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The Phasor Transform and Impedance

1. Objective We will see how the phasor transform can simplify the voltage-current relationship for inductors and capacitors, eliminating the need for derivatives and integrals. In fact, the voltage-current relationship for resistors, inductors and capacitors in the phasor domain looks just like Ohms law, where voltage equals current time a scaling constant. We call the scaling constant impedance. It serves the same role as resistance, but in the phasor domain. It is a constant like resistance, but turns out to be complex valued and varies with the frequency of the signal involved. 2. What is the phasor transform? Sinusoids are special signals. Note that the integral and derivative of a sinusoid is a sinusoid. Thus, the voltage-current relationships for inductors and capacitors, which are characterized by integrals and derivatives, tell us that a sinusoidal current produces a sinusoidal voltage. The only difference between the sinusoidal voltage across and current through these devices is possibly the amplitude and phase. The frequency of the current will be the same as the frequency of the voltage. Thus, if we only consider sinusoidal signals, all we need to keep track of is magnitude and phase of the voltages and currents. This is where the phasor transform come in! A complex number, unlike a real number, contains both a magnitude and a phase. Thus, a complex number is a very convenient way to describe the various sinusoids in our circuits. Here is how the phasor transform works. We begin by considering a sinusoid in the so-called time domain (where our voltage and current equations are functions of time) x(t ) = X m cos( t + ) .
(1)

In the phasor domain, this signal is expressed as a single complex number X with a magnitude, X m , equal to the sinusoid amplitude and a phase, , equal to the sinusoids phase. Any complex number can be written in two distinct ways, rectangular form and polar form. While these forms looks very different, Euler proved that they are equivalent with the famous theorem that bears his name. Consider a complex number Z written in rectangular form and polar form respectively, Z = X + jY = re j .
(2)

Here X is the real part of Z , Y is the purely imaginary part of Z . The variable r is the magnitude of Z , is the phase, j = 1 , and e = 2.71828182846... . The two forms of a complex number can be found from one another using the following relationships:
r = X 2 +Y2 ,
(3) (4)

= tan 1 (Y / X ) ,

R. C. Hardie Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Dayton

X = r cos

(5) (6)

and

Y = r sin .

Note that the polar form is often written in shorthand notation like so
Z = re j  r .
(7)

This hides the rather bizarre e j part, and highlights the fact that the magnitude and phase are the important pieces of information carried by a complex number. A TI-85 (and up) will do the conversions between the two forms (rectangular and polar) in (2). To enter the complex number 3 + j 2 = 3.6e j.59 into your TI, use (3,2) for rectangular form or (3.6.59) for polar entry. To convert the form, enter the number in the form you know and now set the mode to RectC or PolarC to specify the form you want. With the correct mode set, press enter and your previously entered number will appear in new format. The phasor domain representation for the sinusoid in (1) is given by
X = X m e j = X m cos + jX m sin .

(8)

We simply let the magnitude of the cosine equal the magnitude of the phasor (the complex number) and the phase of the cosine becomes the phase term in the phasor. Look at what we have done. We have replaced a function of time with a single number (albeit, a complex number) that contains the only information we need to keep track of, magnitude and phase. Performing a phasor transform means writing Equation (8) from Equation (1). Performing an inverse phasor transform means writing Equation (1) from Equation (8). Of course, in performing an inverse phasor transform, we must know what the original frequency, , is. Here is an example. The voltage produce by a standard AC outlet is described by
v(t ) = 169.7 cos(120 t + 60) ,
(9)

where we have arbitrarily set the phase to be 60 degrees. The phasor transform for this is
V = 169.7e j 60 = 169.760 .
(10)

Be sure to mark the angular units (radians or degrees) the same in both your time domain and phasor domain representations. Specify degrees with the symbol, otherwise, radians will be assumed. Note that adding sinusoidal signals of the same frequency in the time domain is equivalent to adding their phasor transforms in the phasor domain. This trick can be helpful in visualizing the sum of two or more sinusoids of the same frequency.

R. C. Hardie Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Dayton

3. What is impedance? For an inductor, capacitor, resistor, or combination, a sinusoidal current produces a sinusoidal voltage of the same frequency (although, as we said, the magnitude and phase may change). Thus, we have i (t ) = I m cos( t + i ) and v(t ) = Vm cos( t + v ) .
I = I m e ji
and (11) (12)

In the phasor domain, we have

(13) (14)

V = Vm e jv .

Now to the amazing part Note that the phasor voltage, V , can be written in terms of phasor current, I , multiplied by a complex number (which scales the magnitude as needed and adds to the phase as needed). This gives
V = IZ
(15)

for some complex number Z = Z m e jz , which we call the impedance. Again, the concept of impedance applies to Rs, Ls and Cs and combinations thereof. Writing the complex numbers in (15) in polar form yields
Vm e jv = I m e ji Z m e jz = I m Z m e j (i +z ) .
(16)

Thus, the magnitude of the sinusoidal voltage across some impedance is the magnitude of the current times the impedance magnitude. The phase of the voltage is the phase of the current plus the phase of the impedance. Solving for impedance, assuming we know the voltage and current, we get Z = Z m e jz = V Vm e jv Vm j (v i ) = = e . I I m e ji I m
(17)

Thus, impedance can be determined by determining the relationship between voltage and current magnitudes and phases, for a particular element (or combination of elements). In particular, the impedance magnitude is given by
Zm = Vm , Im
(18)

and the impedance phase is given by

R. C. Hardie Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Dayton

z = v i .

(19)

You will find that impedance, for elements other than resistors, varies with the frequency of the voltage or current source exciting the element. That is, the same physical component will have different impedances when used with different source frequencies. Here is the real beauty. When the source or sources in your circuit are sinusoidal, you can express all the voltages and currents in the circuit as complex numbers (expressing them as phasors in the phasor domain). You can express all the components (R, L & Cs) by their impedance (complex numbers). Now, because all the voltage-current relationships in this phasor domain are given by (15), which is just like Ohms law, the circuit can be analyzed like a DC resistive circuit. One solves for the phasor domain voltage or current that is of interest, and finally, performs an inverse phasor transform to get the time domain voltage or current which is generally the more intuitive form of the solution (the one you are accustomed to). No more differential equations!!! So whats the catch? Well one, we have to deal with complex numbers. And two, the source in the circuit has to be sinusoidal. However, Fourier analysis tells us that virtually any waveform can be written in terms of sinusoids. Thus, the concept of impedance allows us to solve any RLC circuit with any input source without differential equations. It can be shown that the theoretical impedance for an ideal resistor is simply its resistance, R. The theoretical impedance for an ideal inductor is Z = j L = Le j 90 = L90 . The impedance for an ideal capacitor is give by Z= 1 j 1 j 90 1 = = e = 90 . C j C C C
(21) (20)

Note that is frequency in radians/second and = 2 f , where f is frequency in cycles/second (Hz).

R. C. Hardie Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Dayton