theycreatepride,contempt;theysowdiscord, hatred,war;theyestablishslavery.ForwithGodcomethedifferentdegreesofdivine inspiration;humanityisdividedintomenhighlyinspired,lessinspired,uninspired.Allare equallyinsignificantbeforeGod,itistrue;but,comparedwitheachother,somearegreater thanothers;notonlyinfactwhichwouldbeofnoconsequence,becauseinequalityinfactis lostinthecollectivitywhenitcannotclingtosomelegalfictionorinstitutionbutbythedivine rightofinspiration,whichimmediatelyestablishesafixed,constant,petrifyinginequality.The highlyinspiredmustbelistenedtoandobeyedbythelessinspired,andthelessinspiredbythe uninspired.Thuswehavetheprincipleofauthoritywellestablished,andwithitthetwo fundamentalinstitutionsofslavery:ChurchandState. Ofalldespotismsthatofthedoctrinaires;orinspiredreligionistsistheworst.Theyareso jealousofthegloryoftheirGodandofthetriumphoftheirideathattheyhavenoheartleftfor

thelibertyorthedignityoreventhesufferingsoflivingmen,ofrealmen.Divinezeal, preoccupationwiththeidea,finallydryupthetenderestsouls,themostcompassionatehearts, thesourcesofhumanlove.Consideringallthatis,allthathappensintheworldfromthepoint ofviewofeternityoroftheabstractidea,theytreatpassingmatterswithdisdain;butthewhole lifeofrealmen,ofmenoffleshandbone,iscomposedonlyofpassingmatters;theythemselves areonlypassingbeings,who,oncepassed,arereplacedbyotherslikewisepassing,butneverto returninperson.Alonepermanentorrelativelyeternalinmenishumanity,whichsteadily developing,growsricherinpassingfromonegenerationtoanother.Isayrelatively;eternal, because,ourplanetoncedestroyeditcannotfailtoperishsoonerorlater,sinceeverything whichhasbegunmustnecessarilyendourplanetoncedecomposed,toserveundoubtedlyas anelementofsomenewformationinthesystemoftheuniverse,whichaloneisreallyeternal, whoknowswhatwillbecomeofourwholehumandevelopment?Nevertheless,themomentof thisdissolutionbeinganenormousdistanceinthefuture,wemayproperlyconsiderhumanity, relativelytotheshortdurationofhumanlife,aseternal.Butthisveryfactofprogressive humanityisrealandlivingonlythroughitsmanifestationsatdefinitetimes,indefiniteplaces,in reallylivingmen,andnotthroughitsgeneralidea. Thegeneralideaisalwaysanabstractionand,forthatveryreason,insomesortanegationof reallife.IhavestatedintheAppendixthathumanthoughtand,inconsequenceofthis,science cangraspandnameonlythegeneralsignificanceofrealfacts,theirrelations,theirlawsin short,thatwhichispermanentintheircontinualtransformationsbutnevertheirmaterial, individualside,palpitating,sotospeak,withrealityandlife,andthereforefugitiveand intangible.Sciencecomprehendsthethoughtofthereality,notrealityitself;thethoughtoflife, notlife.Thatisitslimit,itsonlyreallyinsuperablelimit,becauseitisfoundedontheverynature ofthought,whichistheonlyorganofscience. Uponthisnaturearebasedtheindisputablerightsandgrandmissionofscience,butalsoits vitalimpotenceandevenitsmischievousactionwhenever,throughitsofficiallicensed representatives,itarrogantlyclaimstherighttogovernlife.Themissionofscienceis,by observationofthegeneralrelationsofpassingandrealfacts,toestablishthegenerallaws inherentinthedevelopmentofthephenomenaofthephysicalandsocialworld;itfixes,soto speak,theunchangeablelandmarksofhumanitysprogressivemarchbyindicatingthegeneral conditionswhichitisnecessarytorigorouslyobserveandalwaysfataltoignoreorforget.Ina word,scienceisthecompassoflife;butitisnotlifeitself.Scienceisunchangeable,impersonal, general,abstract,insensible,likethelawsofwhichitisbuttheidealreproduction,reflectedor mentalthatiscerebral(usingthiswordtoremindusthatscienceitselfisbutamaterial productofamaterialorgan,thebrain).Lifeiswhollyfugitiveandtemporary,butalsowholly palpitatingwithrealityandindividuality,sensibility,sufferings,joys,aspirations,needs,and passions.Italonespontaneouslycreatesrealthingsand;beings.Sciencecreatesnothing;it establishesandrecognisesonlythecreationsoflife.Andeverytimethatscientificmen, emergingfromtheirabstractworld,minglewithlivingcreationintherealworld,allthatthey proposeorcreateispoor,ridiculouslyabstract,bloodlessandlifeless,stillborn,likethe homunculuscreatedbyWagner,thepedanticdiscipleoftheimmortalDoctorFaust.Itfollows thattheonlymissionofscienceistoenlightenlife,nottogovernit. Thegovernmentofscienceandofmenofscience,evenbetheypositivists,disciplesof AugusteComte,or,again,disciplesofthedoctrinaire;schoolofGermanCommunism,cannot failtobeimpotent,ridiculous,inhuman,cruel,oppressive,exploiting,maleficent.Wemaysayof menofscience,assuch,whatIhavesaidoftheologiansandmetaphysicians:theyhaveneither

sensenorheartforindividualandlivingbeings.Wecannotevenblamethemforthis,foritisthe naturalconsequenceoftheirprofession.Insofarastheyaremenofscience,theyhavetodeal withandcantakeinterestinnothingexceptgeneralities;thatdothelaws[...] [Threepagesofthemanuscriptaremissing] [...]theyarenotexclusivelymenofscience,butarealsomoreorlessmenoflife. ChapterIII Nevertheless,wemustnotrelytoomuchonthis.Thoughwemaybewellnighcertainthata savant;wouldnotdaretotreatamantodayashetreatsarabbit,itremainsalwaystobefeared thatthesavants;asabody,ifnotinterferedwith,maysubmitlivingmentoscientific experiments,undoubtedlylesscruelbutnonethelessdisagreeabletotheirvictims.Ifthey cannotperformexperimentsuponthebodiesofindividuals,theywillasknothingbetterthanto performthemonthesocialbody,andthatwhatmustbeabsolutelyprevented. Intheirexistingorganisation,monopolisingscienceandremainingthusoutsideofsociallife, thesavants;formaseparatecaste,inmanyrespectsanalogoustothepriesthood.Scientific abstractionsistheirGod,livingandrealindividualsaretheirvictims,andtheyarethe consecratedandlicensedsacrificers. Sciencecannotgooutsideofthesphereofabstractions.Inthisrespectitisinfinitelyinferior toart,which,initsturn,ispeculiarlyconcernedalsowithgeneraltypesandgeneralsituations, butwhichincarnatesthembyanartificeofitsowninformswhich,iftheyarenotlivinginthe senseofreallifenonethelessexciteinourimaginationthememoryandsentimentoflife;artin acertainsenseindividualizesthetypesandsituationswhichitconceives;bymeansofthe individualitieswithoutfleshandbone,andconsequentlypermanentandimmortal,whichithas thepowertocreate,itrecallstoourmindstheliving,realindividualitieswhichappearand disappearunderoureyes.Art,then,isasitwerethereturnofabstractiontolife;science,onthe contrary,istheperpetualimmolationoflife,fugitive,temporary,butreal,onthealtarofeternal abstractions. Scienceisasincapableofgraspingtheindividualityofamanasthatofarabbit,beingequally indifferenttoboth.Notthatitisignorantoftheprincipleofindividuality:itconceivesit perfectlyasaprinciple,butnotasafact.Itknowsverywellthatalltheanimalspecies,including thehumanspecies,havenorealexistenceoutsideofanindefinitenumberofindividuals,born anddyingtomakeroomfornewindividualsequallyfugitive.Itknowsthatinrisingfromthe animalspeciestothesuperiorspeciestheprincipleofindividualitybecomesmorepronounced; theindividualsappearfreerandmorecomplete.Itknowsthatman,thelastandmostperfect animalofearth,presentsthemostcompleteandmostremarkableindividuality,becauseofhis powertoconceive,concrete,personify,asitwere,inhissocialandprivateexistence,the universallaw.Itknows,finally,whenitisnotvitiatedbytheologicalormetaphysical,politicalor

judicialdoctrinairisme,orevenbyanarrowscientificpride,whenitisnotdeaftotheinstincts andspontaneousaspirationsoflifeitknows(andthisisitslastword)thatrespectformanis thesupremelawofHumanity,andthatthegreat,therealobjectofhistory,itsonlylegitimate objectisthehumanizationandemancipation,therealliberty,theprosperityandhappinessof eachindividuallivinginsociety.For,ifwewouldnotfallbackintotheliberticidalfictionofthe publicwelfarerepresentedbytheState,afictionalwaysfoundedonthesystematicsacrificeof thepeople,wemustclearlyrecognizethatcollectivelibertyandprosperityexistonlysofaras theyrepresentthesumofindividuallibertiesandprosperities. Scienceknowsallthesethings,butitdoesnotandcannotgobeyondthem.Abstractionbeing itsverynature,itcanwellenoughconceivetheprincipleofrealandlivingindividuality,butit canhavenodealingswithrealandlivingindividuals;itconcernsitselfwithindividualsingeneral, butnotwithPeterorJames,notwithsuchorsuchaone,who,sofarasitisconcerned,donot, cannot,haveanyexistence.Itsindividuals,Irepeat,areonlyabstractions. Now,historyismade,notbyabstractindividuals,butbyacting,livingandpassingindividuals. Abstractionsadvanceonlywhenborneforwardbyrealmen.Forthesebeingsmade,notinidea only,butinrealityoffleshandblood,sciencehasnoheart:itconsidersthematmostasmaterial forintellectualandsocialdevelopment.Whatdoesitcarefortheparticularconditionsand chancefateofPeterorJames?Itwouldmakeitselfridiculous,itwouldabdicate,itwould annihilateitself,ifitwishedtoconcernitselfwiththemotherwisethanasexamplesinsupport ofitseternaltheories.Anditwouldberidiculoustowishittodoso,foritsmissionliesnot there.Itcannotgrasptheconcrete;itcanmoveonlyinabstractions.Itsmissionistobusyitself withthesituationandthegeneralconditionsoftheexistenceanddevelopment,eitherofthe humanspeciesingeneral,orofsucharace,suchapeople,suchaclassorcategoryof individuals;thegeneralcausesoftheirprosperity,theirdecline,andthebestgeneralmethods ofsecuring,theirprogressinallways.Provideditaccomplishesthistaskbroadlyandrationally, itwilldoitswholeduty,anditwouldbereallyunjusttoexpectmoreofit. Butitwouldbeequallyridiculous,itwouldbedisastroustoentrustitwithamissionwhichitis incapableoffulfilling.SinceitsownnatureforcesittoignoretheexistenceofPeterandJames,it mustneverbepermitted,normustanybodybepermittedinitsname,togovernPeterand James.Foritwerecapableoftreatingthemalmostasittreatsrabbits.Orrather,itwould continuetoignorethem;butitslicensedrepresentatives,mennotatallabstract,butonthe contraryinveryactivelifeandhavingverysubstantialinterests,yieldingtothepernicious influencewhichprivilegeinevitablyexercisesuponmen,wouldfinallyfleeceothermeninthe nameofscience,justastheyhavebeenfleecedhithertobypriests,politiciansofallshades,and lawyers,inthenameofGod,oftheState,ofjudicialRight. WhatIpreachthenis,toacertainextent,therevoltoflifeagainstscience,orratheragainst thegovernmentofscience,nottodestroysciencethatwouldbehightreasontohumanity buttoremandittoitsplacesothatitcanneverleaveitagain.Untilnowallhumanhistoryhas beenonlyaperpetualandbloodyimmolationofmillionsofpoorhumanbeingsinhonorof somepitilessabstractionGod,country,powerofState,nationalhonor,historicalrights,judicial rights,politicalliberty,publicwelfare.Suchhasbeenuptotodaythenatural,spontaneous,and inevitablemovementofhumansocieties.Wecannotundoit;wemustsubmittoitsofarasthe pastisconcerned,aswesubmittoallnaturalfatalities.Wemustbelievethatthatwastheonly possibleway,toeducatethehumanrace.Forwemustnotdeceiveourselves:eveninattributing thelargerparttotheMachiavellianwilesofthegoverningclasses,wehavetorecognizethatno

minoritywouldhavebeenpowerfulenoughtoimposeallthesehorriblesacrificesuponthe massesiftherehadnotbeeninthemassesthemselvesadizzyspontaneousmovementwhich pushedthemontocontinualselfsacrifice,nowtoone,nowtoanotherofthesedevouring abstractionsthevampiresofhistoryevernourisheduponhumanblood. Wereadilyunderstandthatthisisverygratifying,tothetheologians,politicians,andjurists. Priestsoftheseabstractions,theyliveonlybythecontinualimmolationofthepeople.Norisit moresurprisingthatmetaphysicstoo,shouldgiveitsconsent.Itsonlymissionistojustifyand rationalizeasfaraspossibletheiniquitousandabsurd.Butthatpositivescienceitselfshould haveshownthesametendenciesisafactwhichwemustdeplorewhileweestablishit.Thatit hasdonesoisduetotworeasons:inthefirstplace,because,constitutedoutsideoflife,itis representedbyaprivilegedbody;andinthesecondplace,becausethusfarithaspositeditself asanabsoluteandfinalobjectofallhumandevelopment.Byajudiciouscriticism,whichitcan andfinallywillbeforcedtopassuponitself,itwouldunderstand,onthecontrary,thatitisonly ameansfortherealizationofamuchhigherobjectthatofthecompletehumanizationofthe realsituationofalltherealindividualswhoareborn,wholive,andwhodie,onearth. Theimmenseadvantageofpositivescienceovertheology,metaphysics,politics,andjudicial rightconsistsinthisthat,inplaceofthefalseandfatalabstractionssetupbythesedoctrines, itpositstrueabstractionswhichexpressthegeneralnatureandlogicofthings,theirgeneral relations,andthegenerallawsoftheirdevelopment.Thisseparatesitprofoundlyfromall precedingdoctrines,andwillassureitforeveragreatpositioninsociety:itwillconstituteina certainsensesocietyscollectiveconsciousness.Butthereisoneaspectinwhichitresemblesall thesedoctrines:itsonlypossibleobjectbeingabstractions,itisforcedbyitsverynatureto ignorerealmen,outsideofwhomthetruestabstractionshavenoexistence.Toremedythis radicaldefectpositivesciencewillhavetoproceedbyadifferentmethodfromthatfollowedby thedoctrinesofthepast.Thelatterhavetakenadvantageoftheignoranceofthemassesto sacrificethemwithdelighttotheirabstractions,whichbytheway,arealwaysverylucrativeto thosewhorepresenttheminfleshandbone.Positivescience,recognizingitsabsoluteinability toconceiverealindividualsandinterestitselfintheirlot,mustdefinitelyandabsolutely renounceallclaimtothegovernmentofsocieties;forifitshouldmeddletherein,itwouldonly sacrificecontinuallythelivingmenwhomitignorestotheabstractionswhichconstitutethesole objectofitslegitimatepreoccupations. Thetruescienceofhistory,forinstance,doesnotyetexist;scarcelydowebegintodayto catchaglimpseofitsextremelycomplicatedconditions.Butsupposeitweredefinitely developed,whatcoulditgiveus?Itwouldexhibitafaithfulandrationalpictureofthenatural developmentofthegeneralconditionsmaterialandideal,economical,politicalandsocial, religious,philosophical,aesthetic,andscientificofthesocietieswhichhaveahistory.Butthis universalpictureofhumancivilization,howeverdetaileditmightbe,wouldnevershow anythingbeyondgeneralandconsequentlyabstractestimates.Themilliardsofindividualswho havefurnishedthelivingandsufferingmaterialsofthishistoryatoncetriumphantanddismal triumphantbyitsgeneralresults,dismalbytheimmensehecatombofhumanvictimscrushed underitscarthosemilliardsofobscureindividualswithoutwhomnoneofthegreatabstract resultsofhistorywouldhavebeenobtainedandwho,bearinmind,haveneverbenefitedby anyoftheseresultswillfindnoplace,noteventheslightestinourannals.Theyhavelivedand beensacrificed,crushedforthegoodofabstracthumanity,thatisall.

Shallweblamethescienceofhistory.Thatwouldbeunjustandridiculous.Individualscannot begraspedbythought,byreflection,orevenbyhumanspeech,whichiscapableofexpressing abstractionsonly;theycannotbegraspedinthepresentdayanymorethaninthepast. Thereforesocialscienceitself,thescienceofthefuture,willnecessarilycontinuetoignore them.Allthat,wehavearighttodemandofitisthatitshallpointuswithfaithfulandsurehand tothegeneralcausesofindividualsufferingamongthesecausesitwillnotforgetthe immolationandsubordination(stilltoofrequent,alas!)oflivingindividualstoabstract generalitiesatthesametimeshowingusthegeneralconditionsnecessarytothereal emancipationoftheindividualslivinginsociety.Thatisitsmission;thoseareitslimits,beyond whichtheactionofsocialsciencecanbeonlyimpotentandfatal.Beyondthoselimitsbeingthe doctrinaireandgovernmentalpretentiousofitslicensedrepresentatives,itspriests.Itistimeto havedonewithallpopesandpriests;wewantthemnolonger,eveniftheycallthemselves SocialDemocrats. Oncemore,thesolemissionofscienceistolighttheroad.OnlyLife,deliveredfromallits governmentalanddoctrinairebarriers,andgivenfulllibertyofaction,cancreate. Howsolvethisantinomy? Ontheonehand,scienceisindispensabletotherationalorganizationofsociety;ontheother, beingincapableofinterestingitselfinthatwhichisrealandliving,itmustnotinterferewiththe realorpracticalorganizationofsociety. Thiscontradictioncanbesolvedonlyinoneway:bytheliquidationofscienceasamoral beingexistingoutsidethelifeofall,andrepresentedbyabodyofbrevetedsavants;itmust spreadamongthemasses.Science,beingcalledupontohenceforthrepresentsocietys collectiveconsciousness,mustreallybecomethepropertyofeverybody.Thereby,without losinganythingofitsuniversalcharacter,ofwhichitcanneverdivestitselfwithoutceasingtobe science,andwhilecontinuingtoconcernitselfexclusivelywithgeneralcauses,theconditions andfixedrelationsofindividualsandthings,itwillbecomeoneinfactwiththeimmediateand reallifeofallindividuals.Thatwillbeamovementanalogoustothatwhichsaidtothe ProtestantsatthebeginningoftheReformationthattherewasnofurtherneedofpriestsfor man,whowouldhenceforthbehisownpriest,everyman,thankstotheinvisibleinterventionof theLordJesusChristalone,havingatlastsucceededinswallowinghisgoodGod.Butherethe questionisnotofJesusChrist,norgoodGod,norofpoliticalliberty,norofjudicialrightthings alltheologicallyormetaphysicallyrevealed,andallalikeindigestible.Theworldofscientific abstractionsisnotrevealed;itisinherentintherealworld,ofwhichitisonlythegeneralor abstractexpressionandrepresentation.Aslongasitformsaseparateregion,specially representedbythesavantsasabody,thisidealworldthreatenstotaketheplaceofagoodGod totherealworld,reservingforitslicensedrepresentativestheofficeofpriests.Thatisthe reasonwhyitisnecessarytodissolvethespecialsocialorganizationofthesavantsbygeneral instruction,equalforallinallthings,inorderthatthemasses,ceasingtobeflocksledandshorn byprivilegedpriests,maytakeintotheirownhandsthedirectionoftheirdestinies.[5] Butuntilthemassesshallhavereachedthisdegreeofinstruction,willitbenecessarytoleave themtothegovernmentofscientificmen?Certainlynot.Itwouldbebetterforthemto dispensewithsciencethanallowthemselvestobegovernedbysavants.Thefirstconsequence ofthegovernmentofthesemenwouldbetorenderscienceinaccessibletothepeople,and suchagovernmentwouldnecessarilybearistocraticbecausetheexistingscientificinstitutions

areessentiallyaristocratic.Anaristocracyoflearning!fromthepracticalpointofviewthemost implacable,andfromthesocialpointofviewthemosthaughtyandinsultingsuchwouldbe thepowerestablishedinthenameofscience.Thisrgimewouldbecapableofparalyzingthe lifeandmovementofsociety.Thesavantsalwayspresumptuous,everselfsufficientandever impotent,woulddesiretomeddlewitheverything,andthesourcesoflifewoulddryupunder thebreathoftheirabstractions. Oncemore,Life,notscience,createslife;thespontaneousactionofthepeoplethemselves alonecancreateliberty.Undoubtedlyitwouldbeaveryfortunatethingifsciencecould,from thisdayforth,illuminatethespontaneousmarchofthepeopletowardstheiremancipation.But betteranabsenceoflightthanafalseandfeeblelight,kindledonlytomisleadthosewhofollow it.Afterall,thepeoplewillnotlacklight.Notinvainhavetheytraversedalonghistoriccareer, andpaidfortheirerrorsbycenturiesofmisery.Thepracticalsummaryoftheirpainful experiencesconstitutesasortoftraditionalscience,whichincertainrespectsisworthasmuch astheoreticalscience.Lastofall,aportionoftheyouththoseofthebourgeoisstudentswho feelhatredenoughforthefalsehood,hypocrisy,injustice,andcowardiceofthebourgeoisieto findcouragetoturntheirbacksuponit,andpassionenoughtounreservedlyembracethejust andhumancauseoftheproletariatthosewillbe,asIhavealreadysaid,fraternalinstructorsof thepeople;thankstothem,therewillbenooccasionforthegovernmentofthesavants. Ifthepeopleshouldbewareofthegovernmentofthesavants,allthemoreshouldthey provideagainstthatoftheinspiredidealists.Themoresincerethesebelieversandpoetsof heaven,themoredangeroustheybecome.Thescientificabstraction,Ihavesaid,isarational abstraction,trueinitsessence,necessarytolife,ofwhichitisthetheoreticalrepresentation,or, ifoneprefers,theconscience.Itmay,itmustbe,absorbedanddigestedbylife.Theidealistic abstraction,God,isacorrosivepoison,whichdestroysanddecomposeslife,falsifiesandkillsit. Theprideoftheidealists,notbeingpersonalbutdivine,isinvincibleandinexorable:itmay,it must,die,butitwillneveryield,andwhileithasabreathleftitwilltrytosubjectmentoits God,justasthelieutenantsofPrussia,thesepracticalidealistsofGermany,wouldliketoseethe peoplecrushedunderthespurredbootoftheiremperor.Thefaithisthesame,theendbutlittle different,andtheresult,asthatoffaith,isslavery. Itisatthesametimethetriumphoftheugliestandmostbrutalmaterialism.Thereisnoneed todemonstratethisinthecaseofGermany;onewouldhavetobeblindtoavoidseeingitatthe presenthour.ButIthinkitisstillnecessarytodemonstrateitinthecaseofdivineidealism. Man,likealltherestofnature,isanentirelymaterialbeing.Themind,thefacilityofthinking, ofreceivingandreflectingupondifferentexternalandinternalsensations,ofremembering themwhentheyhavepassedandreproducingthembytheimagination,ofcomparingand distinguishingthem,ofabstractingdeterminationscommontothemandthuscreatinggeneral concepts,andfinallyofformingideasbygroupingandcombiningconceptsaccordingto differentmethodsintelligence,inaword,solecreatorofourwhole,idealworld,isaproperty oftheanimalbodyandespeciallyofthequitematerialorganismofthebrain. Weknowthiscertainly,bytheexperienceofall,whichnofacthasevercontradictedand whichanymancanverifyatanymomentofhislife.Inallanimals,withoutexceptingthewholly inferiorspecies,wefindacertaindegreeofintelligence,andweseethat,intheseriesof species,animalintelligencedevelopsinproportionastheorganizationofaspeciesapproaches

thatofman,butthatinmanaloneitattainstothatpowerofabstractionwhichproperly constitutesthought. Universalexperience,[6]whichisthesoleorigin,thesourceofallourknowledge,showsus, therefore,thatallintelligenceisalwaysattachedtosomeanimalbody,andthattheintensity, thepower,ofthisanimalfunctiondependsontherelativeperfectionoftheorganism.Thelatter oftheseresultsofuniversalexperienceisnotapplicableonlytothedifferentanimalspecies;we establishitlikewiseinmen,whoseintellectualandmoralpowerdependssoclearlyuponthe greaterorlessperfectionoftheirorganismasarace,asanation,asaclass,andasindividuals, thatitisnotnecessarytoinsistuponthispoint.[7] Ontheotherhand,itiscertainthatnomanhaseverseenorcanseepuremind,detached fromallmaterialformexistingseparatelyfromanyanimalbodywhatsoever.Butifnoperson hasseenit,howisitthatmenhavecometobelieveinitsexistence?Thefactofthisbeliefis certainandifnotuniversal,asalltheidealistspretend,atleastverygeneral,andassuchitis entirelyworthyofourclosestattention,forageneralbelief,howeverfoolishitmaybe, exercisestoopotentaswayoverthedestinyofmentowarrantusinignoringitorputtingit aside. Theexplanationofthisbelief,moreover,isrationalenough.Theexampleaffordedusby childrenandyoungpeople,andevenbymanymenlongpasttheageofmajority,showsusthat manmayusehismentalfacultiesforalongtimebeforeaccountingtohimselfforthewayin whichheusesthem,beforebecomingclearlyconsciousofit.Duringthisworkingofthemind unconsciousofitself,duringthisactionofinnocentorbelievingintelligence,man,obsessedby theexternalworld,pushedonbythatinternalgoadcalledlifeanditsmanifoldnecessities, createsaquantityofimaginations,concepts,andideasnecessarilyveryimperfectatfirstand conformingbutslightlytotherealityofthethingsandfactswhichtheyendeavourtoexpress Nothavingyettheconsciousnessofhisownintelligentaction,notknowingyetthathehimself hasproducedandcontinuestoproducetheseimaginations,theseconcepts,theseideas, ignoringtheirwhollysubjectivethatis,humanorigin,hemustnaturallyconsiderthemas objective;beings,asrealbeings,whollyindependentofhim,existingbythemselvesandin themselves. Itwasthusthatprimitivepeoples,emergingslowlyfromtheiranimalinnocence,createdtheir gods.Havingcreatedthem,notsuspectingthattheythemselvesweretherealcreators,they worshippedthem;consideringthemasrealbeingsinfinitelysuperiortothemselves,they attributedomnipotencetothem,andrecognisedthemselvesastheircreatures,theirslaves.As fastashumanideasdevelop,thegods,who,asIhavealreadystated,wereneveranythingmore thanafantastic,ideal,poeticalreverberationofaninvertedimage,becomeidealisedalso.At firstgrossfetishes,theygraduallybecomepurespirits,existingoutsideofthevisibleworld,and atlast,inthecourseofalonghistoricevolution,areconfoundedinasingleDivineBeing,pure, eternal,absoluteSpirit,creatorandmasteroftheworlds. Ineverydevelopment,justorfalse,realorimaginarycollectiveorindividual,itisalwaysthe firststep,thefirstactthatisthemostdifficult.Thatsteponcetaken,therestfollowsnaturally asanecessaryconsequence.Thedifficultstepinthehistoricaldevelopmentofthisterrible religiousinsanitywhichcontinuestoobsessandcrushuswastopositadivineworldassuch, outsidetheworld.Thisfirstactofmadness,sonaturalfromthephysiologicalpointofviewand consequentlynecessaryinthehistoryofhumanity,wasnotaccomplishedatasinglestroke.I

knownothowmanycenturieswereneededtodevelopthisbeliefandmakeitagoverning influenceuponthementalcustomsofmen.But,onceestablished,itbecameomnipotent,as eachinsanenotionnecessarilybecomeswhenittakespossessionofmansbrain.Takea madman,whatevertheobjectofhismadnessyouwillfindthatobscureandfixedideawhich obsesseshimseemstohimthemostnaturalthingintheworld,andthat,onthecontrary,the realthingswhichcontradictthisideaseemtohimridiculousandodiousfollies.Wellreligionisa collectiveinsanity,themorepowerfulbecauseitistraditionalfolly,andbecauseitsoriginislost inthemostremoteantiquity.Ascollectiveinsanityithaspenetratedtotheverydepthsofthe publicandprivateexistenceofthepeoples;itisincarnateinsociety;ithasbecome,sotospeak, thecollectivesoulandthought.Everymanisenvelopedinitfromhisbirth;hesucksitinwith hismothersmilk,absorbsitwithallthathetouches,allthathesees.Heissoexclusive]yfed uponit,sopoisonedandpenetratedbyitinallhisbeingthatlater,howeverpowerfulhisnatural mind,hehastomakeunheardofeffortstodeliverhimselffromit,andthennevercompletely succeeds.Wehaveoneproofofthisinourmodernidealists,andanotherinourdoctrinaire; materialiststheGermanCommunists.Theyhavefoundnowaytoshakeoffthereligionofthe State. Thesupernaturalworld,thedivineworld,oncewellestablishedintheimaginationofthe peoples,thedevelopmentofthevariousreligioussystemshasfolloweditsnaturalandlogical course,conforming,moreover,inallthingstothecontemporarydevelopmentofeconomical andpoliticalrelationsofwhichithasbeeninallages,intheworldofreligiousfancy,thefaithful reproductionanddivineconsecration.Thushasthecollectiveandhistoricalinsanitywhichcalls itselfreligionbeendevelopedsincefetishism,passingthroughallthestagesfrompolytheismto Christianmonotheism. Thesecondstepinthedevelopmentofreligiousbeliefs,undoubtedlythemostdifficultnext totheestablishmentofaseparatedivineworld,waspreciselythistransitionfrompolytheismto monotheism,fromthereligiousmaterialismofthepaganstothespiritualisticfaithofthe Christians.Shepagangodsandthiswastheirprincipalcharacteristicwerefirstofall exclusivelynationalgods.Verynumerous,theynecessarilyretainedamoreorlessmaterial character,or,rather,theyweresonumerousbecausetheywerematerial,diversitybeingoneof theprincipalattributesoftherealworld.Thepagangodswerenotyetstrictlythenegationof realthings;theywereonlyafantasticexaggerationofthem. WehaveseenhowmuchthistransitioncosttheJewishpeople,constituting,sotospeak,its entirehistory.InvaindidMosesandtheprophetspreachtheonegod;thepeoplealways relapsedintotheirprimitiveidolatry,intotheancientandcomparativelymuchmorenaturaland convenientfaithinmanygoodgods,morematerial,morehuman,andmorepalpable.Jehovah himself,theirsoleGod,theGodofMosesandtheprophets,wasstillanextremelynationalGod, who,torewardandpunishhisfaithfulfollowers,hischosenpeople,usedmaterialarguments, oftenstupid,alwaysgrossandcruel.Itdoesnotevenappearthatfaithinhisexistenceimplieda negationoftheexistenceofearliergods.TheJewishGoddidnotdenytheexistenceofthese rivals;hesimplydidnotwanthispeopletoworshipthemsidebysidewithhim,becausebefore allJehovahwasaveryJealousGod.Hisfirstcommandmentwasthis: IamtheLordthyGod,andthoushalthavenoothergodsbeforeme. Jehovah,then,wasonlyafirstdraft,verymaterialandveryrough,ofthesupremedeityof modernidealism.Moreover,hewasonlyanationalGod,liketheRussianGodworshippedby

theGermangenerals,subjectsoftheCzarandpatriotsoftheempireofalltheRussias;likethe GermanGod,whomthepietistsandtheGermangenerals,subjectsofWilliamI.atBerlin,willno doubtsoonproclaim.ThesupremebeingcannotbeanationalGod;hemustbetheGodof entireHumanity.Norcanthesupremebeingbeamaterialbeing;hemustbethenegationofall matterpurespirit.Twothingshaveprovednecessarytotherealisationoftheworshipofthe supremebeing: (1)arealisation,suchasitis,ofHumanitybythenegationofnationalitiesandnationalforms ofworship; (2)adevelopment,alreadyfaradvanced,ofmetaphysicalideasinordertospiritualisethe grossJehovahoftheJews. ThefirstconditionwasfulfilledbytheRomans,thoughinaverynegativewaynodoubt,by theconquestofmostofthecountriesknowntotheancientsandbythedestructionoftheir nationalinstitutions.Thegodsofalltheconquerednations,gatheredinthePantheon,mutually cancelledeachother.Thiswasthefirstdraftofhumanity,verygrossandquitenegative. Asforthesecondcondition,thespiritualisationofJehovah,thatwasrealisedbytheGreeks longbeforetheconquestoftheircountrybytheRomans.Theywerethecreatorsof metaphysics.Greece,inthecradleofherhistory,hadalreadyfoundfromtheOrientadivine worldwhichhadbeendefinitelyestablishedinthetraditionalfaithofherpeoples;thisworld hadbeenleftandhandedovertoherbytheOrient.Inherinstinctiveperiod,priortoher politicalhistory,shehaddevelopedandprodigiouslyhumanisedthisdivineworldthroughher poets;andwhensheactuallybeganherhistory,shealreadyhadareligionreadymade,themost sympatheticandnobleofallthereligionswhichhaveexisted,sofaratleastasareligionthat is,aliecanbenobleandsympathetic.Hergreatthinkersandnonationhashadgreaterthan Greecefoundthedivineworldestablished,notonlyoutsideofthemselvesinthepeople,but alsointhemselvesasahabitoffeelingandthought,andnaturallytheytookitasapointof departure.Thattheymadenotheologythatis,thattheydidnotwaitinvaintoreconcile dawningreasonwiththeabsurditiesofsuchagod,asdidthescholasticsoftheMiddleAges wasalreadymuchintheirfavour.Theyleftthegodsoutoftheirspeculationsandattached themselvesdirectlytothedivineidea,one,invisible,omnipotent,eternal,andabsolutely spiritualisticbutimpersonal.AsconcernsSpiritualism,then,theGreekmetaphysicians,much morethantheJews,werethecreatorsoftheChristiangod.TheJewsonlyaddedtoitthebrutal personalityoftheirJehovah. ThatasublimegeniuslikethedivinePlatocouldhavebeenabsolutelyconvincedofthereality ofthedivineideashowsushowcontagious,howomnipotent,isthetraditionofthereligious maniaevenonthegreatestminds.Besides,weshouldnotbesurprisedatit,since,eveninour day,thegreatestphilosophicalgeniuswhichhasexistedsinceAristotleandPlato,Hegelin spiteevenofKantscriticism,imperfectandtoometaphysicalthoughitbe,whichhad demolishedtheobjectivityorrealityofthedivineideastriedtoreplacethesedivineideasupon theirtranscendentalorcelestialthrone.ItistruethatHegelwentabouthisworkofrestoration insoimpoliteamannerthathekilledthegoodGodforever.Hetookawayfromtheseideas theirdivinehalo,byshowingtowhoeverwillreadhimthattheywereneveranythingmorethan acreationofthehumanmindrunningthroughhistoryinsearchofitself.Toputanendtoall religiousinsanitiesandthedivinemirage,heleftnothinglackingbuttheutteranceofthose grandwordswhichweresaidafterhim,almostatthesametime,bytwogreatmindswhohad

neverheardofeachotherLudwigFeuerbach,thediscipleanddemolisherofHegel,in Germany,andAugusteComte,thefounderofpositivephilosophy,inFrance.Thesewordswere asfollows: Metaphysicsarereducedtopsychology.Allthemetaphysicalsystemshavebeennothing elsethanhumanpsychologydevelopingitselfinhistory. Todayitisnolongerdifficulttounderstandhowthedivineideaswereborn,howtheywere createdinsuccessionbytheabstractivefacultyofman.Manmadethegods.Butinthetimeof Platothisknowledgewasimpossible.Thecollectivemind,andconsequentlytheindividualmind aswell,eventhatofthegreatestgenius,wasnotripeforthat.ScarcelyhaditsaidwithSocrates: Knowthyself!Thisselfknowledgeexistedonlyinastateofintuition;infact,itamountedto nothing.Henceitwasimpossibleforthehumanmindtosuspectthatitwasitselfthesole creatorofthedivineworld.Itfoundthedivineworldbeforeit;itfounditashistory,astradition, asasentiment,asahabitofthought;anditnecessarilymadeittheobjectofitsloftiest speculations.Thuswasbornmetaphysics,andthusweredevelopedandperfectedthedivine ideas,thebasisofSpiritualism. ItistruethatafterPlatotherewasasortofinversemovementinthedevelopmentofthe mind.Aristotle,thetruefatherofscienceandpositivephilosophy,didnotdenythedivine world,butconcernedhimselfwithitaslittleaspossible.Hewasthefirsttostudy,likethe analystandexperimenterthathewas,logic,thelawsofhumanthought,andatthesametime thephysicalworld,notinitsideal,illusoryessence,butinitsrealaspect.AfterhimtheGreeksof Alexandriaestablishedthefirstschoolofthepositivescientists.Theywereatheists.Buttheir atheismleftnomarkontheircontemporaries.Sciencetendedmoreandmoretoseparateitself fromlife.AfterPlato,divineideaswererejectedinmetaphysicsthemselves;thiswasdoneby theEpicureansandSceptics,twosectswhocontributedmuchtothedegradationofhuman aristocracy,buttheyhadnoeffectuponthemasses. Anotherschool,infinitelymoreinfluential,wasformedatAlexandria.Thiswastheschoolof neoPlatonists.These,confoundinginanimpuremixturethemonstrousimaginationsofthe OrientwiththeideasofPlato,werethetrueoriginators,andlatertheelaborators,ofthe Christiandogmas. ThusthepersonalandgrossegoismofJehovah,thenotlessbrutalandgrossRoman conquest,andthemetaphysicalidealspeculationoftheGreeks,materialisedbycontactwith theOrient,werethethreehistoricalelementswhichmadeupthespiritualisticreligionofthe Christians. BeforethealtarofauniqueandsupremeGodwasraisedontheruinsofthenumerousaltars ofthepagangods,theautonomyofthevariousnationscomposingthepaganorancientworld hadtobedestroyedfirst.ThiswasverybrutallydonebytheRomanswho,byconqueringthe greatestpartoftheglobeknowntotheancients,laidthefirstfoundations,quitegrossand negativeonesnodoubt,ofhumanity.AGodthusraisedabovethenationaldifferences,material andsocial,ofallcountries,andinacertainsensethedirectnegationofthem,mustnecessarily beanimmaterialandabstractbeing.Butfaithintheexistenceofsuchabeing,sodifficulta matter,couldnotspringintoexistencesuddenly.Consequently,asIhavedemonstratedinthe Appendix,itwentthroughalongcourseofpreparationanddevelopmentatthehandsofGreek metaphysics,whichwerethefirsttoestablishinaphilosophicalmannerthenotionofthedivine

idea,amodeleternallycreativeandalwaysreproducedbythevisibleworld.Butthedivinity conceivedandcreatedbyGreekphilosophywasanimpersonaldivinity.Nologicalandserious metaphysicsbeingabletorise,or,rather,todescend,totheideaofapersonalGod,itbecame necessary,therefore,toimagineaGodwhowasoneandverypersonalatonce.Hewasfoundin theverybrutal,selfish,andcruelpersonofJehovah,thenationalGodoftheJews.ButtheJews, inspiteofthatexclusivenationalspiritwhichdistinguishesthemeventoday,hadbecomein fact,longbeforethebirthofChrist,themostinternationalpeopleoftheworld.Someofthem carriedawayascaptives,butmanymoreevenurgedonbythatmercantilepassionwhich constitutesoneoftheprincipaltraitsoftheircharacter,theyhadspreadthroughallcountries, carryingeverywheretheworshipoftheirJehovah,towhomtheyremainedallthemorefaithful themoreheabandonedthem. nAlexandriathisterriblegodoftheJewsmadethepersonalacquaintanceofthemetaphysical divinityofPlato,alreadymuchcorruptedbyOrientalcontact,andcorruptedherstillmorebyhis own.Inspiteofhisnational,jealous,andferociousexclusivism,hecouldnotlongresistthe gracesofthisidealandimpersonaldivinityoftheGreeks.Hemarriedher,andfromthis marriagewasbornthespiritualisticbutnotspiritedGodoftheChristians.Theneoplatonists ofAlexandriaareknowntohavebeentheprincipalcreatorsoftheChristiantheology. Neverthelesstheologyalonedoesnotmakeareligion,anymorethanhistoricalelements sufficetocreatehistory.ByhistoricalelementsImeanthegeneralconditionsofanyreal developmentwhatsoeverforexampleinthiscasetheconquestoftheworldbytheRomans andthemeetingoftheGodoftheJewswiththeidealofdivinityoftheGreeks.Toimpregnate thehistoricalelements,tocausethemtorunthroughaseriesofnewhistoricaltransformations, aliving,spontaneousfactwasneeded,withoutwhichtheymighthaveremainedmanycenturies longerinthestateofunproductiveelements.ThisfactwasnotlackinginChristianity:itwasthe propagandism,martyrdom,anddeathofJesusChrist. Weknowalmostnothingofthisgreatandsaintlypersonage,allthatthegospelstellusbeing contradictory,andsofabulousthatwecanscarcelyseizeuponafewrealandvitaltraits.Butitis certainthathewasthepreacherofthepoor,thefriendandconsolerofthewretched,ofthe ignorant,oftheslaves,andofthewomen,andthatbytheselasthewasmuchloved.He promisedeternallifetoallwhoareoppressed,toallwhosufferherebelow;andthenumberis immense.Hewashanged,asamatterofcourse,bytherepresentativesoftheofficialmorality andpublicorderofthatperiod.Hisdisciplesandthedisciplesofhisdisciplessucceededin spreading,thankstothedestructionofthenationalbarriersbytheRomanconquest,and propagatedtheGospelinallthecountriesknowntotheancients.Everywheretheywere receivedwithopenarmsbytheslavesandthewomen,thetwomostoppressed,mostsuffering, andnaturallyalsothemostignorantclassesoftheancientworld.Forevensuchfewproselytes astheymadeintheprivilegedandlearnedworldtheywereindebtedingreatparttothe influenceofwomen.Theirmostextensivepropagandismwasdirectedalmostexclusivelyamong thepeople,unfortunateanddegradedbyslavery.Thiswasthefirstawakening,thefirst intellectualrevoltoftheproletariat. ThegreathonourofChristianity,itsincontestablemerit,andthewholesecretofits unprecedentedandyetthoroughlylegitimatetriumph,layinthefactthatitappealedtothat sufferingandimmensepublictowhichtheancientworld,astrictandcruelintellectualand politicalaristocracy,deniedeventhesimplestrightsofhumanity.Otherwiseitnevercouldhave spread.ThedoctrinetaughtbytheapostlesofChrist,whollyconsolingasitmayhaveseemedto

theunfortunate,wastoorevolting,tooabsurdfromthestandpointofhumanreason,everto havebeenacceptedbyenlightenedmenAccordingwithwhatjoytheapostlePaulspeaksofthe scandaledelafoi;andofthetriumphofthatdivinefolie;rejectedbythepowerfulandwiseof thecentury,butallthemorepassionatelyacceptedbythesimple,theignorant,andtheweak minded! Indeedtheremusthavebeenaverydeepseateddissatisfactionwithlife,averyintensethirst ofheart,andanalmostabsolutepovertyofthought,tosecuretheacceptanceoftheChristian absurdity,themostaudaciousandmonstrousofallreligiousabsurdities. Thiswasnotonlythenegationofallthepolitical,social,andreligiousinstitutionsofantiquity: itwastheabsoluteoverturnofcommonsense,ofallhumanreason.Thelivingbeing,thereal world,wereconsideredthereafterasnothing;whereastheproductofmansabstractivefaculty, thelastandsupremeabstractioninwhichthisfaculty,farbeyondexistingthings,evenbeyond themostgeneraldeterminationsofthelivingbeing,theideasofspaceandtime.havingnothing lefttoadvancebeyond,restsincontemplationofhisemptinessandabsoluteimmobility. Thatabstraction,thatcaputmortuum,absolutelyvoidofallcontentsthetruenothing,God,is proclaimedtheonlyreal,eternal,allpowerfulbeing.TherealAllisdeclarednothingandthe absolutenothingtheAll.Theshadowbecomesthesubstanceandthesubstancevanisheslikea shadow.[8] Allthiswasaudacityandabsurdityunspeakable,thetruescandaledelafoi,thetriumphof credulousstupidityoverthemindforthemasses;andforafewthetriumphantironyofa mindwearied,corrupted,disillusioned,anddisgustedinhonestandserioussearchfortruth;it wasthatnecessityofshakingoffthoughtandbecomingbrutallystupidsofrequentlyfeltby surfeitedminds: ChapterIV:Credoquodabsurdum Ibelieveintheabsurd;Ibelieveinit,preciselyandmainly,becauseitisabsurd.Inthesameway manydistinguishedandenlightenedmindsinourdaybelieveinanimalmagnetism,spiritualism, tippingtables,andwhygosofar?believestillinChristianity,inidealism,inGod. Thebeliefoftheancientproletariat,likethatofthemodern,wasmorerobustandsimple,less hautgot.TheChristianpropagandismappealedtoitsheart,nottoitsmind;toitseternal aspirations,itsnecessities,itssufferings,itsslavery,nottoitsreason,whichstillsleptand thereforecouldknownothingaboutlogicalcontradictionsandtheevidenceoftheabsurd.It wasinterestedsolelyinknowingwhenthehourofpromiseddeliverancewouldstrike,whenthe kingdomofGodwouldcome.Asfortheologicaldogmas,itdidnottroubleitselfaboutthem becauseitunderstoodnothingaboutthemTheproletariatconvertedtoChristianityconstituted itsgrowingmaterialbutnotitsintellectualstrength. AsfortheChristiandogmas,itisknownthattheywereelaboratedinaseriesoftheological andliteraryworksandintheCouncils,principallybytheconvertedneoPlatonistsoftheOrient. TheGreekmindhadfallensolowthat,inthefourthcenturyoftheChristianera,theperiodof

thefirstCouncil,theideaofapersonalGod,pure,eternal,absolutemind,creatorandsupreme master,existingoutsideoftheworld,wasunanimouslyacceptedbytheChurchFathers;asa logicalconsequenceofthisabsoluteabsurdity,itthenbecamenaturalandnecessarytobelieve intheimmaterialityandimmortalityofthehumansoul,lodgedandimprisonedinabodyonly partiallymortal,therebeinginthisbodyitselfaportionwhich,whilematerialisimmortallike thesoul,andmustberesurrectedwithit.Weseehowdifficultitwas,evenfortheChurch Fathers;toconceivepuremindsoutsideofanymaterialform.Itshouldbeaddedthat,in general,itisthecharacterofeverymetaphysicalandtheologicalargumenttoseektoexplain oneabsurditybyanother. ItwasveryfortunateforChristianitythatitmetaworldofslaves.Ithadanotherpieceofgood luckintheinvasionoftheBarbarians.Thelatterwereworthypeople,fullofnaturalforce,and, aboveall,urgedonbyagreatnecessityoflifeandagreatcapacityforit;brigandswhohad stoodeverytest,capableofdevastatingandgobblingupanything,liketheirsuccessors,the Germansoftoday;buttheyweremuchlesssystematicandpedanticthantheselast,muchless moralistic,lesslearned,andontheotherhandmuchmoreindependentandproud,capableof scienceandnotincapableofliberty,asarethebourgeoisofmodernGermany.But,inspiteofall theirgreatqualities,theywerenothingbutbarbariansthatis,asindifferenttoallquestionsof theologyandmetaphysicsastheancientslaves,agreatnumberofwhom,moreover,belonged totheirrace.Sothat,theirpracticalrepugnanceonceovercome,itwasnotdifficulttoconvert themtheoreticallytoChristianity. FortencenturiesChristianity,armedwiththeomnipotenceofChurchandStateandopposed bynocompetition,wasabletodeprave,debase,andfalsifythemindofEuropeIthadno competitors,becauseoutsideoftheChurchtherewereneitherthinkersnoreducatedpersons. Italonethough,,italonespokeandwrote,italonetaught.Thoughheresiesaroseinitsbosom, theyaffectedonlythetheologicalorpracticaldevelopmentsofthefundamentaldogmanever thatdogmaitself.ThebeliefinGod,purespiritandcreatoroftheworld,andthebeliefinthe immaterialityofthesoulremaineduntouched.Thisdoublebeliefbecametheidealbasisofthe wholeOccidentalandOrientalcivilizationofEurope;itpenetratedandbecameincarnateinall theinstitutions,allthedetailsofthepublicandprivatelifeofallclasses,andthemassesaswell. Afterthat,isitsurprisingthatthisbeliefhasliveduntilthepresentday,continuingtoexercise itsdisastrousinfluenceevenuponselectminds,suchasthoseofMazzini,Michelet,Quinet,and somanyothers?Wehaveseenthatthefirstattackuponitcamefromtherenaissance;ofthe freemindinthefifteenthcentury,whichproducedheroesandmartyrslikeVanini,Giordano Bruno,andGalileo.Althoughdrownedinthenoise,tumult,andpassionsoftheReformation,it noiselesslycontinueditsinvisiblework,bequeathingtothenoblestmindsofeachgenerationits taskofhumanemancipationbythedestructionoftheabsurd,untilatlast,inthelatterhalfof theeighteenthcentury,itagainreappearedinbroadday,boldlywavingtheflagofatheismand materialism. Thehumanmind,then,onemighthavesupposed,wasatlastabouttodeliveritselffromall thedivineobsessions.Notatall.Thedivinefalsehooduponwhichhumanityhadbeenfeeding foreighteencenturies(speakingofChristianityonly)wasoncemoretoshowitselfmore powerfulthanhumantruth.Nolongerabletomakeuseoftheblacktribe,oftheravens consecratedbytheChurch,oftheCatholicorProtestantpriests,allconfidenceinwhomhad beenlost,itmadeuseoflaypriests,shortrobedliarsandsophists.amongwhomtheprincipal

rlesdevolvedupontwofatalmen,onethefalsestmind,theotherthemostdoctrinally despoticwill,ofthelastcenturyJ.J.RousseauandRobespierre. Thefirstistheperfecttypeofnarrownessandsuspiciousmeanness,ofexaltationwithout otherobjectthanhisownperson,ofcoldenthusiasmandhypocrisyatoncesentimentaland implacable,ofthefalsehoodofmodernidealism.Hemaybeconsideredastherealcreatorof modernreaction.Toallappearancethemostdemocraticwriteroftheeighteenthcentury,he bredwithinhimselfthepitilessdespotismofthestatesman.Hewastheprophetofthe doctrinaireState,asRobespierre,hisworthyandfaithfuldisciple,triedtobecomeitshighpriest. HavingheardthesayingofVoltairethat,ifGoddidnotexist,itwouldbenecessarytoinvent him,J.J.RousseauinventedtheSupremeBeing,theabstractandsterileGodofthedeists.AndIt wasinthenameoftheSupremeBeing,andofthehypocriticalvirtuecommandedbythis SupremeBeing,thatRobespierreguillotinedfirsttheHbertistsandthentheverygeniusofthe Revolution,Danton,inwhosepersonheassassinatedtheRepublic,thuspreparingthewayfor thethenceforthnecessarytriumphofthedictatorshipofBonaparteI.Afterthisgreattriumph, theidealisticreactionsoughtandfoundservantslessfanatical,lessterriblenearertothe diminishedstatureoftheactualbourgeoisie.InFrance,Chateaubriand,Lamartine,andshallI sayit?Whynot?AllmustbesaidifitistruthVictorHugohimself,thedemocrat,the republican,thequasisocialistoftoday!andafterthemthewholemelancholyandsentimental companyofpoorandpallidmindswho,undertheleadershipofthesemasters,establishedthe modernromanticschoolinGermany,theSchlegels,theTiecks,theNovalis,theWerners,the Schellings,andsomanyothersbesides,whosenamesdonotevendeservetoberecalled. Theliteraturecreatedbythisschoolwastheveryreignofghostsandphantoms.Itcouldnot standthesunlight;thetwilightalonepermittedittolive.Nomorecoulditstandthebrutal contactofthemasses.Itwastheliteratureofthetender,delicate,distinguishedsouls,aspiring toheaven,andlivingonearthasifinspiteofthemselves.Ithadahorrorandcontemptforthe politicsandquestionsoftheday;butwhenperchanceitreferredtothem,itshoweditself franklyreactionary,tookthesideoftheChurchagainsttheinsolenceofthefreethinkers,ofthe kingsagainstthepeoples,andofallthearistocratsagainstthevilerabbleofthestreets.Forthe rest,asIhavejustsaid,thedominantfeatureoftheschoolofromanticismwasaquasicomplete indifferencetopolitics.Amidthecloudsinwhichitlivedcouldbedistinguishedtworealpoints therapiddevelopmentofbourgeoismaterialismandtheungovernableoutburstofindividual vanities. Tounderstandthisromanticliterature,thereasonforitsexistencemustbesoughtinthe transformationwhichhadbeeneffectedinthebosomofthebourgeoisclasssincethe revolutionof1793. FromtheRenaissanceandtheReformationdowntotheRevolution,thebourgeoisie,ifnotin Germany,atleastinItaly,inFrance,inSwitzerland,inEngland,inHolland,wastheheroand representativeoftherevolutionarygeniusofhistory.Fromitsbosomsprangmostofthe freethinkersofthefifteenthcentury,thereligiousreformersofthetwofollowingcenturies,and theapostlesofhumanemancipation,includingthistimethoseofGermany,ofthepastcentury. Italone,naturallysupportedbythepowerfularmofthepeople,whohadfaithinit,madethe revolutionof1789and93.ItproclaimedthedownfallofroyaltyandoftheChurch,the fraternityofthepeoples,therightsofmanandofthecitizen.Thoseareitstitlestoglory;they areimmortal!

Soonitsplit.Aconsiderableportionofthepurchasersofnationalpropertyhavingbecome rich,andsupportingthemselvesnolongerontheproletariatofthecities,butonthemajor portionofthepeasantsofFrance,thesealsohavingbecomelandedproprietors,hadno aspirationleftbutforpeace,thereestablishmentofpublicorder,andthefoundationofa strongandregulargovernment.Itthereforewelcomedwithjoythedictatorshipofthefirst Bonaparte,and,althoughalwaysVoltairean,didnotviewwithdispleasuretheConcordatwith thePopeandthereestablishmentoftheofficialChurchinFrance:Religionissonecessaryto thepeople!Whichmeansthat,satiatedthemselves,thisportionofthebourgeoisiethenbegan toseethatitwasneedfultothemaintenanceoftheirsituationandthepreservationoftheir newlyacquiredestatestoappeasetheunsatisfiedhungerofthepeoplebypromisesofheavenly manna.ThenitwasthatChateaubriandbegantopreach.[9] NapoleonfellandtheRestorationbroughtbackintoFrancethelegitimatemonarchy,and withitthepoweroftheChurchandofthenobles,whoregained,ifnotthewhole,atleasta considerableportionoftheirformerinfluence.Thisreactionthrewthebourgeoisiebackintothe Revolution,andwiththerevolutionaryspiritthatofscepticismalsowasreawakenedinit.Itset ChateaubriandasideandbegantoreadVoltaireagain;butitdidnotgosofarasDiderot:its debilitatednervescouldnotstandnourishmentsostrong.Voltaire,onthecontrary,atoncea freethinkerandadeist,suiteditverywell.BrangerandP.L.Courierexpressedthisnew tendencyperfectly.TheGodofthegoodpeopleandtheidealofthebourgeoisking,atonce liberalanddemocratic,sketchedagainstthemajesticandthenceforthinoffensivebackgroundof theEmpiresgiganticvictoriessuchwasatthatperiodthedailyintellectualfoodofthe bourgeoisieofFrance. Lamartine,tobesure,excitedbyavainandridiculouslyenviousdesiretorisetothepoetic heightofthegreatByron,hadbegunhiscoldlydelirioushymnsinhonouroftheGodofthe noblesandofthelegitimatemonarchy.Buthissongsresoundedonlyinaristocraticsalons.The bourgeoisiedidnothearthem.BrangerwasitspoetandCourierwasitspoliticalwriter. TherevolutionofJulyresultedinliftingitstastes.WeknowthateverybourgeoisinFrance carrieswithinhimtheimperishabletypeofthebourgeoisgentleman,atypewhichneverfailsto appearimmediatelytheparvenuacquiresalittlewealthandpower.In1830thewealthy bourgeoisiehaddefinitelyreplacedtheoldnobilityintheseatsofpower.Itnaturallytendedto establishanewaristocracy.Anaristocracyofcapitalfirstofall,butalsoanaristocracyof intellect,ofgoodmannersanddelicatesentiments.Itbegantofeelreligious. Thiswasnotonitspartsimplyanapingofaristocraticcustoms.Itwasalsoanecessityofits position.Theproletariathadrendereditafinalserviceinoncemoreaidingittooverthrowthe nobility.Thebourgeoisienowhadnofurtherneedofitscooperation,foritfeltitselffirmly seatedintheshadowofthethroneofJuly,andthealliancewiththepeople,thenceforth useless,begantobecomeinconvenient.Itwasnecessarytoremandittoitsplace,which naturallycouldnotbedonewithoutprovokinggreatindignationamongthemasses.Itbecame necessarytorestrainthisindignation.Inthenameofwhat?Inthenameofthebourgeois interestbluntlyconfessed?Thatwouldhavebeenmuchtoocynical.Themoreunjustand inhumananinterestis,thegreaterneedithasofsanction.Now,wherefinditifnotinreligion, thatgoodprotectressofalIthewellfedandtheusefulconsolerofthehungry?Andmorethan everthetriumphantbourgeoisiesawthatreligionwasindispensabletothepeople.

Afterhavingwonallitstitlestogloryinreligious,philosophical,andpoliticalopposition,in protestandinrevolution,itatlastbecamethedominantclassandtherebyeventhedefender andpreserveroftheState,thenceforththeregularinstitutionoftheexclusivepowerofthat class.TheStateisforce,andforit,firstofall,istherightofforce,thetriumphantargumentof theneedlegun,ofthechassepot.Butmanissosingularlyconstitutedthatthisargument,wholly eloquentasitmayappear,isnotsufficientinthelongrun.Somemoralsanctionorotheris absolutelynecessarytoenforcehisrespect.Further,thissanctionmustbeatoncesosimpleand soplainthatitmayconvincethemasses,who,afterhavingbeenreducedbythepowerofthe State.mustalsobeinducedtomorallyrecogniseitsright. Thereareonlytwowaysofconvincingthemassesofthegoodnessofanysocialinstitution whatever.Thefirst,theonlyrealone,butalsothemostdifficulttoadoptbecauseitimpliesthe abolitionoftheState,or,inotherwords,theabolitionoftheorganisedpoliticalexploitationof themajoritybyanyminoritywhatsoeverwouldbethedirectandcompletesatisfactionofthe needsandaspirationsofthepeople,whichwouldbeequivalenttothecompleteliquidationof thepoliticalandeconomicalexistenceofthebourgeoisclass,or,again,totheabolitionofthe State.Beneficialmeansforthemasses,butdetrimentaltobourgeoisinterests;henceitis uselesstotalkaboutthem. Theonlyway,onthecontrary,harmfulonlytothepeople,preciousinitssalvationof bourgeoisprivileges,isnootherthanreligion.Thatistheeternalmirage;whichleadsawaythe massesinasearchfordivinetreasures,whilemuchmorereserved,thegoverningclasscontents itselfwithdividingamongallitsmembersveryunequally,moreoverandalwaysgivingmostto himwhopossessesmostthemiserablegoodsofearthandtheplundertakenfromthepeople, includingtheirpoliticalandsocialliberty. Thereisnot,therecannotbe,aStatewithoutreligion.TakethefreestStatesintheworldthe UnitedStatesofAmericaortheSwissConfederation,forinstanceandseewhatanimportant partisplayedinallofficialdiscoursesbydivineProvidence,thatsupremesanctionofallStates. ButwheneverachiefofStatespeaksofGod,beheWil1iamI.,theKnoutoGermanicemperor, orGrant,thepresidentofthegreatrepublic,besurethatheisgettingreadytoshearoncemore hispeopleflock. TheFrenchliberalandVoltaireanbourgeoisie,drivenbytemperamenttoapositivism(notto sayamaterialism)singularlynarrowandbrutal,havingbecomethegoverningclassoftheState byitstriumphof1830,hadtogiveitselfanofficialreligion.Itwasnotaneasything.The bourgeoisiecouldnotabruptlygobackundertheyokeofRomanCatholicism.Betweenitand theChurchofRomewasanabyssofbloodandhatred,and,howeverpracticalandwiseone becomes,itisneverpossibletorepressapassiondevelopedbyhistory.Moreover,theFrench bourgeoisiewouldhavecovereditselfwithridiculeifithadgonebacktotheChurchtotakepart inthepiousceremoniesofitsworship,anessentialconditionofameritoriousandsincere conversion.Severalattemptedit,itistrue,buttheirheroismwasrewardedbynootherresult thanafruitlessscandal.Finally,areturntoCatholicismwasimpossibleonaccountofthe insolvablecontradictionwhichseparatestheinvariablepoliticsofRomefromthedevelopment oftheeconomicalandpoliticalinterestsofthemiddleclass. InthisrespectProtestantismismuchmoreadvantageous.Itisthebourgeoisreligionpar excellence.Itaccordsjustasmuchlibertyasisnecessarytothebourgeois,andfindsawayof

reconcilingcelestialaspirationswiththerespectwhichterrestrialconditionsdemand. ConsequentlyitisespeciallyinProtestantcountriesthatcommerceandindustryhavebeen developed.ButitwasimpossiblefortheFrenchbourgeoisietobecomeProtestant.Topassfrom onereligiontoanotherunlessitbedonedeliberately,assometimesinthecaseoftheJewsof RussiaandPoland,whogetbaptisedthreeorfourtimesinordertoreceiveeachtimethe remunerationallowedthemtoseriouslychangeonesreligion,alittlefaithisnecessary.Now, intheexclusivepositiveheartoftheFrenchbourgeoisthereisnoroomforfaith.Heprofesses themostprofoundindifferenceforallquestionswhichtouchneitherhispocketfirstnorhis socialvanityafterwards.HeisasindifferenttoProtestantismastoCatholicism.Ontheother hand,theFrenchbourgeoiscouldnotgoovertoProtestantismwithoutputtinghimselfin conflictwiththeCatholicroutineofthemajorityoftheFrenchpeople,whichwouldhavebeen greatimprudenceonthepartofaclasspretendingtogovernthenation. Therewasstillonewaylefttoreturntothehumanitarianandrevolutionaryreligionofthe eighteenthcentury.Butthatwouldhaveledtoofar.Sothebourgeoisiewasobliged,inorderto sanctionitsnewState,tocreateanewreligionwhichmightbeboldlyproclaimed,withouttoo muchridiculeandscandal,bythewholebourgeoisclass. ThuswasborndoctrinaireDeism. Othershavetold,muchbetterthanIcouldtellit,thestoryofthebirthanddevelopmentof thisschool,whichhadsodecisiveandwemaywelladdsofatalaninfluenceonthepolitical, intellectual,andmoraleducationofthebourgeoisyouthofFrance.ItdatesfromBenjamin ConstantandMadamedeStal;itsrealfounderwasRoyerCollard;itsapostles,Guizot,Cousin, Villemain,andmanyothers.ItsboldlyavowedobjectwasthereconciliationofRevolutionwith Reaction,or,tousethelanguageoftheschool,oftheprincipleoflibertywiththatofauthority, andnaturallytotheadvantageofthelatter. Thisreconciliationsignified:inpolitics,thetakingawayofpopularlibertyforthebenefitof bourgeoisrule,representedbythemonarchicalandconstitutionalState;inphilosophy,the deliberatesubmissionoffreereasontotheeternalprinciplesoffaith.Wehaveonlytodealhere withthelatter. WeknowthatthisphilosophywasspeciallyelaboratedbyM.Cousin,thefatherofFrench eclecticism.Asuperficialandpedantictalker,incapableofanyoriginalconception,ofanyidea peculiartohimself,butverystrongoncommonplace,whichheconfoundedwithcommon sense,thisillustriousphilosopherlearnedlyprepared,fortheuseofthestudiousyouthof France,ametaphysicaldishofhisownmakingtheuseofwhich,madecompulsoryinallschools oftheStateundertheUniversity,condemnedseveralgenerationsoneaftertheothertoa cerebralindigestion.Imagineaphilosophicalvinegarsauceofthemostopposedsystems,a mixtureofFathersoftheChurch,scholasticphilosophers,DescartesandPascal,KantandScotch psychologistsallthisasuperstructureonthedivineandinnateideasofPlato,andcoveredup withalayerofHegelianimmanenceaccompanied,ofcourse,byanignorance,ascontemptuous asitiscomplete,ofnaturalscience,andprovingjustastwotimestwomakefive;theexistence ofapersonalGod...

 Notes: [1] Icallitiniquitousbecause,asIbelieveIhaveprovedIntheAppendixalludedto,this mysteryhasbeenandstillcontinuestobetheconsecrationofallthehorrorswhichhavebeen andarebeingcommittedintheworld;Icallitunique,becausealltheothertheologicaland metaphysicalabsurditieswhichdebasethehumanmindarebutitsnecessaryconsequences. [back] [2] Mr.StuartMillisperhapstheonlyonewhoseseriousidealismmaybefairlydoubted, andthatfortworesons:first,thatifnotabsolutelythedisciple,heisapassionateadmirer,an adherentofthepositivephilosphyofAugusteComte,aphilosophywhich,inspiteofits numerousreservations,isrealyAtheistic;second,thatMr.StuartMillisEnglish,andinEngland toproclaimoneselfanAtheististoostraciseoneself,evenatthislateday.[back] [3] InLondonIonceheardM.LouisBlancexpressalmostthesameidea.Thebestformof government,saidhetome,wouldbethatwhichwouldinvariablycallmenofvirtuousgenius tothecontrolofaffairs.[back] [4] OnedayIaskedMazziniwhatmeasureswouldbetakenfortheemancipationofthe people,oncehistriumphantunitaryrepublichadbeendefinitelyestablished.Thefirst measure,heansweredwillbethefoundationofschoolsforthepeople.Andwhatwillthe peoplebetaughtintheseschools?Thedutiesofmansacrificeanddevotion.Butwherewill youfindasufficientnumberofprofessorstoteachthesethings,whichnoonehastherightor powertoteach,unlesshepreachesbyexample?Isnotthenumberofmenwhofindsupreme enjoymentinsacrificeanddevotionexceedinglylimited?Thosewhosacrificethemselvesinthe serviceofagreatideaobeyaloftypassion,and,satisfyingthispersonalpassion,outsideof whichlifeitselflosesallvalueintheireyes,theygenerallythinkofsomethingelsethanbuilding theiractionintodoctrine,whilethosewhoteachdoctrineusuallyforgettotranslateitinto action,forthesimplereasonthatdoctrinekillsthelife,thelivingspontaneity,ofaction.Men likeMazzini,inwhomdoctrineandactionformanadmirableunity,areveryrareexceptions.In Christianityalsotherehavebeengreatmen,holymen,whohavereallypractised,orwho,at

least,havepassionatelytriedtopracticeallthattheypreached,andwhosehearts,overflowing withlove,werefullofcontemptforthepleasuresandgoodsofthisworld.Buttheimmense majorityofCatholicandProtestantpriestswho,bytrade,havepreachedandstillpreachthe doctrinesofchastity,abstinence,andrenunciationbelietheirteachingsbytheirexampleItis notwithoutreason,butbecauseofseveralcenturiesexperience,thatamongthepeopleofall countriesthesephraseshavebecomebywords:Aslicentiousasapriest;asgluttonousasa priest;asambitiousasapriest;asgreedy,selfish,andgraspingasapriest.Itis,then,established thattheprofessorsoftheChristianvirtues,consecratedbytheChurch,thepriests,inthe immensemajorityofcases,havepractisedquitethecontraryofwhattheyhavepreached.This verymajority,theuniversalityofthisfact,showthatthefaultisnottobeattributedtothemas individuals,buttothesocialposition,impossibleandcontradictoryinitself,inwhichthese individualsareplaced.ThepositionoftheChristianpriestinvolvesadoublecontradiction.Inthe firstplace,thatbetweenthedoctrineofabstinenceandrenunciationandthepositive tendenciesandneedsofhumannaturetendenciesandneedswhich,insomeindividualcases, alwaysveryrare,mayindeedbecontinuallyheldback,suppressed,andevenentirely annihilatedbytheconstantinfluenceofsomepotentintellectualandmoralpassion;whichat certainmomentsofcollectiveexaltation,maybeforgottenandneglectedforsometimebya largemassofmenatonce;butwhicharesofundamentallyinherentinournaturethatsooner orlatertheyalwaysresumetheirrights:sothat,whentheyarenotsatisfiedinaregularand normalway,theyarealwaysreplacedatlastbyunwholesomeandmonstroussatisfaction.This isanaturalandconsequentlyfatalandirresistiblelaw,underthedisastrousactionofwhich inevitablyfallallChristianpriestsandespeciallythoseoftheRomanCatholicChurch.Itcannot applytotheprofessors,thatistothepriestsofthemodernChurch,unlesstheyarealsoobliged topreachChristianabstinenceandrenunciation. Butthereisanothercontradictioncommontothepriestsofbothsects.Thiscontradiction growsoutoftheverytitleandpositionofmaster.Amasterwhocommands,oppresses,and exploitsisawhollylogicalandquitenaturalpersonage.Butamasterwhosacrificeshimselfto thosewhoaresubordinatedtohimbyhisdivineorhumanprivilegeisacontradictoryandquite impossiblebeing.Thisistheveryconstitutionofhypocrisy,sowellpersonifiedbythePope, who,whilecallinghimselfthelowestservantoftheservantsofGodintokenwhereof, followingtheexampleofChrist,heevenwashesonceayearthefeetoftwelveRomanbeggars proclaimshimselfatthesametimevicarofGod,absoluteandinfalliblemasteroftheworld.DoI needtorecallthatthepriestsofallchurches,farfromsacrificingthemselvestotheflocks confidedtotheircare,havealwayssacrificedthem,exploitedthem,andkepttheminthe conditionofaflock,partlytosatisfytheirownpersonalpassionsandpartlytoservethe omnipotenceoftheChurch?Likeconditions,likecauses,alwaysproducelikeeffects.Itwill, then,bethesamewiththeprofessorsofthemodernSchooldivinelyinspiredandlicensedby theState.Theywillnecessarilybecome,somewithoutknowingit,otherswithfullknowledgeof thecause,teachersofthedoctrineofpopularsacrificetothepoweroftheStateandtothe profitoftheprivilegedclasses. Mustwe,then,eliminatefromsocietyallinstructionandabolishallschools?Farfromit! Instructionmustbespreadamongthemasseswithoutstint,transformingallthechurches,all thosetemplesdedicatedtothegloryofGodandtotheslaveryofmen,intosomanyschoolsof humanemancipation.But,inthefirstplace,letusunderstandeachother;schools,properly speaking,inanormalsocietyfoundedonequalityandonrespectforhumanliberty,willexist onlyforchildrenandnotforadults:and,inorderthattheymaybecomeschoolsof

emancipationandnotofenslavement,itwillbenecessarytoeliminate,firstofall,thisfictionof God,theeternalandabsoluteenslaver.Thewholeeducationofchildrenandtheirinstruction mustbefoundedonthescientificdevelopmentofreason,notonthatoffaith;onthe developmentofpersonaldignityandindependence,notonthatofpietyandobedience;onthe worshipoftruthandjusticeatanycost,andaboveallonrespectforhumanity,whichmust replacealwaysandeverywheretheworshipofdivinity.Theprincipleofauthority,inthe educationofchildren,constitutesthenaturalpointofdeparture;itislegitimate,necessary, whenappliedtochildrenofatenderage,whoseintelligencehasnotyetopenlydevelopeditself. Butasthedevelopmentofeverything,andconsequentlyofeducation,impliesthegradual negationofthepointofdeparture,thisprinciplemustdiminishasfastaseducationand instructionadvance,givingplacetoincreasingliberty.Allrationaleducationisatbottomnothing butthisprogressiveimmolationofauthorityforthebenefitofliberty,thefinalobjectof educationnecessarilybeingtheformationoffreemenfullofrespectandloveforthelibertyof others.Thereforethefirstdayofthepupilslife,iftheschooltakesinfantsscarcelyableasyetto stammerafewwords,shouldbethatofthegreatestauthorityandanalmostentireabsenceof liberty;butitslastdayshouldbethatofthegreatestlibertyandtheabsoluteabolitionofevery vestigeoftheanimalordivineprincipleofauthority. Theprincipleofauthority,appliedtomenwhohavesurpassedorattainedtheirmajority, becomesamonstrosity,aflagrantdenialofhumanity,asourceofslaveryandintellectualand moraldepravity.Unfortunately,paternalgovernmentshaveleftthemassestowallowinan ignorancesoprofoundthatitwillbenecessarytoestablishschoolsnotonlyforthepeoples children,butforthepeoplethemselves.Fromtheseschoolswillbeabsolutelyeliminatedthe smallestapplicationsormanifestationsoftheprincipleofauthority.Theywillbeschoolsno longer;theywillbepopularacademies,inwhichneitherpupilsnormasterswillbeknown, wherethepeoplewillcomefreelytoget,iftheyneedit,freeinstruction,andinwhich,richin theirownexperience,theywillteachintheirturnmanythingstotheprofessorswhoshallbring themknowledgewhichtheylack.This,then,willbeamutualinstruction,anactofintellectual fraternitybetweentheeducatedyouthandthepeople. Therealschoolforthepeopleandforallgrownmenislife.Theonlygrandandomnipotent authority,atoncenaturalandrational,theonlyonewhichwemayrespect,willbethatofthe collectiveandpublicspiritofasocietyfoundedonequalityandsolidarityandthemutualhuman respectofallitsmembers.Yes.thisisanauthoritywhichisnotatalldivine,whollyhuman,but beforewhichweshallbowwillingly,certainthat,farfromenslavingthem,itwillemancipate men.Itwillbeathousandtimesmorepowerful,besureofitthanallyourdivine,theological metaphysical,political,andjudicialauthorities,establishedbytheChurchandbytheState, morepowerfulthanyourcriminalcodes,yourjailers,andyourexecutioners. Thepowerofcollectivesentimentorpublicspiritisevennowaveryseriousmatter.Themen mostreadytocommitcrimesrarelydaretodefyit,toopenlyaffrontit.Theywillseektodeceive it,butwilltakecarenottoberudewithitunlesstheyfeelthesupportofaminoritylargeror smaller.Noman,howeverpowerfulhebelieveshimself,willeverhavethestrengthtobearthe unanimouscontemptofsociety;noonecanlivewithoutfeelinghimselfsustainedbythe approvalandesteemofatleastsomeportionofsociety.Amanmustbeurgedonbyan immenseandverysincereconvictioninordertofindcouragetospeakandactagainstthe opinionofall,andneverwillaselfish,depraved,andcowardlymanhavesuchcourage.

Nothingprovesmoreclearlythanthisfactthenaturalandinevitablesolidaritythislawof sociabilitywhichbindsallmentogether,aseachofuscanverifydaily,bothonhimselfandon allthemenwhomheknowsBut,ifthissocialpowerexists,whyhasitnotsufficedhithertoto moralise,tohumanisemen?Simplybecausehithertothispowerhasnotbeenhumaniseditself; ithasnotbeenhumanisedbecausethesociallifeofwhichitiseverthefaithfulexpressionis based,asweknow,ontheworshipofdivinitynotonrespectforhumanity;onauthority,noton liberty;onprivilege,notonequality;ontheexploitation,notonthebrotherhoodofmen;on iniquityandfalsehood,notonjusticeandtruth.Consequentlyitsrealaction,alwaysin contradictionofthehumanitariantheorieswhichitprofesses,hasconstantlyexerciseda disastrousanddepravinginfluence.Itdoesnotrepressvicesandcrimes;itcreatesthem.Its authorityisconsequentlyadivine,antihumanauthority;itsinfluenceismischievousand baleful.Doyouwishtorenderitsauthorityandinfluencebeneficentandhuman?Achievethe socialrevolution.Makeallneedsreallysolidary,andcausethematerialandsocialinterestsof eachtoconformtothehumandutiesofeach.Andtothisendthereisbutonemeans:Destroy alltheinstitutionsofInequality;establishtheeconomicandsocialequalityofall,andonthis basiswillarisethelibertythemorality,thesolidaryhumanityofall. Ishallreturntothis,themostimportantquestionofSocialism.[back] [5] Science,inbecomingthepatrimonyofeverybody,willweditselfinacertainsenseto theimmediateandreallifeofeach.Itwillgaininutilityandgracewhatitlosesinpride, ambition,anddoctrinairepedantry.This,however,willnotpreventmenofgenius,better organizedforscientificspeculationthanthemajorityoftheirfellows,fromdevotingthemselves exclusivelytothecultivationofthesciences,andrenderinggreatservicestohumanity.Only, theywillbeambitiousfornoothersocialinfluencethanthenaturalinfluenceexerciseduponits surroundingsbyeverysuperiorintelligence,andfornootherrewardthanthehighdelightwhich anoblemindalwaysfindsinthesatisfactionofanoblepassion.[back] [6] Universalexperience,onwhichallsciencerests,mustbeclearlydistinguishedfrom universalfaith,onwhichtheidealistswishtosupporttheirbeliefs:thefirstisareal authenticationoffacts;thesecondisonlyasuppositionoffactswhichnobodyhasseen,and whichconsequentlyareatvariancewiththeexperienceofeverybody.[back] [7] Theidealists,allthosewhobelieveintheimmaterialityandimmortalityofthehuman soul,mustbeexcessivelyembarrassedbythedifferenceinintelligenceexistingbetweenraces, peoples,andindividuals.Unlesswesupposethatthevariousdivineparticleshavebeen irregularlydistributed,howisthisdifferencetobeexplained?Unfortunatelythereisa considerablenumberofmenwhollystupid,foolisheventoidiocy.Couldtheyhavereceivedin

thedistributionaparticleatoncedivineandstupid?Toescapethisembarrassmenttheidealists mustnecessarilysupposethatallhumansoulsareequal.butthattheprisonsinwhichtheyfind themselvesnecessarilyconfined,humanbodies,areunequal,somemorecapablethanothersof servingasanorganforthepureintellectualityofsoul.Accordingtothis.suchaonemighthave veryfineorgansathisdisposition.suchanotherverygrossorgans.Butthesearedistinctions whichidealismhasnotthepowertousewithoutfallingintoinconsistencyandthegrossest materialism,forinthepresenceofabsoluteimmaterialityofsoulallbodilydifferences disappear,allthatiscorporeal,material,necessarilyappearingindifferent,equallyand absolutelygross.Theabysswhichseparatessoulfrombody,absoluteimmaterialityfrom absolutemateriality,isinfinite.Consequentlyalldifferences,bythewayinexplicableand logicallyimpossible,whichmayexistontheothersideoftheabyss,inmatter,shouldbetothe soulnullandvoid,andneithercannorshouldexerciseanyinfluenceoverit.Inaword,the absolutelyimmaterialcannotbeconstrained,imprisoned,andmuchlessexpressedinany degreewhatsoeverbytheabsolutelymaterial.Ofallthegrossandmaterialistic(usingtheword inthesenseattachedtoitbytheidealists)imaginationswhichwereengenderedbythe primitiveignoranceandstupidityofmen,thatofanimmaterialsoulimprisonedinamaterial bodyiscertainlythegrossest,themoststupid.andnothingbetterprovestheomnipotence exercisedbyancientprejudicesevenoverthebestmindsthanthedeplorablesightofmen endowedwithloftyintelligencestilltalkingofitinourdays.[back] [8] IamwellawarethatinthetheologicalandmetaphysicalsystemsoftheOrient,and especiallyinthoseofIndia,includingBuddhism,wefindtheprincipleoftheannihilationofthe realworldinfavouroftheidealandofabsoluteabstraction.Butithasnottheaddedcharacter ofvoluntaryanddeliberatenegationwhichdistinguishesChristianity;whenthosesystemswere conceived.Theworldofhumanthoughtofwillandofliberty,hadnotreachedthatstageof developmentwhichwasafterwardsseenintheGreekandRomancivilisation.[back] [9] Itseemstomeusefultorecallatthispointananecdoteone,bytheway,wellknown andthoroughlyauthenticwhichshedsaveryclearlightonthepersonalvalueofthiswarmed overoftheCatholicbeliefsandonthereligioussincerityofthatperiod.Chateaubriand submittedtoapublisheraworkattackingfaith.Thepublishercalledhisattentiontothefact thatatheismhadgoneoutoffashion,thatthereadingpubliccarednomoreforit,andthatthe demand,onthecontrary,wasforreligiousworks.Chateaubriandwithdrew,butafewmonths latercamebackwithhisGeniusofChristianity.[back]

Godslasteraar.org