w2 01 LAN Basic Concepts

LAN TECHNOLOGIES
“DATA NETWORKS” JTOs PH-II – LAN Technologies
LAN TECHNOLOGIES
Introduction
Networking means interconnection of computers. These computers can be

linked together for different purposes and using a variety of different cabling
types.
The basic reasons why computers need to be networked are :
♦ to share resources (files, printers, modems, fax machines etc.)
♦ to share application software (MS Office, Adobe Publisher etc.)
♦ increase productivity (makes it easier to share data amongst users)
Take for example a typical office scenario where a number of users require
access to some common information. As long as all user computers are
connected via a network, they can share their files, exchange mail, schedule
meetings, send faxes and print documents all from any point of the network. It
is not necessary for users to transfer files via electronic mail or floppy disk,
rather, each user can access all the information they require, thus leading to
less wastage of time and hence increased productivity.
Imagine the benefits of a user being able to directly fax the Word document
they are working on, rather than print it out, then feed it into the fax machine,
dial the number etc.
Small networks are often called Local Area Networks (LAN). A LAN is a
network allowing easy access to other computers or peripherals. The typical
characteristics of a LAN are :
♦ physically limited distance (< 2km)
♦ high bandwidth (> 1mbps)
♦ inexpensive cable media (coax or twisted pair)
♦ data and hardware sharing between users
♦ owned by the user
The factors that determine the nature of a LAN are :
♦ Topology
♦ Transmission medium
BRBRAITT : Nov-2006 2
♦ Medium access control technique

LAN Architecture
The layered protocol concept can be employed to describe the

architecture of a LAN, wherein each layer represents the basic functions of a
LAN.
Protocol Architecture
The Protocols defined for LAN transmission address issues relating to the
transmission of blocks of data over the network. In the context of OSI model,
higher layer protocols (layer 3 or 4 and above) are independent of network
architecture and are applicable to LAN. Therefore LAN protocols are
concerned primarily with the lower layers of the OSI model.
Figure 1 relates the LAN protocols to the OSI model. This architecture has
been developed by the IEEE 802 committee and has been adopted by all
organisations concerned with the specification of LAN standards. It is
generally referred to as the IEEE 802 reference model.
OSI Reference Model
Application
Presentation IEEE 802

Reference LLC Service
Model Access Point
Session
Transport
~ Upper
layer
~ (LSAP)
protocols
Network
( ) ( ) Link
Logical ()
Control Scope of
Data Link IEEE 802
Medium Standards
access control
Physical Physical
Medium Medium
FIG.1 IEEE 802 Protocol Layers compared to OSI
The lowest layer of the IEEE 802 reference model corresponds to the
physical layer of the OSI model, and includes the following functions :
♦ Encoding/ decoding of signals
♦ Preamble generation/ removal (for synchronisation)
♦ Bit transmission/ reception
The physical layer of the 802 model also includes a specification for the
transmission medium and the topology. Generally, this is considered below
the lowest layer of the OSI model. However, the choice of the transmission
medium and topology is critical in LAN design, and so a specification of the
medium is included.
Above the physical layer are the functions associated with providing service
to the LAN users. These comprise :
♦ Assembling data into a frame with address and error-detection fields
for onward transmission.
♦ Disassemble frame, perform address recognition and error detection
during reception.
♦ Supervise and control the access to the LAN transmission medium.
♦ Provide an interface to the higher layers and perform flow control and
error control.
The above functions are typically associated with OSI layer 2. The last
function noted above is grouped in to a logical link control (LLC) layer. The
functions in the first three bullet items are treated as a separate layer, called
medium access control (MAC). The separation is done for the following
reasons:
♦ The logic and mechanism required to manage access to a shared-
access medium is not found in the conventional layer-2 data link
control.
♦ For the same LLC, different MAC options may be provided.
The standards that have been issued are illustrated in Table 1. Most of the
standards were developed by a committee known as IEEE 802, sponsored by
the Institute for Electrical and Electronics Engineers. All of these standards
have subsequently been adopted as international standards by the
International Organisation for Standardization (ISO).
Logical Link Control
IEEE 802.2
Unacknowledged connectionless service
(LLC)
Connection-mode service
Acknowledged connectionless service
Token Round Token Token DQDB CSMA;p

Medium access
control (MAC)
CSMA/CD bus robin; ring ring olling

priority
IEEE 802.12
IEEE 802.11
IEEE 802.5
IEEE 802.6
IEEE 802.4
IEEE 802.3
FDDI
Baseband Baseband Unshielded Shielded Optical fiber; Optical fiber; Infrared;

coaxial; coaxial twisted pair; twisted pair; 100 Mbps 100 Mbps 1, 2 Mbps
10 Mbps 1, 5, 10 Mbps 100 Mbps 4,16 Mbps
Unshielded
twisted pair; Carrierband Unshielded Unshielded Spread
10,000 Mbps
Physical
coaxial twisted pair; twisted pair; spectrum;

1, 5, 10 Mbps 1, 2 Mbps
Shielded
4 Mbps 100 Mbps
twisted pair;
100 Mbps
Optical fiber
5, 10, 20, Mbps
Baseband
coaxial;
10 Mbps
Optical fiber;
10 Mbps
Bus/ tree/ star topologies Ring topology Dual bus topology Wireless
Table 1 LAN/MAN standards
Figure 2 illustrates the relationship between the various levels of the

architecture. User data is passed down to LLC, which appends control
information as a header, creating an LLC protocol data unit (PDU). This
control information is used in the operation of the LLC protocol. The entire
LLC PDU is then passed down to the MAC layer, which appends control
information at the front and back of the packet, forming a MAC frame.
Application layer
TCP layer
TCP
header
IP header IP layer
LLC LLC layer

header
MAC MAC MAC layer

header
trailer
TCP segment
IP datagram
LLC protocol data unit
MAC frame
Fig. 2 LAN Protocol Architecture
LAN Topologies
The common topologies for LANs are bus, tree, ring, and star. The bus is a
special case of the tree, with only one trunk and no branches.
Bus and Tree Topologies
Bus and Tree topologies are characterised by the use of a multi-point

medium. For the bus all stations attach, through appropriate hardware
interfaces known as a Tap, directly to a linear transmission medium, or bus.
Full-duplex operation between the station and the tap permits data to be
transmitted onto the bus and received from the bus. A transmission from any
station propagates throughout the length of the medium in both directions
and can be received (heard) by all other stations. At each end of the bus is a
terminator, to avoid reflection of signals.
Tap
Flow of data
Terminating
Resistance
Station
Fig. 3 (a) Bus
Headend
Fig. 3 (b) Tree
The tree topology is a generalisation of the bus topology. The transmission

medium is a branched cable with no closed loops. The tree layout begins at a
point known as the head-end, where one or more cable start, and each of
these may have branches. The branches in turn may have additional
branches. Transmission from any station propagates throughout the medium
and can be received (heard) by all other stations.
However, there are two problems in this arrangement. First, since a

transmission from any one station can be received by all other stations, there
needs to be some way of indicating that for whom the transmission is
intended. Second, a mechanism is needed to regulate the transmission. To
visualise the logic behind this, consider that if two stations on the bus attempt
to transmit at the same time, their signals will overlap and become garbled.
Or, consider that one station decides to transmit continuously for a long
period of time.
To solve these problems, stations transmit data in small blocks, known as

frames. Each frame consists of a portion of data that a station wishes to
transmit, plus a frame header that contains control information. Each station
on the bus is assigned a unique address, or identifier, and the destination
address for a frame is included in its header.
Figure 4 illustrates the concept. In this example, station C wishes to transmit

a frame of data to A. The frame header includes A’s address. As the frame
propagates along the bus, it passes B, which observes the address and
ignores the frame. A, on the other hand, sees that the frame is addressed to
itself and therefore copies the data from the frame as it goes by.
C transmits a frame addressed

A B C to A
Frame is not addressed to B;

therefore B ignores it
A B C
Frame is meant for A, therefore

A B C
A copies it
Fig. 4 Frame Transmission on a Bus LAN
So the frame structure solves the first problem mentioned above: It provides a
mechanism for indicating that who is the intended recipient of data. It also
provides the basic tool for solving the second problem, i.e. regulation of
access. In particular, the station take turns sending frames in some co-
operative fashion; this involves putting additional control information into the
frame header.
Ring Topology
In the ring topology, the network consists of a set of repeaters joined by point-
to point links in a closed loop. The repeater is a comparatively simple device,
capable of receiving data on one link and transmitting them, bit by bit, on the
other link as quickly as they are received, with no buffering at the repeater.
The links are unidirectional, i.e. data is transmitted in one direction (clockwise
or counter-clockwise).
Each station is attached to the network at a repeater and can transmit data
onto the network through that repeater.
Ring
As with the bus and tree, data is transmitted in frames. As a frame circulates past all other stations,
the destination station recognises its address and copies the frame into a local buffer as it goes by. The
frame continues to circulate until it reaches the source station, where it is ultimately removed
(Figure 5).
Because multiple stations share the ring , medium access control is needed
to determine when each station may insert frames.
C
C
A B
B A
A
A
(a) C transmits a frame (c A copies the frame

addressed to A as it goes by
C C
A
B
B
A
A
A
(b) Frame is not addressed to B

therefore B ignores it (d) C absorbs the
returning frame
Fig. 5 Frame Transmission on a Ring LAN
Star Topology
In the Star type topology, each station is directly connected to a common

central node. Typically, each station attaches to a central node, referred to as
the star coupler, via two point-to point links, one for transmission in each
direction.
In general, there are two alternatives for the operation of the central node :
One method is for the central node to operate in a broadcast fashion. The
transmission of a frame from one station to the Central Node is retransmitted
in all of the outgoing links. In this case, although the arrangement is
physically a star, it is logically a bus; a transmission from any station is
received by all other stations, and only one station at a time may transmit
(successfully).
Another method is for the central node to act as a frame switching device. An
incoming frame is buffered in the node and then retransmitted on an outgoing
link to the destination station.
Central Hub,
Switch/
Repeater
Medium Access Control

All LANs consist of a collection of devices that have to share the network’s
transmission capacity. Some means of controlling access to the transmission
medium is needed to provide for an orderly and efficient use of that capacity.
This is the function of medium access control (MAC) protocol.
The key parameters in any medium access control technique are-where and
how. Where refers to whether control is in a centralised or distributed fashion.
In a centralised scheme, a controller is designated that has the authority to
grant access to the network. A station wishing to transmit must wait until it
receives permissions from the controller. In a decentralised network, each
station collectively performs a medium access control function to dynamically
determine the order in which stations transmit. A centralised scheme has
certain advantages, such as the following :
♦ It may afford greater control over access for providing such things as
priorities, overrides, and guarantee capacity.
♦ It enables the use of relatively simple access logic at each station.
♦ It overcomes the problems of distributed co-ordination among peer
entities.
The principal disadvantages of a centralised scheme are :
♦ It creates a single point of failure

♦ It may act as a bottleneck, reducing the performance
The pros and cons of distributed schemes are mirror images of the points
made above.
The second parameter, how, is determined by the topology and is a trade-off
among competing factors such as- including cost, performance, and
complexity. Access control techniques could follow the same approach used
in circuit switching, viz. frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), and
synchronous time-division multiplexing (TDM). Such techniques are generally
not suitable for LANs because the data transmission needs of the stations are
unpredictable. It is desirable to allocate capacity in an asynchronous
(dynamic) fashion, more or less in response to immediate demand. The
asynchronous approach can be further subdivided into three categories:
round robin, reservation and contention.
Round Robin
With Round robin, each station in turn is given an opportunity to transmit.
During that period, the station may decline to transmit or may transmit subject
to a specified upper bound, usually expressed as a maximum amount of data
transmitted or time for this opportunity. In any case, the station, when it is
finished, relinquishes its turn, and the right to transmit passes to the next
station in logical sequence. Control of this sequence may be centralised or
distributed. Polling is an example of a centralised technique.
When many stations have to transmit data over an extended period of time,
round robin techniques can be very efficient. If only a few stations have data
to transmit over an extended period of time, then there is a considerable
overhead in passing the turn from station to station, as most of the stations
will not transmit but simply pass their turns. Under such circumstances, other
techniques may be preferable, largely depending on whether the data traffic
has a stream or bursty characteristic. Stream traffic is characterised by
lengthy and fairly continuous transmissions; examples are voice
communication, telemetry, and bulk file transfer. Bursty traffic is characterised
by short, sporadic transmissions, (interactive terminal-host traffic fits this
description).
Reservation
For stream traffic, reservation techniques are well suited. In general, for these
techniques, time on the medium is divided into slots, similar to synchronous
TDM. A station wanting to transmit, reserves future slots for an extended or
even an indefinite period. Again, reservations may be made in a centralised
or distributed manner.
Contention
For bursty traffic, contention techniques are more appropriate. With these
techniques, no control is required to determine whose turn it is; all stations
contend for time. These techniques are by nature distributed. Their principal
advantage is that they are simple to implement and, under light to moderate
load, quite efficient. For some of these techniques, however, performance
tends to collapse under heavy load.
Although both centralised and distributed reservation techniques have been

implemented in some LAN products, round robin and contention techniques
are the most common.
The specific access techniques are discussed further in this chapter. Table 2
lists the MAC protocols that are defined in LAN standards.
Table 2 Standardised Medium Access Control Techniques
Bus Topology Ring Topology Switched Topology

Round Token Bus (IEEE 802.4) Token Ring Request/ Priority
Robin Polling (IEEE 802.11) (IEEE 802.5 & FDDI) (IEEE 802.12)
Reservation DQDB (IEEE 802.6) - -
Contention CSMA/CD (IEEE 802.3) - CSMA/CD
CSMA (IEEE 802.11) (IEEE 802.3)
MAC Frame Format
The MAC layer receives a block of data from the LLC layer and is responsible
for performing functions related to medium access and for transmitting the
data. MAC implements these functions, by making use of protocol data unit at
its layer; in this case, the PDU is referred to as a MAC frame.
The exact format of the MAC frame differs for the various MAC protocols in
use. In general, all of the MAC frames have a format similar to that of Figure
6. The fields of this frame are :
♦ MAC control : This field contains any protocol control information
needed for the functioning of the MAC protocol. For example, a
priority level could be indicated here.
♦ Destination MAC Address : The destination physical attachment

point on the LAN for this frame.
♦ Source MAC address : The source physical attachment point on the
LAN for this frame.
MAC MAC Destination Source

Frame LLC PDU CRC
control MAC Address MAC Address
1 octet 1 or 2 Variable
LLC
PDU DSAP SSAP LLC control Information
BRBRAITT : I/G
Nov-2006 DSAP value C/R SSAP value 11
FIG. 6 LLC PDU with generic MAC Frame format.
• LLC : The LLC Data from the next higher layer.
• CRC : The cyclic redundancy check field ( also known as the frame
check sequence, FCS, field). This is an error-detecting code, as we
have seen in HDLC and other data link control protocols
In most of the data link control protocols, the data link protocol entity is
responsible not only for detecting errors using the CRC, but for recovering
from those errors by re-transmitting damaged frames. In the LAN protocol
architecture, these two functions are split between the MAC and LLC layers.
The MAC layer is responsible for detecting errors and discarding any frames
that are in error. The LLC layer optionally keeps track of which frames have
been successfully received and retransmits unsuccessful frames.
Logical Link Control
The LLC layer of LANs is similar in many respects to other link layers in
common use. Like all link layers, LLC is concerned with the transmission of a
link-level protocol data unit (PDU) between two stations, without the
necessity of an intermediate switching node. LLC has two characteristics not
shared by most other link control protocols :
♦ It must support the multi-access, shared-medium nature of the link.
♦ It is relieved of some details of link access by the MAC layer.
LLC Services
LLC specifies the mechanism for addressing stations across the medium and
for controlling the exchange of data between two users. The operation and
format of this standard is based on HDLC. Three services are provided as
alternatives for devices using LLC:
♦ Unacknowledged connection-less service. This service is a

datagram-style service. It is a very simple service that does not involve
any of the flow control and error control mechanisms. Thus the delivery
of a data is not guaranteed. However, in most devices, there will be
some higher layer of software that deals with reliability issues.
♦ Connection-mode service. This service is similar to that offered by

HDLC. A logical connection is set up between the two users
exchanging data, and flow control and error control are provided.
♦ Acknowledged connection-less service. This is a cross between the

previous two services. It provides that datagram are to be
acknowledged, but no prior logical connection is set up.
Typically, a vendor will provide these services as options that the customer
can select when purchasing the equipment. Alternatively, the customer can
purchase equipment that provides two or all three services and select a
specific service based on application.
The unacknowledged connection-less service requires minimum logic and is

useful in two contexts. Firstly, it will most often be the case that higher layers
of software will provide the necessary reliability and flow-control mechanism,
and there is no need to duplicate them. For example, either TCP or the ISO
transport protocol standard will provide the mechanisms needed to ensure
that data are delivered reliably. Secondly, there are instances in which the
overhead of connection establishment and maintenance is unjustified or even
counterproductive; for example, data collection activities that involve the
periodic sampling of data sources, such as sensors and automatic self-test
reports from security equipment or network components. In most cases, the
unacknowledged connection-less service is the preferred option.
The connection-mode service could be used in very simple devices, such as

terminal controllers, that have little software operating above this level. In
these cases, it would provide the flow control and reliability mechanism
normally implemented at higher layers of the communications software.
The acknowledged connection-less service is useful in several contexts. With

the connection-mode service, the logical link control software must maintain
some sort of table for each active connection, so as to keep track of the
status of that connection. If the user needs guaranteed delivery, but if there
are a large number of destinations for data, then the connection-mode
service may be impractical because of the large number of tables required;
an example is a process-control or automated factory environment where a
central site may need to communicate with a large number of processors and
programmable controllers; another use is the handling of important and time-
critical alarm or emergency control signals in a factory. Because of their
importance, an acknowledgement is needed so that the sender can be
assured that the signal got through. Because of the urgency of the signal, the
user might not want to take the time to first establish a logical connection and
then send the data.
BASIC NETWORK COMPONENTS
There are a number of components which are used to build networks. An

understanding of these is essential in order to support networks.
Network Adapter Cards
A network adapter card plugs into the workstation, providing the connection
to the network. Adapter cards come from many different manufacturers, and
support a wide variety of cable media and bus types such as - ISA, MCA,
EISA, PCI, PCMCIA.
New cards are software configurable, using a software programs to configure

the resources used by the card. Other cards are PNP (plug and Play), which
automatically configure their resources when installed in the computer,

simplifying the installation. With an operating system like Windows 95, auto-
detection of new hardware makes network connections simple and quick.
Cabling
Cables are used to interconnect computers and network components

together. There are 3 main cable types used today :
♦ twisted pair
♦ coax
♦ fibre optic
The choice of cable depends upon a number of factors like :
♦ cost
♦ distance
♦ number of computers involved
♦ speed
♦ bandwidth i.e. how fast data is to be transferred
REPEATERS
Repeaters extend the network segments. They amplify the incoming signal
received from one segment and send it on to all other attached segments.
This allows the distance limitations of network cabling to be extended. There
are limits on the number of repeaters which can be used. The repeater counts
as a single node in the maximum node count associated with the Ethernet
standard (30 for thin coax).
Repeaters also allow isolation of segments in the event of failures or fault

conditions. Disconnecting one side of a repeater effectively isolates the
associated segments from the network.
Using repeaters simply allows you to extend your network distance

limitations. It does not give you any more bandwidth or allow you to transmit
data faster.
Main Network Segment

Repeater
Workstation
Fig. 7 Use of Repeaters in a Network
It should be noted that in the above diagram, the network number assigned to
the main network segment and the network number assigned to the other
side of the repeater are the same. In addition, the traffic generated on one
segment is propagated onto the other segment. This causes a rise in the total
amount of traffic, so if the network segments are already heavily loaded, it's
not a good idea to use a repeater.
A repeater works at the Physical Layer by simply repeating all data from one
segment to another.
Summary of Repeater features :
♦ increases traffic on segments
♦ have distance limitations
♦ limitations on the number of repeaters that can be used
♦ propagate errors in the network
♦ cannot be administered or controlled via remote access
♦ cannot loop back to itself (must be unique single paths)
♦ no traffic isolation or filtering is possible

BRIDGES
Bridges interconnect Ethernet segments. Most bridges today support filtering

and forwarding, as well as Spanning Tree Algorithm. The IEEE 802.1D
specification is the standard for bridges.
During initialisation, the bridge learns about the network and the routes.
Packets are passed onto other network segments based on the MAC layer.
Each time the bridge is presented with a frame, the source address is stored.
The bridge builds up a table which identifies the segment to which the device
is located on. This internal table is then used to determine which segment
incoming frames should be forwarded to. The size of this table is important,
especially if the network has a large number of workstations/ servers.
Network Segment A Network Segment B
BRIDGE
Fig. 8 Use of Bridge in a Network
The diagram above shows two separate network segments connected via a
bridge. Note that each segment must have a unique network address number
in order for the bridge to be able to forward packets from one segment to the
other.
The advantages of bridges are

♦ increase the number of attached workstations and network segments
♦ since bridges buffer frames, it is possible to interconnect different

segments which use different MAC protocols
♦ since bridges work at the MAC layer, they are transparent to higher
level protocols
♦ by subdividing the LAN into smaller segments, overall reliability is

increased and the network becomes easier to maintain
♦ used for non routable protocols like NETBEUI which must be bridged
♦ help in localising the network traffic by only forwarding data onto other
segments as required (unlike repeaters)
How Bridges Work
Bridges work at the Data Link layer of the OSI model. Because they were at
this layer, all information contained in the higher levels of the OSI model is
unavailable to them, Therefore, they do not distinguish between one protocol
and another. Bridges simply pass all protocols along the network. Because all
protocols pass across bridges, it is up to individual computers to determine
which protocols they can recognise.
You may remember that the Data Link layer has two sub layers, the Logical
Link Control sub layer and the Media Access Control sub layer. Bridges work
at the Media Access Control sub layer and are sometimes referred to as
Media Access Control layer bridges.
A Media Access Control layer bridge :

♦ Listens to all traffic.
♦ Checks the source and destination addresses of each packet.
♦ Builds a routing table as information becomes available.
♦ Forwards packets in the following manner :

If the destination is not listed in the routing table, the bridges forwards the
packets to all segments, or
If the destination is listed in routing table, the bridge forwards the packets
to that segment (unless it is the same segment as the source).
A bridge works on the principle that each network node has its own address.
A bridge forwards packets based on the address of the destination node.
Bridges actually have some degree of intelligence in that they learn where to
forward data. As traffic passes through the bridge, information about the
computer addresses is stored in the bridge’s RAM. The bridge uses this RAM
to build a routing table based on source addresses.
Initially, the bridge’s routing table is empty. As nodes transmit packets, the
source address is copied to the routing table. With this address information,
the bridge learns which computers are on which segment of the network.
Creating the Routing Table
Bridges build their routing tables bases on the addresses of computers that
have transmitted data on the network. Specifically, bridges use source
addresses – the address of the device initiates the transmission – to create
routing table.
When the bridge receives a packet, the source address is compared to the
routing table. If the source address is not there, it is added to the table. The
bridge then compares the destination address with the routing table
database.
♦ If the destination address is in the routing table and is on the same

segment as the source address, the packet is described. This filtering
helps to reduce network traffic and the isolate segment of the network.
♦ If the destination address is in the routing table and not in the same
segment as the source address, the bridge forwards the packet out of
the appropriate port to reach the destination address.
♦ If the destination address is not in the routing table, the bridges

forwards the packet to all of its ports, except the one on which it is
originated.
In summary, if a bridge knows the location of the destination node, it forwards

the packet to it. If it does not know the destination, it forwards the packet to
all segments.
Segmenting Network Traffic
A bridge can segment traffic because of it s routing table. A computer on

segment 1 (the source), sends data to another computer (the destination)
also located in segment 1. If the destination address is in the routing table,
the bridge can determine that the destination computer is also on segment 1.
Because the source and the destination computers are both on segment 1,
the packet does not get forwarded across the bridge to segment 2.
Therefore, bridges can use routing tables to reduce the traffic on the network
by controlling which packets get forwarded to other segments. This
controlling (or restricting) of the flow of network traffic is known as
segmenting network traffic.
A large network is not limited to one bridge. Multiple bridges can be used to
combine several small networks into one large network.
Differentiating Between Bridges and Repeaters
Bridges work at a higher OSI layer than repeaters. This means that bridges
have more intelligence than repeaters and can take more data features into
account.
Bridges are like repeaters in that they can regenerate data, but bridges
regenerate data at the packet level. This means that bridges can send
packets over long distances using a variety of long distance media.
Bridge Considerations
Bridges have all of the features of a repeater, but also accommodate more
nodes. They provide better network performance than a repeater. Because
the network has been divided, there will be fewer computers competing for
available resources on each segment.
To look at it another way, if a large Ethernet network were divided into two
segments connected by a bridge, each new network would carry fewer
packets, have fewer collisions, and operate more efficiently. Although each of
the networks was separate, the bridge would pass appropriate traffic between
them.
Implementing Bridges
A bridge can be either a stand-alone, separate piece of equipment (an

external bridge) or it can be installed in a server. If the network operating
system supports it, one or more network cards (an internal bridge) can be
installed.
Network administrators like bridges because they are:
♦ Simple to install and transparent to users.
♦ Flexible and adaptable.
♦ Relatively inexpensive.
Summary
Consider the following when you are thinking about using bridges to expand
your network.
• Bridges have all of the features of a repeater.
• They connect two segments and regenerate the signal at the packet
level.
• They function at the Data Link layer of the OSI model.
• Bridges are not suited to WANs slower than 56K.
• They cannot take advantage of multiple paths simultaneously.

• They pass all broadcasts, possibly creating broadcast storms.
• Bridges read the source and destination of every packet.
• They pass packets with unknown destinations.
Use bridges to :
• Connect two segments to expend the length of number of nodes on the
network.
• Reduce traffic by segmenting the network.
• Connect dissimilar networks.
The disadvantages of bridges are
♦ the buffering of frames introduces network delays

♦ bridges may overload during periods of high traffic
♦ bridges which combine different MAC protocols require the frames to
be modified before transmission onto the new segment. This causes
delays
♦ in complex networks, data is not sent over redundant paths, and the
shortest path is not always taken
♦ bridges pass on broadcasts, giving rise to broadcast storms on the
network
Transparent Bridges (also known as spanning tree, IEEE 802.1 D) make all
routing decisions. The bridge is said to be transparent (invisible) to the
workstations. The bridge will automatically initialise itself and configure its
own routing information after it has been enabled.
Bridges are ideally used in environments where there a number of well

defined workgroups, each operating more or less independent of each other,
with occasional access to servers outside of their localised workgroup or
network segment. Bridges do not offer performance improvements when used
in diverse or scattered workgroups, where the majority of access occurs
outside of the local
segment.
Ideally, if workstations on network segment A needed access to a server, the

best place to locate that server is on the same segment as the workstations,
as this minimizes traffic on the other segment, and avoids the delay incurred
by the bridge.
A bridge works at the MAC Layer by looking at the destination address and
forwarding the frame to the appropriate segment upon which the destination
computer resides.
Summary of Bridge features :

♦ operate at the MAC layer (layer 2 of the OSI model)
♦ can reduce traffic on other segments
♦ broadcasts are forwarded to every segment
♦ most allow remote access and configuration
♦ often SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) enabled
♦ loops can be used (redundant paths) if using spanning tree algorithm
♦ small delays may be introduced
♦ fault tolerant by isolating fault segments and reconfiguring paths in the

event of failure
♦ not efficient with complex networks
♦ redundant paths to other networks are not used (would be useful if the
major path being used
♦ was overloaded)
♦ shortest path is not always chosen by the spanning tree algorithm
ROUTERS
In an environment consisting of several network segments with differing

protocols and architectures, a bridge may not be adequate for ensuring fast
communication among all of the segments. A network this complex needs a
device which not only knows the address of each segment, but also
determine the best path for sending data and filtering broadcast traffic to the
local segment. Such a device is called a router.
Routers work at the Network layer of the OSI model. This means they can
switch and route packets across multiple networks. They do this by
exchanging protocol-specific information between separate networks.
Routers read complex network addressing information in the packet and,
because they function at a higher layer in the OSI model than bridges, they
have access to additional information.
Routers can provide the following functions of a bridge :

♦ Filtering and isolating traffic
♦ Connecting network segments

Routers have access to more information in the packet than bridges, and use
this information to improve packet deliveries. Routers are used in complex
network situation because they provide better traffic management than

bridges and do not pass broadcast traffic. Routers can share status and
routing information with one another and use this information to bypass slow
or malfunctioning connections.
How Routers Work
The routing table found in routes contain network addresses. However, host
addresses may be kept depending on the protocol the network is running. A
router uses a table to determine the destination address for incoming data.
The table lists the following information :
♦ All known network addresses
♦ How to connect to other networks
♦ The possible path between those routers
♦ The cost of sending data over those paths
The router selects the best route for the data based on cost & available
paths.
Note : Remember that routing tables were also discussed with bridges. The
routing table maintained by a bridge contains Media Access Control sublayer
addresses for each node, while the routing table maintained by a router
contains network numbers. Even though manufacturers of these two different
types of equipment have chosen to use the term routing table, it has a
different meaning for bridge than it does for routers.
Routers require specific addresses. They only understand network numbers

which allow them to talk to other routers and local network adapter card
addresses. Routers do not talk to remote computers.
When router receives packets destined for a remote network, they send them
to the router that manages the destination network. In some ways this is an
advantage because it means routers can :
♦ Segment large networks into smaller ones.
♦ Act as safety barrier between segments.
♦ Prohibit broadcast storms, because broadcasts are not forwarded.
Because routers must perform complex functions on each packet, routers are
slower than most bridges. As packets are passed from router to router, Data
Link layer source and destination addresses are stripped off and then
recreated. This enables a router to route a packet from a TCP/IP Ethernet
network to a server on a TCP/IP Token Ring Network.
Because the routers only read addresses network packets, they will not allow
bad data to get passed on to the network. Because they do not pass the bad
data or broadcast data storms, router put little stress on networks.
Routers do not look at the destination node address; they only look at the
network address. Routers will only pass information if the network address is
known. This ability to control the data passing through the router reduces the
amount of traffic between networks and allows router to use these links more
efficiently than bridges.
Using the router addressing scheme, administrators can break one large
network into many separate networks, and because routers do not pass or
even handle every packet, they act as a safety barrier between network
segments. This can greatly reduce the amount of traffic on the network and
the wait time experienced by users.
Routable Protocols
Not all protocols work with routers. The one that are routable include :
• DECnet
• IP
• IPX
• OSI
• XNS
• DDP (AppleTalk)
Protocols which are not routable include:
• LAT (local area transport, a protocol from Digital Equipment

Corporation.)
• NetBEUI
There are routers available which can accommodate multiple protocols such
as IP and DECnet in the same network.
Packets are only passed to the network segment they are destined for.
They work similar to bridges and switches in that they filter out unnecessary
network traffic and remove it from network segments. Routers generally work
at the protocol level.
Routers were devised in order to separate networks logically. For instance, a

TCP/ IP router can segment the network based on groups of TCP/IP
addresses. Filtering at this level (on TCP/IP addresses, also known as level 3
switching) will take longer than that of a bridge or switch which only looks at
the MAC layer.
Most routers can also perform bridging functions. A major feature of routers,
because they can filter packets at a protocol level, is to act as a firewall. This
is essentially a barrier, which prevents unwanted (unauthorised) packets
either entering or leaving designated areas of the network.
Typically, an organisation which connects to the Internet will install a router

as the main gateway link between their network and the outside world. By
configuring the router with access lists (which define what protocols and what
hosts have access) this enforces security by restricted (or allowing) access to
either internal or external hosts.
For example, an internal WWW server can be allowed IP access from

external networks, but other company servers which contain sensitive data
can be protected, so that external hosts outside the company are prevented
access (you could even deny internal workstations access if required).
A router works at the Network Layer or higher, by looking at information

embedded within the data field, like a TCP/IP address, then forwards the
frame to the appropriate segment upon which the destination computer
resides.
Summary of Router features :

♦ use dynamic routing
♦ operate at the protocol level
♦ remote administration and configuration via SNMP
♦ support complex networks
♦ the more filtering done, the lower the performance
♦ provides security
♦ segment the networks logically
♦ broadcast storms can be isolated
♦ often provide bridge functions also
♦ more complex routing protocols used (such as RIP, IGRP, OSPF)
HUBS
There are many types of hubs. Passive hubs are simple splitters or
combiners that group workstations into a single segment, whereas active
hubs include a repeater function and are thus capable of supporting many
more connections.
Nowadays, with the advent of 10BaseT, hub concentrators are being very
popular. These are very sophisticated and offer significant features which
make them radically different from the older hubs which were available during
the 1980's. These 10BaseT hubs provide each client with exclusive access to
the full bandwidth, unlike bus networks where the bandwidth is shared. Each
workstation plugs into a separate port, which runs at 10 Mbps and is for the
exclusive use of that workstation, thus there is no contention to worry about
like in Ethernet.
In standard Ethernet, all stations are connected to the same network segment
in bus configuration. Traffic on the bus is controlled using CSMA (Carrier
Sense Multiple Access) protocol, and all stations share the available
bandwidth.
BACKPLANE
PORT 1 PORT 2 PORT 3 PORT 4
Fig.
9
Connecting Workstations to a Hub

10BaseT Hubs dedicate the entire bandwidth to each port (workstation). The
W/S attach to the Hub using UTP. The Hub provides a number of ports, which
are logically combined using a single backplane, which often runs at a much
higher data rate than that of the ports.
Ports can also be buffered, to allow packets to be held in case the hub or port
is busy. And, because each workstation has its own port, it does not contend
with other workstations for access, having the entire bandwidth available for
its exclusive use.
The ports on a hub all appear as one Ethernet segment. In addition, hubs can
be stacked or cascaded (using master/ slave configurations) together, to add
more ports per segment. As hubs do not count as repeaters, this is a better
solution for adding more workstations than the use of a repeater.
Hub options also include an SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)

agent. This allows the use of network management software to remotely
administer and configure the hub.
The advantages of the newer 10 BaseT hubs are :
♦ Each port has exclusive access to its bandwidth (no CSMA/ CD)
♦ Hubs may be cascaded to add additional ports
♦ SNMP managed hubs offer good management tools and statistics
♦ Utilise existing cabling and other network components
♦ Becoming a low cost solution
ETHERNET AND FAST ETHERNET (CSMA/ CD)
The most commonly used medium access control technique for bus/ tree and
star topologies is carrier-sense multiple access with collision detection
(CSMA/CD). The original baseband version of this technique was developed
by Xerox as part of the Ethernet LAN. Ethernet is currently the most popular
network architecture. This baseband architecture uses bus topology, usually

transmits at 10 Mbps, and relies on CSMA/CD to regulate traffic on the main
cable segment. The Ethernet specification performs the same functions as
the OSI physical and Data Link Layer of data communications. This design is
the basis of IEEE’s 802.3 specification.
Ethernet Features
Ethernet media is passive which means it draws power from the computer
and thus will not fail unless the media is physically cut or improperly
terminated.
The following list summarizes Ethernet features :
♦ Traditional topology Linear Bus

♦ Other Topologies Star Bus
♦ Type of Architecture Baseband
♦ Access Method CSMA/ CD
♦ Specifications IEEE 802.3
♦ Transfer Speed 10 Mbps or 100 Mbps
♦ Cable Types Thicknet, Thinnet, UTP
IEEE 802.3 Medium Access Control
It would be easier to appreciate the operation of CSMA/ CD if we look first at
some of the earlier schemes from which CSMA/ CD evolved.
Precursors
CSMA/ CD and its precursors can be termed random access, or contention,

techniques. They are random access in the sense that there is no predictable
or scheduled time for any station to transmit; station transmissions are
ordered randomly. They exhibit contention in the sense that stations contend
for time on the medium.
The earlier of these techniques, known as ALOHA, was developed for packet
radio networks. However it is applicable to any shared transmission medium.
ALOHA, or pure ALOHA as it is sometimes called, is a true free-for-all.
Whenever a station has a frame to send, it does so. The station then listens
for an amount of time equal to the maximum possible round-trip propagation
delay on the network (twice the time it takes to send a frame between the two
most widely separated stations) plus a small fixed time increment. If the
station hears an acknowledgment during that time, fine; otherwise, it re-sends
the frame. If the station fails to receive an acknowledgment after repeated
transmissions, it gives up. A receiving station determines the correctness of
an incoming frame by examining a frame check-sequence field, as in HDLC.
If the frame is valid and if the destination address in the frame header
matches the receiver’s address, the station immediately sends an
acknowledgment. The frame may be invalid due to noise on the channel or
because another station transmitted a frame at about the same time. In the
latter case, the two frames may interface with each other at the receiver so
that neither gets through; this is known as collision. If a received frame is
determined to be invalid, the receiving station simply ignores the frame.
Description of CSMA/ CD
CSMA, although more efficient than ALOHA or slotted ALOHA, still has one
glaring inefficiency : when two frames collide, the medium remains unusable
for the duration of transmission of both damaged frames. For long frames,
compared to propagation time, the amount of wasted capacity can be
considerable. This waste can be reduced if a station continues to listen to the
medium while transmitting.
This leads to the following rules for CSMA/ CD :
1. If the medium is idle, transmit; otherwise, go to step 2.

2. If the medium is busy, continue to listen until the channel is idle, then
transmit immediately.
3. If a collision is detected during transmission, transmit a brief jamming
signal to assure that all stations know that there has been a collision and
then cease transmission.
4. After transmitting the jamming signal, wait a random amount of time, then
attempt to transmit again. (Repeat from step 1.)
Figure 10 below illustrates the techniques for a baseband bus. At time t0,
station A begins transmitting a packet addressed to D. At t1, both B and C are
ready to transmit. B senses a transmission and so defers. C, however, is still
unaware of A’s transmission and begins its own transmission. When A’s
transmission reaches C, at t2, C detects the collision and cases transmission.
The effect of the collision propagates back to A, where it is detected some
time later, t3, at which time A ceases transmission.
t0
A B C D
t1
A B C D
t2
A B C D
t3
A B C D
Fig. 10 CSMA/ CD operation
With CSMA/CD, the amount of wasted capacity is reduced to the time it takes
to detect a collision. Question : how long does that take? Let us consider the
first case of a baseband bus and consider the two stations as far apart as
possible. For example, in the above figure, suppose that station A begins a
transmission and that just before that transmission reaches D, D is ready to
transmit. Because D is not yet aware of A’s transmission, it begins to transmit.

A collision occurs almost immediately and is recognized by D. However, the
collision must propagate all the way back to A before A is aware of the
collision. By this line of reasoning, we conclude that the amount of time that it
takes to detect a collision is no greater than twice the end-to-end propagation
delay.
For a broadband bus, the delay is even longer. Figure 11 shows the dual-
cable system. This time, the worst case occurs for two stations as close
together as possible as far as possible for the headend. In this case, the
maximum time to detect a collision is four times the propagation delay from
an end of the cable to the head-end.
t0
A B
A begins transmission
t1 A B
B begins transmission just before leading edge of A’s packet arrives at B’s receiver;
B almost immediately detects A’s transmission and cases its own transmission.
t2 A B
A detects collision
Fig. 11 Broadband collision detection timing
An important rule followed in most CSMA/ CD systems, including the IEEE

standard, is that frame should be long enough to allow collision detection
prior to the end of transmission. If shorter frames are used, then collision
detection does not occur, and CSMA/CD exhibits the same performance as
the less efficient CSMA protocol.
Although the implementation of CSMA/ CD is substantially the same for the

baseband and broadband, there are differences. One is the means for
performing carrier sense; for baseband systems, this is done by detecting a
voltage pulse train. For broadband, the RF carrier is detected.
Collision detection also differs for the two systems. For baseband, a collision
should produce substantially higher voltage swings than those produced by a
single transmitter. Accordingly, the IEEE standard dictates that the transmitter
will detect a collision of the signal on the cable at the transmitter tap point
exceeds the maximum that could be produced by the transmitter alone.
Because a transmitted signal attenuates as it propagates, there is a potential
problem: If two stations far apart are transmitting, each station will receive a
greatly attenuated signal from the other. The signal strength could be so
small that when it is added to the transmitted signal at the transmitted tap
point, the combined signal does not exceed the CD threshold. For this
reason, among others, the IEEE standard restricts the maximum length of
coaxial cable to 500 m for 10BASE5 and 200m for 10BASE2.
A much simpler collision detection scheme is possible with the twisted pair
star-topology approach. In this case, collision detection is based on logic
rather than on sensing voltage magnitudes. For any hub, if there is activity
(signal) on more than one input, a collision is assumed. A special signal
called the collision presence signal is generated. This signal is generated
and sent out as long as activity is sensed on any of the input lines. This
signal is interpreted by every node as an occurrence of a collision.
There are several possible approaches to collision detection in broadband

systems. The most common of these is to perform a bit-by-bit comparison
between transmitted and received data. When a station transmits on the
inbound channel, it begins to receive its own transmission on the outbound
channel after a propagation delay to the head-end and back. Note the
similarity to a satellite link. Another approach, for split systems, is for the
head-end to perform detection based on garbled data.
MAC Frame
Figure 12 depicts the frame format for the 802.3 protocol; it consists of the
following fields :
• Preamble : A 7-octet pattern of alternating 0s and 1s used by the
receiver to establish bit synchronization.
• Start frame delimiter : The sequence 10101011, which indicates the

actual start of the frame and which enables the receiver to locate first
bit of the rest of the frame.
• Destination address (DA) : Specifies the station(s) for which the

frame is intended. It may be unique physical address, a group
address, or a global address. The choice of the 16- or 48-bit address
length is a implementation decision, and must be the same for all

stations on a particular LAN.
• Source address (SA) : Specifies the station that sent the frame.
• Length : Length of the LLC data field.
• LLC data : Data unit supplied by LLC.
• Pad : Octets added to ensure that the frame is long enough for proper
CD operation.
• Frame check sequence (FCS). A 32-bit cyclic redundancy check,
based on all fields except the preamble, the SFD, and the FCS.
Octets
Preamble SFD DA SA Length LLC Pad FCS
Data
LEGEND
SFD = Start frame delimiter SA = Source address

DA = Destination address FCS = Frame-check sequence
FIG. 12 IEEE 802.3 Frame Format.
Introduction to Wireless LAN

A wireless local area network (LAN) utilizes radio frequency (RF) as an
alternative for a wired LAN. Wireless LANs transmit and receive data over the
air, without the use of any cable, combining the benefits of data connectivity
and user mobility.
Need for Wireless LAN
The widespread reliance on networking in business and the explosive growth
of the Internet reveal the benefits of shared data and shared resources. With
wireless LANs, users can access shared information and resources without
looking for a place to plug in, and network managers can set up networks
without installing or moving wires. Wireless LANs provide all the functionality
of wired LANs with the following benefits:
Mobility: Wireless LANs can provide users with access to real-time
information and resources anywhere in their organization through designated
access points. This freedom to "roam" increases employee productivity as
they move throughout the building.
Installation Speed and Simplicity: Installing a wireless LAN system can be
fast and easy and eliminates the need to pull cable through walls and
ceilings.
Installation flexibility: Wireless technology allows the network to go where
wires cannot go.
Scalability: Configurations for wireless LANs are easily changed and range
from peer-to-peer networks suitable for a small number of users to full
infrastructure networks of thousands of users that enable roaming over a
broad area. Adding a user to the network is as simple as equipping a PC or
laptop with a wireless LAN adapter card or USB device.
Types of Applications Using Wireless Technology

The following list describes some of the many applications made possible
through the power and flexibility of wireless LANs:
Corporate environment
1. Growing businesses in leased office space can avoid the
need for expensive network wiring.
2. Users collaborating on a project can quickly set up a
peer-to-peer LAN to share files and peripherals.
3. Employees can take advantage of mobile networking for
e-mail, Internet access, and file sharing regardless of
where they are in the office.
4. Network managers in dynamic environments minimize
the overhead caused by moves, extensions to networks
and other changes with wireless LANs.
5. Training sites at corporations can use wireless
connectivity to make it easy to access information, and
learning.
6. Network managers installing networked computers in
older buildings find that wireless LANs are a cost-
effective network infrastructure solution.
7. Branch office workers minimize setup requirements by
installing pre-configured wireless LANs needing no local
MIS support.
8. Warehouse workers use wireless LANs to exchange
information with central databases, thereby increasing
productivity.
9. Network managers implement wireless LANs to provide
backup for mission-critical applications running on wired
networks.
10.Senior executives in meetings make quicker decisions
because they have real-time information at their
fingertips.
Education
Mobile students and teachers with notebook computers can connect to the
university network for collaborative class discussions and to the Internet for
e-mail and Internet access.
Finance
Teams of auditors or consultants can set up small secure networks at client
locations.
Healthcare
Doctors and nurses in hospitals are more productive when utilizing
notebook computers with wireless LAN adapters to deliver patient
information instantly.
Types of Wireless LAN Technology
When evaluating wireless LAN solutions, there are a number of technologies
to choose from. Each comes with its own set of advantages and limitations:
Narrowband Technology
A narrowband radio system transmits and receives user information on
a specific radio frequency. Narrowband radio keeps the radio signal
frequency as narrow as possible just to pass the information.
Undesirable crosstalk between communications channels is avoided
by coordinating different users on different channel frequencies. The
drawback to this type of technology is that the end-user must obtain an
FCC license for each site where it is employed.
Spread Spectrum Technology
Most wireless LAN systems use spread-spectrum technology, a
wideband radio frequency technique developed by the military for use
in reliable, secure, mission-critical communications systems. Spread-
spectrum is designed to trade off bandwidth efficiency for reliability,
integrity and security. In other words, more bandwidth is consumed to
produce a louder and thus easier to detect broadcast signal. The
drawback to this technology is when the receiver is not tuned to the
right frequency, a spread-spectrum signal looks like background noise.
There are two types of spread spectrum radio: frequency hopping and
direct sequence:
Frequency-hopping Spread Spectrum Technology – (FHSS) uses a
narrowband carrier that hops among several frequencies at a specific
rate and sequence as a way of avoiding interference. Properly
synchronized, the net effect is to maintain a single logical channel. To
an unintended receiver, FHSS appears to be short-duration impulse
noise.
Direct-Sequence Spread Spectrum Technology – (DSSS) uses a
radio transmitter to spread data packets over a fixed range of the
frequency band. To an unintended receiver, DSSS appears as low-
power wideband noise and is rejected by most narrowband receivers.
The interoperability standard IEEE 802.11b is focusing on utilizing 11M
bps high rate DSSS technology as the standard for wireless networks.
Infrared Technology – little used in commercial wireless LANs,
infrared (IR) systems use very high frequencies, just below visible light
in the electromagnetic spectrum, to carry data.
How do Wireless LANs Work?

Wireless LANs use radio airwaves to communicate information from one
point to another without relying on any physical connection. Radio waves are
often referred to as radio carriers because they simply perform the function of
delivering energy to a remote receiver. The data being transmitted is
superimposed (modulated) on the radio carrier so that it can be accurately
extracted at the receiving end.
In a typical wireless LAN configuration, a transmitter/receiver device, called
an access point (AP), connects to the wired network from a fixed location
using standard cabling. The access point serves as a communications "hub"
that receives, buffers, and transmits data between the wireless clients and
the wired LAN. A single access point can support a small group of users and
can function within a range of less than one hundred to several hundred feet.
The access point (or antenna attached to the access point) is usually
mounted high but may be mounted essentially anywhere that is practical as
long as the desired radio coverage is obtained.
End users access the wireless LAN through wireless LAN adapters. These
are mostly implemented as PC cards in notebook computers, PCI cards in
desktop computers or as USB devices. Wireless LAN adapters provide an
interface between the client network operating system (NOS) and the
airwaves via an antenna.
Some Typical Wireless LAN Configurations
Peer-to-Peer Network (Ad-Hoc Mode)

The most basic wireless LAN consists of two PCs equipped with wireless
adapter cards that form an independent network whenever they are within a
range of one another. On-demand networks, such as this example, require no
administration or preconfiguration. In this case, each client would only have
access to the resources of the other client and not to a central server. This
wireless LAN setup is sometimes called an Ad-Hoc network.
Client and Access Point (Infrastructure Mode)
Installing an access point allows each client to have access to shared

resources as well as to other clients. The access point connects to the wired
network from a fixed location using standard cabling. Each access point can
accommodate many clients (up to 16 with the Multi-Tech RouteFinder
RF802EW); the specific number depends on the number and nature of the
transmissions involved. This wireless LAN setup is sometimes called
Infrastructure Mode.
Multiple Access Points and Roaming
Access points have a finite range for transmission -- around 100 meters (328
feet) indoors and 300 meters (984 feet) outdoors. In a very large facility such
as a warehouse, or on a college campus, it will probably be necessary to
install more than one access point. Access point positioning is accomplished
by means of a site survey. The goal is to blanket the coverage area with
overlapping coverage cells so that clients might range throughout the area
without ever losing network contact. The ability of clients to move seamlessly
among a cluster of access points is called roaming. Access points hand the
client off from one to another in a way that is invisible to the client, ensuring
unbroken connectivity.
IEEE 802.11 Standard fro Wireless LAN

802.11 is a set of specifications for LANs (Local Area Networks) from the
Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE). 802.11 defines the
standard for wireless LANs encompassing three incompatible (non-
interoperable) technologies: Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS),
Direct Sequence Speed Spectrum (DSSS) and Infrared. The standard
promises multi-vendor interoperability among products utilizing the same
technology.
More recently ratified is a version of the 802.11 standard, called 802.11b High
Rate. This standard is based on DSSS at 11M bps. 2M bps 802.11 DSSS
systems will be able to co-exist with 11M bps 802.11b HR systems, enabling
a smooth transition to the higher data rate technology. (This is similar to
migrating from 10M bps Ethernet to 100M bps Ethernet, enabling a large
performance improvement while maintaining the same protocol).
Operating Range
Transmission distance will differ according to the conditions of the
surroundings. Access points have a finite wireless operating range up to 300
meters (984 feet) outdoors and up to 100 meters (328 feet) indoors, but the
actual range will vary. It is best to try and place the access point in a location
near the center of the wireless work environment with as few obstructions as
possible between the wireless clients and the access point.
Can Transmission possible Through a Wall?
Transmitting through a wall is possible. However, the wall must be made of
material that allows the passage of radio waves. In general, metals and
concrete do not allow radio waves to pass through. Metals reflect radio waves
and concrete attenuates radio waves.
Effect of Wireless Transmission on Other Equipments
Wireless LAN products that comply with the IEEE 802.11b standard will not
interfere with cell phones, 900 MHz cordless phones, television, radio, etc.
However, since microwave ovens and 2.4GHz cordless phones use the same
frequency band, communication may be affected if they are used near
wireless LAN equipment.
Effects of Wireless Technology on the Human Body
Wireless LAN products that comply with the IEEE 802.11b are in line with the
standards and guidelines of the FCC and will not affect the human body.
Type of Security is Available for Wireless LAN
WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy a.k.a. Wireless Encryption Protocol) is data
encryption defined by the 802.11 standard that was designed to prevent access to the
network by "intruders" using similar wireless LAN equipment and to prevent the
capture of wireless LAN traffic through eavesdropping. WEP allows the administrator
to define a set of respective "Keys" for each wireless network user based on a "Key
String" passed through the WEP encryption algorithm. Access is denied by anyone
who does not have an assigned key. WEP comes in 40/64-bit and 128-bit encryption
key lengths.

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LAN TECHNOLOGIES

“DATA NETWORKS” JTOs PH-II – LAN Technologies

Networking means interconnection of computers. These computers can be

The basic reasons why computers need to be networked are :

♦ to share resources (files, printers, modems, fax machines etc.)

♦ to share application software (MS Office, Adobe Publisher etc.)

♦ increase productivity (makes it easier to share data amongst users)

♦ physically limited distance (< 2km)

♦ high bandwidth (> 1mbps)

♦ inexpensive cable media (coax or twisted pair)

♦ data and hardware sharing between users

♦ owned by the user

The factors that determine the nature of a LAN are :

♦ Medium access control technique

The layered protocol concept can be employed to describe the

OSI Reference Model

Presentation IEEE 802

Token Round Token Token DQDB CSMA;p

CSMA/CD bus robin; ring ring olling

Baseband Baseband Unshielded Shielded Optical fiber; Optical fiber; Infrared;

coaxial twisted pair; twisted pair; spectrum;

Figure 2 illustrates the relationship between the various levels of the

LLC LLC layer

MAC MAC MAC layer

Fig. 2 LAN Protocol Architecture

Bus and Tree Topologies

Bus and Tree topologies are characterised by the use of a multi-point

Fig. 3 (a) Bus

Fig. 3 (b) Tree

The tree topology is a generalisation of the bus topology. The transmission

However, there are two problems in this arrangement. First, since a

To solve these problems, stations transmit data in small blocks, known as

Figure 4 illustrates the concept. In this example, station C wishes to transmit

C transmits a frame addressed

Frame is not addressed to B;

Frame is meant for A, therefore

Fig. 4 Frame Transmission on a Bus LAN

(a) C transmits a frame (c A copies the frame

(b) Frame is not addressed to B

In the Star type topology, each station is directly connected to a common

Medium Access Control

♦ It creates a single point of failure

Although both centralised and distributed reservation techniques have been

Table 2 Standardised Medium Access Control Techniques

Bus Topology Ring Topology Switched Topology

MAC Frame Format

♦ Destination MAC Address : The destination physical attachment

MAC MAC Destination Source

FIG. 6 LLC PDU with generic MAC Frame format.

• LLC : The LLC Data from the next higher layer.

Logical Link Control

♦ It must support the multi-access, shared-medium nature of the link.

♦ It is relieved of some details of link access by the MAC layer.

♦ Unacknowledged connection-less service. This service is a

♦ Connection-mode service. This service is similar to that offered by

♦ Acknowledged connection-less service. This is a cross between the

The unacknowledged connection-less service requires minimum logic and is

The connection-mode service could be used in very simple devices, such as

The acknowledged connection-less service is useful in several contexts. With

BASIC NETWORK COMPONENTS

There are a number of components which are used to build networks. An

Network Adapter Cards

New cards are software configurable, using a software programs to configure