Sequence

In mathematics, a sequence is an ordered list of objects (or events). Like a set, it contains members (also called elements or terms), and the number of terms (possibly infinite) is called the length of the sequence. Unlike a set, order matters, and exactly the same elements can appear multiple times at different positions in the sequence. A sequence is a discrete function. For example, (C, R, Y) is a sequence of letters that differs from (Y, C, R), as the ordering matters. Sequences can be finite, as in this example, or infinite, such as the sequence of all even positive integers (2, 4, 6,...). Finite sequences are sometimes known as strings or words and infinite sequences as streams. The empty sequence ( ) is included in most notions of sequence, but may be excluded depending on the context. Examples and notation There are various and quite different notions of sequences in mathematics, some of which (e.g., exact sequence) are not covered by the notations introduced below. In addition to identifying the elements of a sequence by their position, such as "the 3rd element", elements may be given names for convenient referencing. For example a sequence might be written as (a1, a2, a2, ), or (b0, b1, b2, ), or (c0, c2, c4, ), depending on what is useful in the application. Finite and infinite A more formal definition of a finite sequence with terms in a set S is a function from {1, 2, ..., n} to S for some n > 0. An infinite sequence in S is a function from {1, 2, ... } to S. For example, the sequence of prime numbers (2,3,5,7,11, ) is the function 12, 23, 35, 47, 511, . A sequence of a finite length n is also called an n-tuple. Finite sequences include the empty sequence ( ) that has no elements. A function from all integers into a set is sometimes called a bi-infinite sequence or twoway infinite sequence. An example is the bi-infinite sequence of all even integers ( , -4, -2, 0, 2, 4, 6, 8 ). Multiplicative Let A = (a sequence defined by a function f:{1, 2, 3, ...} {1, 2, 3, ...}, such that a i = f(i). The sequence is multiplicative if f(xy) = f(x)f(y) for all x,y such that x and y are coprime.[1] Types and properties of sequences A subsequence of a given sequence is a sequence formed from the given sequence by deleting some of the elements without disturbing the relative positions of the remaining elements.

If the terms of the sequence are a subset of an ordered set, then a monotonically increasing sequence is one for which each term is greater than or equal to the term before it; if each term is strictly greater than the one preceding it, the sequence is called strictly monotonically increasing. A monotonically decreasing sequence is defined similarly. Any sequence fulfilling the monotonicity property is called monotonic or monotone. This is a special case of the more general notion of monotonic function. The terms nondecreasing and nonincreasing are used in order to avoid any possible confusion with strictly increasing and strictly decreasing, respectively. If the terms of a sequence are integers, then the sequence is an integer sequence. If the terms of a sequence are polynomials, then the sequence is a polynomial sequence. If S is endowed with a topology, then it becomes possible to consider convergence of an infinite sequence in S. Such considerations involve the concept of the limit of a sequence. If A is a set, the free monoid over A (denoted A*) is a monoid containing all the finite sequences (or strings) of zero or more elements drawn from A, with the binary operation of concatenation. The free semigroup A+ is the subsemigroup of A* containing all elements except the empty sequence. Sequences in analysis In analysis, when talking about sequences, one will generally consider sequences of the form

which is to say, infinite sequences of elements indexed by natural numbers. It may be convenient to have the sequence start with an index different from 1 or 0. For example, the sequence defined by xn = 1/log(n) would be defined only for n 2. When talking about such infinite sequences, it is usually sufficient (and does not change much for most considerations) to assume that the members of the sequence are defined at least for all indices large enough, that is, greater than some given N. The most elementary type of sequences are numerical ones, that is, sequences of real or complex numbers. This type can be generalized to sequences of elements of some vector space. In analysis, the vector spaces considered are often function spaces. Even more generally, one can study sequences with elements in some topological space.

Arithmetic progression
In mathematics, an arithmetic progression (AP) or arithmetic sequence is a sequence of numbers such that the difference of any two successive members of the sequence is a constant. For instance, the sequence 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, is an arithmetic progression with common difference 2. If the initial term of an arithmetic progression is a1 and the common difference of successive members is d, then the nth term of the sequence is given by:

and in general

A finite portion of an arithmetic progression is called a finite arithmetic progression and sometimes just called an arithmetic progression. The behavior of the arithmetic progression depends on the common difference d. If the common difference is:

Positive, the members (terms) will grow towards positive infinity. Negative, the members (terms) will grow towards negative infinity.

Sum The sum of the members of a finite arithmetic progression is called an arithmetic series. Expressing the arithmetic series in two different ways:

Adding both sides of the two equations, all terms involving d cancel:

Dividing both sides by 2 produces a common form of the equation:

An alternate form results from re-inserting the substitution: an = a1 + (n 1)d:

In 499 CE Aryabhata, a prominent mathematician-astronomer from the classical age of Indian mathematics and Indian astronomy, gave this method in the Aryabhatiya (section 2.18) .[1] So, for example, the sum of the terms of the arithmetic progression given by an = 3 + (n1)(5) up to the 50th term is

Product The product of the members of a finite arithmetic progression with an initial element a1, common differences d, and n elements in total is determined in a closed expression

where denotes the rising factorial and denotes the Gamma function. (Note however that the formula is not valid when a1 / d is a negative integer or zero.) This is a generalization from the fact that the product of the progression is given by the factorial n! and that the product

for positive integers m and n is given by

Taking the example from above, the product of the terms of the arithmetic progression given by an = 3 + (n-1)(5) up to the 50th term is

Consider an AP a,(a + d),(a + 2d),.................(a + (n 1)d) Finding the product of first three terms a(a + d)(a + 2d) = (a2 + ad)(a + 2d) = a3 + 3a2d + 2ad2 this is of the form an + nan 1dn 2 + (n 1)an 2dn 1 so the product of n terms of an AP is: an + nan 1dn 2 + (n 1)an 2dn 1 no solutions

Geometric progression In mathematics, a geometric progression, also known as a geometric sequence, is a sequence of numbers where each term after the first is found by multiplying the previous one by a fixed non-zero number called the common ratio. For example, the sequence 2, 6, 18, 54, ... is a geometric progression with common ratio 3. Similarly 10, 5, 2.5, 1.25, ... is a geometric sequence with common ratio 1/2. The sum of the terms of a geometric progression is known as a geometric series. Thus, the general form of a geometric sequence is

and that of a geometric series is where r 0 is the common ratio and a is a scale factor, equal to the sequence's start value. Elementary properties The n-th term of a geometric sequence with initial value a and common ratio r is given by

Such a geometric sequence also follows the recursive relation for every integer Generally, to check whether a given sequence is geometric, one simply checks whether successive entries in the sequence all have the same ratio The common ratio of a geometric series may be negative, resulting in an alternating sequence, with numbers switching from positive to negative and back. For instance 1, 3, 9, 27, 81, 243, ... is a geometric sequence with common ratio 3. The behaviour of a geometric sequence depends on the value of the common ratio. If the common ratio is:

Positive, the terms will all be the same sign as the initial term. Negative, the terms will alternate between positive and negative. Greater than 1, there will be exponential growth towards positive infinity. 1, the progression is a constant sequence. Between 1 and 1 but not zero, there will be exponential decay towards zero. 1, the progression is an alternating sequence (see alternating series) Less than 1, for the absolute values there is exponential growth towards positive and negative infinity (due to the alternating sign).

Geometric sequences (with common ratio not equal to 1,1 or 0) show exponential growth or exponential decay, as opposed to the Linear growth (or decline) of an arithmetic progression such as 4, 15, 26, 37, 48, (with common difference 11). This result was taken by T.R. Malthus as the mathematical foundation of his Principle of Population. Note that the two kinds of progression are related: exponentiating each term of an arithmetic

progression yields a geometric progression, while taking the logarithm of each term in a geometric progression with a positive common ratio yields an arithmetic progression. Geometric series A geometric series is the sum of the numbers in a geometric progression:

We can find a simpler formula for this sum by multiplying both sides of the above equation by 1 r, and we'll see that

since all the other terms cancel. Because r 1 for geometric series (r = 1 would give us an arithmetic progression), we can rearrange(for r 1) the above to get the convenient formula for a geometric series:

If one were to begin the sum not from 0, but from a higher term, say m, then

Differentiating this formula with respect to r allows us to arrive at formulae for sums of the form

For example:

For a geometric series containing only even powers of r multiply by 1 r2:

Then

For a series with only odd powers of r

and

Infinite geometric series An infinite geometric series is an infinite series whose successive terms have a common ratio. Such a series converges if and only if the absolute value of the common ratio is less than one ( | r | < 1 ). Its value can then be computed from the finite sum formulae

Since:

Then:

For a series containing only even powers of r,

and for odd powers only,

In cases where the sum does not start at k = 0,

The formulae given above are valid only for | r | < 1. The latter formula is valid in every Banach algebra, as long as the norm of r is less than one, and also in the field of p-adic numbers if | r |p < 1. As in the case for a finite sum, we can differentiate to calculate formulae for related sums. For example,

This formula only works for | r | < 1 as well. From this, it follows that, for | r | < 1,

Also, the infinite series 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 + 1/16 + is an elementary example of a series that converges absolutely. It is a geometric series whose first term is 1/2 and whose common ratio is 1/2, so its sum is

The inverse of the above series is 1/2 1/4 + 1/8 1/16 + is a simple example of an alternating series that converges absolutely. It is a geometric series whose first term is 1/2 and whose common ratio is 1/2, so its sum is

Complex numbers The summation formula for geometric series remains valid even when the common ratio is a complex number. In this case the condition that the absolute value of r be less than 1 becomes that the modulus of r be less than 1. It is possible to calculate the sums of some non-obvious geometric series. For example, consider the proposition

The proof of this comes from the fact that

which is a consequence of Euler's formula. Substituting this into the original series gives

. This is the difference of two geometric series, and so it is a straightforward application of the formula for infinite geometric series that completes the proof. [edit] Product The product of a geometric progression is the product of all terms. If all terms are positive, then it can be quickly computed by taking the geometric mean of the progression's first and last term, and raising that mean to the power given by the number of terms. (This is very similar to the formula for the sum of terms of an arithmetic sequence: take the arithmetic mean of the first and last term and multiply with the number of terms.)

(if a,r > 0). Proof: Let the product be represented by P: .

Now, carrying out the multiplications, we conclude that . Applying the sum of arithmetic series, the expression will yield . . We raise both sides to the second power: . Consequently and , which concludes the proof.

Limit of a sequence
The limit of a sequence (xn) is, intuitively, the unique number or point L (if it exists) such that the terms of the sequence become arbitrarily close to L for "large" values of n. If the limit exists, then we say that the sequence is convergent and that it converges to L. Convergence of sequences is a fundamental notion in mathematical analysis, which has been studied since ancient times. Formal definition

For a sequence of real numbers A real number L is said to be the limit of the sequence xn, written

if and only if for every real number > 0, there exists a natural number N such that for every n > N we have | xnL | < .

As a generalization of this, for a sequence of points space T:

in a topological

An element L T is said to be a limit of this sequence if and only if for every neighborhood S of L there is a natural number N such that xn S for all n > N. In this generality a sequence may admit more than one limit, but if T is a Hausdorff space, then each sequence has at most one limit. When a unique limit L exists, it may be written

If a sequence has a limit, we say the sequence is convergent, and that the sequence converges to the limit. Otherwise, the sequence is divergent (see also oscillation). A null sequence is a sequence that converges to 0. Hyperreal definition A sequence xn tends to L if for every infinite hypernatural H, the term xH is infinitely close to L, i.e., the difference xH - L is infinitesimal. Equivalently, L is the standard part of xH . Thus, the limit can be defined by the formula

where the limit exists if and only if the righthand side is independent of the choice of an infinite H. Comments The definition means that eventually all elements of the sequence get as close as we want to the limit. (The condition that the elements become arbitrarily close to all of the following elements does not, in general, imply the sequence has a limit. See Cauchy sequence).

A sequence of real numbers may tend to though this can be written in the form and

or

, compare infinite limits. Even

such a sequence is called divergent, unless we explicitly consider it a sequence in the affinely extended real number system or (in the first case only) the real projective line. In the latter cases the sequence has a limit (in the space itself), so could be called convergent, but when using this term here, care should be taken that this does not cause confusion. The limit of a sequence of points in a topological space T is a special case

of the limit of a function: the domain is in the space with the induced topology of the affinely extended real number system, the range is T, and the function argument n tends to +, which in this space is a limit point of . Examples

The sequence 1, -1, 1, -1, 1, ... is oscillatory. The series with partial sums 1/2, 1/2 + 1/4, 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8, 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 + 1/16, ... converges with limit 1. This is an example of an infinite series. If a is a real number with absolute value | a | < 1, then the sequence an has limit 0. If 0 < a, then the sequence a1/n has limit 1.

Also:

Properties Consider the following function: f( x ) = xn if n-1 < x n. Then the limit of the sequence of xn is just the limit of f( x) at infinity. A function f, defined on a first-countable space, is continuous if and only if it is compatible with limits in that (f(xn)) converges to f(L) given that (xn) converges to L, i.e. implies Note that this equivalence does not hold in general for spaces which are not firstcountable. Compare the basic property (or definition): f is continuous at x if and only if A subsequence of the sequence (xn) is a sequence of the form (xa(n)) where the a(n) are natural numbers with a(n) < a(n+1) for all n. Intuitively, a subsequence omits some elements of the original sequence. A sequence is convergent if and only if all of its subsequences converge towards the same limit.

Every convergent sequence in a metric space is a Cauchy sequence and hence bounded. A bounded monotonic sequence of real numbers is necessarily convergent: this is sometimes called the fundamental theorem of analysis. More generally, every Cauchy sequence of real numbers has a limit, or short: the real numbers are complete. A sequence of real numbers is convergent if and only if its limit superior and limit inferior coincide and are both finite. The algebraic operations are everywhere continuous (except for division around zero divisor); thus, given and then

and (if L2 and yn are non-zero)

These rules are also valid for infinite limits using the rules

q + = for q - q = if q > 0 q = - if q < 0 q / = 0 if q

(see extended real number line). History The Greek philosopher Zeno of Elea is famous for formulating paradoxes that involve limiting processes. Leucippus, Democritus, Antiphon, Eudoxus and Archimedes developed the method of exhaustion, which uses an infinite sequence of approximations to determine an area or a volume. Archimedes succeeded in summing what is now called a geometric series. Newton dealt with series in his works on Analysis with infinite series (written in 1669, circulated in manuscript, published in 1711), Method of fluxions and infinite series (written in 1671, published in English translation in 1736, Latin original published much later) and Tractatus de Quadratura Curvarum (written in 1693, published in 1704 as an Appendix to his Optiks). In the latter work, Newton considers the binomial expansion of (x+o)n which he then linearizes by taking limits (letting o0). In the 18th century, mathematicians like Euler succeeded in summing some divergent series by stopping at the right moment; they did not much care whether a limit existed, as long as it could be calculated. At the end of the century, Lagrange in his Thorie des fonctions analytiques (1797) opined that the lack of rigour precluded further development in calculus. Gauss in his etude of hypergeometric series (1813) for the first time rigorously investigated under which conditions a series converged to a limit. The modern definition of a limit (for any there exists an index N so that ...) was given independently by Bernhard Bolzano (Der binomische Lehrsatz, Prague 1816, little noticed at the time) and by Cauchy in his Cours d'analyse (1821).