World Comparative Politics

WORLD COMPARATIVE POLITICS
THE POLITICAL SYSTEM OF SWITZERLAND
The Political System of Switzerland

Residency Pre-Assignment World Comparative Politics
Submitted to Dr. Michael Leube By Tabea Hirzel In partial fulfilment of the requirement for the World Comparative Politics Course SMC University Vienna, January 25, 2010
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THE POLITICAL SYSTEM OF SWITZERLAND Abstract
Switzerland could be considered as what David Sloan Wilson and Elliott Sober defined a trait group (1994). This is not a thesis proposal to consider multilevel selection as the main foundation of a countries constitution. In the case of Switzerland where a common genetic pool and common culture can only be defined in a highly contradictory way Wilson & Sobers theory offers a background that gives the Helvetian phenomenon a possibility to be understood from a socio-political point of view.
Index Abstract ................................................................................................................................. - 2 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... - 3 Origins ................................................................................................................................... - 3 Prehistory .......................................................................................................................... - 3 Celtic Tribes ...................................................................................................................... - 4 Roman Empire................................................................................................................... - 4 Frank and German Empire ................................................................................................ - 5 The Ancient Rgime.......................................................................................................... - 6 The Helvetic ...................................................................................................................... - 7 Birth of a Democracy ........................................................................................................ - 7 Todays political system ........................................................................................................ - 8 Brief constitutional history ................................................................................................ - 8 The constitution ................................................................................................................. - 8 Political bodies .................................................................................................................. - 9 Federal Supreme Court .................................................................................................. - 9 Swiss Federal Council ................................................................................................. - 10 Swiss National Council ............................................................................................... - 10 Council of the States ................................................................................................... - 10 Decision making process ................................................................................................. - 11 Analysis Strengthes and Weakness ..................................................................................... - 11 Strengthes ........................................................................................................................ - 11 Weakness ......................................................................................................................... - 12 People and the Government ................................................................................................ - 12 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... - 13 Bibliography ........................................................................................................................ - 13 -2-
Introduction 1882 Ernst Renan defined: Switzerland is not a nation based on ethnical, religious, linguistic or cultural identity but is rather understood as a voluntary association of independent, autonomous republics and former city states that by free will agree to cooperate. (Renan, 1882); A theory that is largely accepted since then. But what led to this voluntary association and to the redaction of the Swiss constitution (Bundesverfassung) and the creation of Switzerland as a nation state in 1848, almost forty years earlier? Answers shall be found analysing the social-psychological process (Deschamps, Pez, Pennebaker, & et al., 2006) carefully looking into the history of Switzerland and its constitution, considering the fact history is never unbiased (Romanowski, 1996). This is therefore the version of the author of this paper, a Swiss national herself.
Origins The territory of modern Switzerland was built very late in the Tertiary of the Neozoic by the tectonic formation of the continents, when the African the European tectonic plates crushed together around 65 Mio years ago. This was the birth of the Alps, the mountains crossing all Switzerland and covering around 70% of its territory. First human activities are dated back to 150.000 to 100.000 BD years, rather late comparing to the estimation of 2 Mio years for the first (wo)men in Africa, but some of the first human traces in Europe. Prehistory Prehistory was an active time in terms of culture and activity in this area. Starting with the Palaeolithic around 18.000 to 8.000 BD, rich in stone carvings and archaeological findings of -3-
cave settling, followed by the Megalith culture and lake border settlings found all over the Middle Lands and Western Switzerland during the Mesolithic around 3.000 to 1.800 over the middle lands and Western Switzerland continuously evolving through the Neolithic bronze time, marked through trade between divers Celtic tribes settling in Switzerland and Greek and Roman tribes, especially the Etruscans. The prehistoric time ended 800 BD with the first written texts by the Helvetii, the strongest of the Alpine Celtic tribes. Celtic Tribes The Helvetii were one of the Celtic tribes that lived in this area apart from the Bojii, Rauracii and Raetii and well for being fierce soldiers (Gaius Iulius Caesar, 57 BD). In the middle of crossing migration routes of several Celtic tribes their culture belonged to the Hallstead culture from southern Germany and Austria and later La Tne culture centred in Western Switzerland and France. During the Roman Empire the Helvetii highly intensified their trade with Rome and Greece and the first city Aventicum was assumingly build as trade centre. The result was an unbalanced growth in population of the Helvetii. No exact sources are left about what they actually motivated in 58 BD to move from the Middle Lands northwards to the area of Bibracte, todays Autun in Burgundy, France. Their lifestyle was described by Caesar as in ongoing conflict with the other Celtic tribes, pushing them away from pasting lands or robbing them their goods. A known fact is that 300.000 Helvetii confronted Caesar in Bibracte, which is an extremely high number for those times considering that until the beginning of the 18 Century the total Swiss population was only 1.2 Million (Hunziker, 2005). This was probably the emigration of the whole Helvetii tribe and build an important threat to the Roman Empire, the Helvetic Rauracii a Roman, friendly tribe lived in this area, which by then was under Roman protection and an important trade centre. Whatever the motivation of the Helvetii was to leave Switzerland, they were defeated by Caesar. Four important outcomes resulted from this even; it was politically effective for Ceasar to win a battle against an unbeatable tribe and promoted his own political plans, the Helvetii had to return to Switzerland and learnt that outside their territory their change for survival was less, Switzerland became part of the Roman Empire as Gallica Belgica and later under the name of Germania Superior. The Helvetii culture already mingled with Roman and Greek influences became romanised. Roman Empire The Roman occupation had many advantages for the Helvetic tribes. The Romans used their strategy of a federal administration also in Switzerland and recognizing their bellicose -4-
abilities by hiring them for the Roman military. This should become an important source of wealth for the Swiss people until the 19th Century. Since the northern limes had already moved southwards, due to the Germanic and Alemanic pressure, the frontier of the Roman Empire was now crossing the northern border of Switzerland and Augusta Raurica (Augst, CH), Acquae (Baden, CH), Salodurum (Solothurn, CH), Leosonna (Lausanne, CH), Geneva (Geneva, CH), Turicum (Zurich, CH) and Curia (Chur, CH) where built in the time between 44 and 15 BD in order to protect the frontiers and as commercial centres. Part of the Roman military strategy was also the building of a sophisticated transport network. Thus the first pass way through mountains over the St. Bernhard was built in 47 BD and connected the limes with the roman capital. It was also the way which chose Hannibal Barca, originating from Carthage in todays Tunisia and leaded in 218 BD Gaulo-Carthaginian invasion against the Roman Empire through the Alps. Until 250 AD the Helvetii lived a quiet live and many fortifications were in decay when 260 AD the Alemannic tribes attacked. Rome already involved in several battles fighting uplifting tribes in the provinces sent the Theban Legion to protect the frontiers. Its existence and its legendary origin in Egypt are rather debated in todays history. Nevertheless, its part of the founding myth of many important Swiss locations, including Zurich where Christinan soldiers from the Theban legion started in 286 AD the Christianization of St. Maurice and Turicum (Zurich, CH), two cities that welcomed this new religion as rebellion against the re-installed Caesar cult. After further attacks by the Alemannic the Romans leave Switzerland in 401, nine years before the official end of the Roman Empire. Frank and German Empire Switzerland becomes occupied by Germanic Ostrogoth and Alemannic Tribes until 439 the Burgundy Kings pushe the Alemannic back and make Geneva the capital of their Kingdom in 496 under King Chlodwig. Until the seventh Century Switzerland belongs to the Frank Empires, devided in Gaus, sort of autonomous provinces, and peacefully passes over to the Holy Roman Empire Germany established by Charlemagne descendent of the Franks. Christianization goes on throughout these period promoted by Irish monks who establish several important monasteries in Switzerland (Dissentis, Reichenau, St. Gallen). In 888 Switzerland becomes an independent Kingdom called High-Burgundy, with the capital in Geneva. This is where the idea of a unified people that share their destiny and their interests slowly evolves emphasized by severe attacks from the Hungarians and Saracens (Spanish) during the 10th Century and is enforced when Switzerland is integrated again into -5-
the German Empire in 1033. With the Zhringer heritage of the Burgundy empire a new era starts. Several local aristocrats take over the power in Switzerland Zhringer, Welfen, Salier, Walser, Toggenburger, Kyburger, Habsburger, Staufer, Landenberger and Bonstetter are the first names related to the early local governments of city states and land states, still deeply connected politically and through family relations with the houses of the German, the Habsburg and the Franks as well as their descendants. The Ancient Rgime The following centuries are marked by battles for the independence from these large Kingdoms, blood feuds between the families in power leading towards a high monopolization of power in the hands of few families, fights between different city states for economic and political reasons, fights between the cities and the land states mostly due to economic and legal inequalities between the classes of the highly hierarchical social system lead by an Aristocracy and the Ministerial and further religious differences by the mostly catholic regions in rural central Switzerland and the reformed city states Base, Bern, St. Gallen, Toggenburg, Geneva and Zurich. The Swiss understand themselves as a loose bond of independent states, officially confirmed in 1291 by the political confederation of the Central Swiss States in the Bundesbrief and the Confederation of The Little States by Bern, Biel, Murten and Solothurn, supported by several contractual agreements with the remaining states. This date counts today as the official historic date of the foundation of Switzerland. Known as the Acient Rgime this political system and the related bellicose conflicts go on until 1815. The possibility of free agreements with foreign governments and the fame of the Swiss as fierce soldiers, supported by several extremely cruel battles between confederates motivated an intense activity of mercenaries which led to enormous wealth but also death and suffering. Ever more often it happened that Swiss were fighting on both sides of a battle. For this reason is abolished with the end of the Swiss guard during the French revolution in 1815. During almost thousand years the Swiss had suffered many conflicts in finding a common identity and peaceful settling of their disagreements, but they also had known not to get involved into any international conflict in none of the devastating conflicts from The 100 Years war, The thirty years war until World War I and II had Switzerland been involved. They had learnt how to defend their frontiers, which remained more or less unchanged, and to live in peace with their neighbours. Now, they had to find the inner peace.
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THE POLITICAL SYSTEM OF SWITZERLAND The Helvetic
Whit the so called Helvetic epoch starts. This period begins with numerous revolutions from the rural people against cities governors and landlords, called Brgermeister and Landvogt. Even their certainly have been cases of injustices, these uplifting are neither understood as motivated by economic reasons nor by sufferings (Bning, 1998). The main inspiration was an ideological one imported by the French revolution and the ideas of Jean Jacques Rousseaus (Genf 1712-1778) Contract Social published in 1762 and promoting the idea of the will of the people, as well as the foundation of public schools in 1775 by Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746-1827). Remarkable is, that, even though 90% if the military came from the rural areas, these revolutions all failed and remained rather small (Holzhey & Zurbuchen, 1997). Probably, one of the most important reasons for this was the correct analysis of the political situation in the folk by the Aristocratic elite. Thus, they themselves proposed a democratic system which could be accepted by all people and should maintain Switzerland as a Confederation (Simon, 1998). By this the old Regime maintained its power and could chose its role in the new system freely influencing the unavoidable changes going on all over Europe. In 1813 the liberal constitution of the Cantons was set up, 1815 the Swiss Neutrality was confirmed again and 1833 even the Catholic Church was democratized. This led finally to the Bundesverfassung in 1848, based on the Constitution of the United States, and the recognition of Switzerland as a modern state country with its special form of direct democracy and confederal organization as we know it today. Birth of a Democracy The political evolution of Switzerland is special in many aspects. From a middle age feudal system it jumped directly into a modern democracy where minorities have the highest possible respect and the voice of each citizen is highly valued, balancing opposing ideas and conflicting interests the best way know so far. Being one of the most bellicose tribes it converted to one of the most peaceful ones, not involved in any bellicose activity since 1815. This did not happen due to a voluntary pacifism, Switzerland counts 78,2 fit soldiers out of a population of 1000. However, the strength of the Swiss military force as one of the first in the world is probably rather a myth going back to its Roman-Celtic history than to real current facts. Since 1873 Switzerland converted into a leading industrial power. During a long period of their history the Swiss managed to integrate foreign cultures and new knowledge in a way that maintained its people unified and gave them a common identity. Today, Switzerland counts four official languages with equal rights and lacks a single language as common denominator. Even though most Swiss speak English, many of them would also speak the -7-
language of other parts. The phenomenon of identity building in Switzerland is still not fully understood and leads to political tensions under crisis reviving the issue of over population (bervlkerung) since the plague in 1348 and several trackings of the Jews.
Todays political system Brief constitutional history The constitution of Switzerland is born from a large and complex process over more than 700 years. Starting with the first confederate agreement in 1291, The Charta of Schwyz, a document of political self-organization followed by the Charta of Sempach in 1391 establishing trade agreements and religious independence, the Stanser Verkommnis by 8 States in 1481 to order conflicts between rural areas ant the cities (Bauernkrieg), the 13States-Union in 1513, The Peace of Basel in 1499 after the Swabian War receiving political autonomy, the Treaty of Westphalia in 1684 after the Thirty years War, a rather failed mediation by Napoleon in 1798 who tried to resolve internal conflicts of the Swiss Gaus by a imposed constitution, The Congress of Vienna with the confirmation of neutrality in 1815 culminating in the creation of Switzerland as a nation state with its Confederate Constitution (Bundesverfassung) in 1884. The constitution This defines Switzerland a multi-party, federal parliamentary direct democratic republic whereby
the Federal council of Switzerland is the head of government, the so called federalist system
(Fderalismus). The modern constitution is based on the Constitution of the United States of America and the French Constitution highly influenced by the related philosophies of Jean Jacques Rousseau, et al. The referendum is established since 1874 where only 100.000 people can initiate at any time a general survey to change any law, including the constitution. Here the Swiss law contradicts the Public International Law. The constitutional law is the highest order of law and cannot be contradicted by any cantonal or local law. However, decisions of the Federal Assembly go before the constitution. There is now judicial review. The democratic decision process is higher valued than the state of law (Rechtsstaat) true to Rousseaus idea of the will of the people (Rousseau, 1762). Fundamental rights in the Constitution of the Swiss Confederation (Federal Decree 1998, 1999) are human dignity (Art. 7), right for live and personal freedom (Art. 10), protection of privacy (Art. 13), right of marriage and family (Art. 14), freedom of religion and conscience -8-
(Art. 15), freedom of opinion and information (Art. 16), freedom of media (Art. 17), freedom of speech (Art. 18), freedom of science (Art. 20), freedom of art (Art. 21) and assembly (Art. 22), freedom of association (Art. 23), freedom of residence (Art. 24), protection against deportation (Art. 25), guarantee of private property (Art. 26), freedom of economic activity (Art. 27) and freedom of coalition (Art. 28). Many further rights are defined in detail. Political bodies The political bodies are the Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland (Bundesgericht), the Swiss Federal Council with 7 councillors and two Chambers of equal rights; the Swiss Council of States similar to the US upper house and the National Council comparable to the US lower house. An important point is that with very little exception both military and political bodies are built from normal citizens with normal jobs and lives. This is considered as the system of Militia which guarantees the highest possible independence. There is no direct economic interest in entering these institutions.
Figure 1: Source from Wikipedia
Federal Supreme Court According to the Constitution of Switzerland, the court has jurisdiction over violations of federal law, public international law, inter-cantonal law, cantonal constitutional rights, -9-
autonomy of municipalities, and other guarantees granted by the Cantons to public corporate bodies and federal and cantonal provisions and political rights (Wikipedia, 2010). Because of an emphasis on direct democracy through referendum, the Constitution precludes the court from reviewing acts of the Federal Parliament, unless such review is specifically provided for by statute (Wikipedia, 2010). Swiss Federal Council This is executive council of Switzerland composed of seven members. Its responsibilities are the federal administration and serving as the representative head of the states is leaded according to the norms of collegiality, spectral representation and political balance. Swiss National Council The Nation Council elects the President of the National Council, proposes laws and reviews laws from the Council of the States, and publishes laws for the obligatory and facultative referendum. Distribution according to fractions with its German denomination are Sozialdemokratische Fraktion, Grne Fraktion, Fraktion CVP/EVP/glp, FDP-Liberale Fraktion, Fraktion der Brgerlich-Demokratischen Partei, Fraktion der Schweizerischen Volkspartei, without fraction whose evolution in percentages are shown in the table down here (Wikipedia, 2010):
Council of the States Also called Stckli which means residency of the elder because of the high percentage of elder politicians, 2 of each canton (1 for half-cantons), elected by simple-majority.
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Elects the President of the Council of the States (1 year-turn), without advice by their cantons! Proposes laws and reviews laws from the National Council, publishes laws for the obligatory and facultative referendum. Decision making process The decision making process starts usually with the law making Council of the States or National Council and is presented to the people for referendum. The other possibility is a public initiative of 50.000 signatures (100.000 in case of constitutional law) wich will be presented to the National Assembly of the Council of the States and the National Council and given to public survey afterwards. The process of law making is even more complex and will not further be developed here. The Consociationalism (Konkordanzdemokratie) of the Swiss system guaranties equal group representation, power-sharing and corporatism. The Collegial principle (2 equal chambers); between National Council and the Council of the States requires their reciprocal approval with max 3. Turns and guaranties a balance of powers. As stated before, there is no judicial review. The will of the people is the highest judicial instance.
Analysis Strengthes and Weakness Strengthes Strengths of the Swiss political system have come thanks to a large periods of evolution and political praxis of the system. Some major advantages are the balance of interests, the balance of powers, respect for minorities and a high political participation and identification. Inequalities between the cities and the country side, especially villages in the mountains are compensated with special help for the. Public schools and narrow transport nets have support the live in the country side. Labour unions and agricultural associations are quite active and successful in defending the rights of these groups. The balance of powers comes first of all from the sophisticated system of check and balances, division of powers in the political bodies and a complex system of proportional representation and quota and guaranties an equal and fair representation of all citizens. The sensitivity for the needs of minorities and the system of a direct democracy is supported by rich political involvement integrated in the culture that proliferates a rather high identification with the national laws and policies. - 11 -
THE POLITICAL SYSTEM OF SWITZERLAND Weakness
The most important weakness is probably that the Swiss political system is that it is basically created for inner peace and stability and has a minor focus on international politics, at least in its historical development. This can lead to conflicts between the democratic rights of the people and the international conception of human rights or the international law what makes Swiss polity sometimes contradictious and requires highly sensitive diplomatic compromises. Further challenges are the fluidity of the constitution that lacks an absolutely fixed written law making the integration of new members to the group more vulnerable and the political system rather complex, a reason why education and immigration policies are considered highly important. For the reasons above also the decision making process can take longer but offers in turn solutions that find a broader acceptance. Sometimes the lack of a single head representing the country during a large period can lead to confusions in the diplomatic discourse.
People and the Government The structure of more or less equal people governed by elite is very old in Switzerland and dates back at least to the times of Celtic culture. The difference in status was not very well defined and rather attached to political than economic privileges. In general conflicts between the people and the government in Switzerland had rather been limited. The most important conflicts were probably the revolution during the Bauernkriege, the end of mercenaries 1815, the uplifting of the Stfner Memorial. There have been many other conflicts, but most had been motivated by struggles for power between people or aristocrats of different regions, family feuds and conflicts do to divergent religious or political ideas. Switzerland is a country that generally lacks natural resources. The Swiss wealth is mostly based on a highly developed commercial activity. This explains why conflicts in Switzerland are often connected with the provision of food and other resources like Salt, Wine (middle ages), Grain, Fertilizer (WWII) Oil (actuality), sensitivity to toll tariffs and regulations for export especially for military goods, banking services and migration laws. The high valuation of grown structures and traditions as well as the intense connection with the mountains and lakes and its use as spiritual inspiration and economic source (pass way, tunnel systems, military strategy) explain many complex construction laws of the country which have led to several conflicts in history (NEAT, Luzern Luxury Residencies, Minaret).
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History has shown that imposition of a single religion or freedom of religion by a higher authority didnt work. Each religion and ideology had to find its role through periods of conflict and discussions as remembered by the expulsion of the Jews in 1490 (Jewish History, 2010), Killing of thousands of Pagans and Christian Heretics, conflicts with Kurdish separatists and New Age revolutionaries in more recent times, or the discussions about the role of Islam in the Swiss culture.
Conclusion Switzerland is country full of contradiction, one of the most peaceful ones but with an important role of military in its culture, a people of free minds but one of the last to accept women to vote (since 1971), the oldest European country with a federal and participatory political concept that worked but, at the same time, remained in its culture feudal until modernity. But first of all Switzerland is a nation that by external stimuli and internal conflict has evolved as a group and offers certainly an interesting ground on further studies of multilevel selection.
Bibliography
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Hirzel, T. (2010, February 12). Map of cave settling findings. Retrieved February 12, 2010 Holzhey, H., & Zurbuchen, S. (1997). Vom Memorialhandel zu den Stfner Volksunruhen: Landbrgertum und plebejische Bewegung. Alte Lcher neue, P. 83-99. Zrich: Helmuth Holzhey u . Simone Zurbuchen. Hunziker, M. (2005, November 2). Mensch und Landschaft: theoretische, empirische und methodische Zugnge. Retrieved February 20, 2010, from Abt. Landschaft & Gesellschaft, WSL: Mensch und Landschaft: theoretische, empirische und methodische Zugnge Jewish History. (2010). Retrieved February 20, 2010, from http://www.jewishhistory.org.il/history.php?startyear=1490&endyear=1499 Kerber-Net.de. (n.d.). Friedrich von Schiller. Willhelm Tell. Die historischen Ereignisse. Retrieved February 22, 2010, from http://www.kerbernet.de/literatur/deutsch/drama/schiller/tell/geschichte.pdf Renan, E. (1882, March 11). Quest-ce quune nation? Confrence faite en Sorbonne, Paris. Retrieved January 10 2010 Romanowski, M. (1996, March). Problems of Bias in History Text Books. Retrieved February 16, 2010, from Brian S. Collier. Historian: http://www.brianscollier.com/classreadings/Problems_of_Bias_in_History_Textbooks.pdf Rousseau, J. (1762). Du Contrat Social ou Principes du droit politique. Retrieved February 22, 2010, from http://classiques.uqac.ca/classiques/Rousseau_jj/contrat_social/Contrat_social.pdf Simon, C. (1998). Pro-helvetische Wiederstnde gegen restaurative tendenzen in der Sptphase der Helvetik: Die Zehntunruhen im Distrik Fehraltorf als Fallbeispiel. Dossier Helvetik IV. Basel: Christian Simon. Sober, E. R., & Wilson, D. S. (1994). Re-introducing Group Selection to the Human Behavioral Science. Retrieved February 20, 2010, from http://www.bbsonline.org/Preprints/OldArchive/bbs.wilson.html UNESCO. (1955, May 25). International Understanding and Co-operation Documents Relating to Improvement of Textbooks and Teaching Material. Retrieved February 16, 2010, from Summary on History without Bias?: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001441/144171eb.pdf Wikipedia. (2010). Political System of Switzerland. Retrieved January 30, 2010, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Switzerland Wilson, D. S. (2007). Evolution for Everyone: How Darwin's Theory Can Change the Way We Think About Our Lives. New York: Delacorte Press .
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THE POLITICAL SYSTEM OF SWITZERLAND

The Political System of Switzerland