PROCEEDINGS LETTERS

Fig. 1.

Approximation of AGC carrier AM feedthrough.

AGC S Y S MODEL ~

1131
10

08

06
0 a
K

8 04
a
W

$ 0.2

t
3

C
-0 2

Fig. 2. Cascade of n AGC networks

- 0.4
Fig. 3. Transient response of cascaded amplifers with AGC.

cascade up to 40 amplifiers, many of which incorporate automatic gain control (AGC) to stabilize signal levels over widely varying temperature ranges. An AGC transient-response analysis is useful in determining such system requirements as AGC cutoff frequency, permissible AGC carrier modulation, and maximum system length.

The second relationship, which implies that the RC time constant must be multiplied by n to achieve the same degree of filtering as one amplifier with AGC, is the most significant. The RC time constant will ultimately limit the cascade length since the AGC filtering is degraded in each succeeding amplifier.

The most common form of AGC incorporates an RF detector which monitors a desired signal, filters the modulation, if any, and then controls the amplifier gain to maintain a stable signal level. The RC network shown in Fig. 1 approximates the amplitude modulation (AM) feedthrough of an AGC carrier as it passes through an amplifier with AGC, where eo@)is the amplitude modulation of the AGC carrier at the amplifier input, and el(t) is theamplitudemodulation of theAGC carrier at the amplifier output. The Laplace transform expression for this circuit is

CONCLUSIONS
Simple AGC techniques can lead to serious level-control problems in a cascade of many identical amplifiers. A transient-response analysis has revealed a degradation of AGCattack time with increasing cascade length. AGC overshoot, ringing, and impulse amplification must be considered when determining acceptable AGC-related cross modulation. M. L. ZELENZ Sylvania Electric Products Electronic Tube Div. Seneca Falls, N. Y.

S H(s) = 1
S t -

RC

E,(s) = E,(s)H(s) = .EOWS 1 S f . RC

Assuming negligble time delay between amplifiers, a cascade of n units, each controlled by an identical AGC network, can be represented as shown in Fig. 2 where ,

Double-Drift-Region ( p ' p ~ ' ) Avalanche Diode Oscillators

Abstract-The advantages of a double-drift-region avalanche diodeoscillatorare discussed. Conventionalstructures (p+nn+ or n+pp+')are essentially single-drift-region devices inthattransittime delay (for I M P A T mode) and zone transit (for TRAPAT mode) occur in a single region of one impurity type. Theproposed structure (p'pnn * ) has t w o drift regions and is essentially t w o complementary avalanche diode oscillators in series.

En(s)= E,(s)
+

1s

k j

For a transient discontinuity (e.g., connector noise, sync pulses, unwanted cross modulation, etc.) occurring at e,, (3) can be solved empirically by computer techniques An IBM 1130 computer was programed to analyze the networks of Fig. 2. Fig. 3 represents graphical solutions in the time domain for several values of n.

DISCUSSION
Solutions of (3) show tha~simple networks used in AGC filtering RC systems can produce unexpected consequences when many AGC circuits are cascaded. The first amplifier, which senses an impulse, responds very predictably with an exponential decay (Fig. 3), but each succeeding amplifier responds to the one before it. Thus, overshoot and ringing occur after the second amplifier. Several relationships are revealed by the curves of Fig. 3. 1) The response o the nth amplifier is faster and greater than the ref sponse of the first amplifier. 2) RC time constants decrease proportionally as (RC),- (RC)/n. 3) Ringing is damped by the factor E - ' RC.

INTRODUCTION Conventional avalanche diode oscillators (p+nn+orn+pp+)are essentially single-drift-region devices in that transit-time delay [l ] (for IMPATT mode) and zone transit [2] (for TRAPATT mode) occur in a single region of oneimpurity type. The double-drift-region structure @+pnn+) is essentially two complementary avalanche diode oscillators in series. The obvious result is that power output per unit area and impedance on a per unit area basis are both essentially doubled. Hence the proposed structurehas a power impedance productapproximately a factor of four greater than a comparablesingledrift-regionunit. It has, in addition, some more subtle advantages. The "two diodes" share a single centrally located high-field avalanche region and have less parasitic series loss than that associated with a comparable singledrift-region unit. This should lead to considerableimprovement in oscillator efficiency and device Q. The first-order improvement expected with a doubledrift-region structure is illustrated by Fig. 1. The heavy lines in the electric field plot and the
Manusaipt received April 15,1970

1132

PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, JULY 1970

I
DISTANCE

P 9 0 GHZ

Fig. 1. Electric field profile and structure (schematic) for singledrift-region (beavyl n s only) and doubledrift-region IMPATT diodes. ie
I
I

structure schematic represent a singledrift-region unit for reference. The lighter lines correspond to theadditional field profile and structure associated with thechange to a doubledrift-region unit. The doubledrift-region unit will have a centrally located high-field avalanche region and two drift spaces, one for holes and one for electrons. The microwave negative resistance would be essentially doubled on a per unit area basis. (Detailed computer calculations which verify this conclusion are discussed later.) Since ultimate power output of IMPATT oscillators is limited by microwave circuit impedance limitations [3], the doubledrift-region unit can have essentially double the area of a corresponding (in frequency) singledrift-region unit and maintainthe same microwave impedance level. The ultimate power output is thus expected to be increased by a factor of four. This is readily seen from the schematic of the doubledriftregion unit of Fig. 1. For the same impedance level, the doubledriftregion unit has four times the workingvolume of a singledrift-region unit. Series resistance associated with the contacting n+ and p+ regions will correspondingly be reduced by the increase in area. Since only one avalanche region is required for both drift regions, increased efficiency is also expected. Increased efficiency is expected for two reasons. First, the additional dc voltage in the doubledrift-region structure will be due essentially to the second drift space. In particular, it has been shown [4] that the avalanche region and drift region voltages are essentially equal for a silicon p on n structure, and therefore the total dc voltage for such a doubledrift-region device may be only 50 percent greater than that of the singledrift-regionunit. Second, thecentrallocation of the avalanche region, away from aheavily doped contact region, greatly reduces minority carrier storage effects [SI. (The minority carrier storage in the heavily doped end region unit originates from carrier generation in the avalanche region and subsequent diffusion. The carriersreturn to the avalanche region at the next voltage maximum and reduce the avalanche delay time required for efficient IMPATT operation.) DETAILED CALCULATIONS Small-signal calculations of theadmittance of single- and doubledrift-region silicon units are presented in Fig. 2. These calculations were performed with material parameters appropriate for silicon at a temperature of 300C and a current density of 10 OOO A/cm2. As can be seen by the represented frequencies, the structures correspond to millimeter wave units. Such structures have been chosen for preliminary studies because of the expected advantages of doubledrift-region units at millimeter wave frequencies. Lower frequency units will be limited in power output by thermal ratherthan circuit impedanceconsiderations [ 6 ] . Preliminary experimental results at 50 GHz arereported elsewhere [7], andare compared to state-of-the-art singledrift-region units. The detailed numerical analysis [4] for the admittance of the doubledrift-region unit, as shc.In in Fig. 2, reveals an important advantage over asingledrift-regionunitnotobviousfromthe simplified description given previously. The additional depletion region width reduces the susceptance by approximately a factor of two, as expected. However, the reduction in negative conductance is nowhere near a factor of two. The result

-K

-8.

-6.

-4.

-2.

CONWCTANCE (MHOS/Cm2)

Fig. 2. Small-signal admittana of sin& and double-drift-region silicon millimeter wave IMPATT diodes. (Calculations for abrupt junction pi-n-n+ and p *-pn-n+ units. Impurity concentrations of all lightly doped regiom are 5 x 10l6cn-. The n and p n laym are 0.7 and 0 . 6 4 6 p n , respectively.)

:
i
5. 4.

3.

2.

I.

O0

/ -.
_.

:I:*
_. -.
-.

-. -. _.

Fig. 3. Zone-transit states o TRAPATT oscillations, symmetrical silicon results f on the left, real silicon on the right.

is a considerable improvement in small-signal negative Q. Large-signal computer calculationshave not yet been attempted on these units to verify the persistence of this advantage to large oscillation amplitudes. The improved IMPATT performance of doubledrift-region structures will also aidTRAPATT mode operation. It has been shown that the highefficiency TRAPATT mode requires a large-signal IMPATT oscillation [2], [8]. However, in a doubledrift-region structure two avalanche zones would be launched and analytical treatment to date has been restricted to analysis of a single zone with identical properties assumed for holes and electrons [9f-[11]. Fig. 3 preliminary results are presented which show In that the existence of different properties for holes and electrons in silicon does not appreciably alter the zone-transit characteristics. Results for a symmetrical structure are shown for comparison on the left side of the figure. In the symmetrical case, holes and electrons have ionization rates

PROCEEDINGS and velocities which are identical and equal to the average values of holes and electrons in silicon. The double-drift approach also provides some other unique advantages for TRAPATToperation which are discussed in more detail elsewhere [12]. DISCUSSION A doubledrift-regionIMPATT structure has been proposed for a millimeter wave oscillator. A double-drift-region Read structure was first suggested by Misawa [I21 and analyzed by Fisher [13]. Analysis with a simplitied Read model does not reveal the subtle advantagesof the more simplified p+ pnn structure-advantages in device Q,power impedance product. and efficiency (over asingledrift-regionunit) which can be utilized most effectively at millimeter wave frequencies.

LETTERS

1133

D. L. S C H A R F ~ E R W. J. EVANS R. L. JOHNSTON Bell Telephone Labs.. Inc. Murray Hill, N. J. 07974

REFERENCES
[I] B. C. DeLoach and R. L. Johnston, Avalanche transit-time microwave oscillators and amplifiers, I Trans. Electron Decices, vol. ED-13, pp. 181-186, January 1966. [Z] R. L.Johnston, D. L. Scharfetter, and D. J. Bartelink, Highaciency oscillations in germanium avalanche diodcs below the transit-time frequency, Proc. I (Letters), vol. 56, pp. 1611-1613, September 1968. [3] B. C. DeLoach, Jr., Reccnt advanog in solid-state microwave generators, in Adcances in Microwaees, vol. 2. N m York: Academic Press, 1967. [4] D. L. Scharfetter and H. K. Gummel, Large-signal analysis of a silicon Read diode oscillator, IEEE Trans. Elecrron Devices, vol. ED-16, pp. 64-77, January 1969. [5] T.Misawa, Minority carrier storage and oscillatim efficiency in Read diodes, to be published. [6] D. L. Scharfetter, Power-impedana limitations of IMPATT oscillators, to be published. [7] T. E. Seidel and D. L. Scharfetter, High-power millimeter wave IMPATT oscillators with both hole and electron drift spaces made by ion implantation, this issue, pp. 1135-1136. [8] R. L. Johnston k d D. L. Scbarfetter, Low-frequency highsfficiency oscillation9 in germanium IMPATT diodes,IE Trans. Electron Decices, vol. ED-16, pp. 905-911, November 1%9. [9] D. J. Bartelink and D. L. Scharfetter, Avalanche shock fronts in p-n junctions, Appl. Phys. Letters, vol. 14, pp. 32CL323, May 15, 1969. [IO] B.C.DeLoach, Jr., and D. L. Scharfetter, Device physics of TRAPATT oscillators, IE Trans. Electron Devices, vol. ED-17, pp. 9-20, January 1970. [ I I ] D. L. Scharfetter, Power-frequency characteristics of the TRAPATT diode mode of high efficiency power generation in germanium and silicon avalanche diodes, Bell Sys. Tech.J., to be published. [ 121 W. J. Evans, T. E.Seidel and D.L. Scharfetter, A novel TRAPATT oscillator design, tobe published. [I31 T. Misawa, Apparatus employing avalanche transit-time diodes, U. S. Patent 3 356 866, December 5 , 1967. [14] S. T.Fisher, Small-signal impedance of avalanching junctions with unequal electron and hole ionization rates and drift velocities, I Trans. Electron Decices, vol. ED-14, pp. 313-322, June 1967.

which clearly shows that the density of the random variable T equals zero for T=O. This is in strong contradiction with the results given by Lob [l] which indicates that the density has a maximum at T=O and decreases monotonically for larger T [l, Fig. 21. Rice [2] also discusses some ways in which the form of this density for large values of T may be approximated. Furthermore, as the crossing level A approaches infinity it is possible to show that the density becomes a Rayleigh density [2], [3]. It is also possible to obtain some idea about this density conveniently and simply for finite crossing levels by passing the output of a Gaussian noise generator through a filter and observing the durations of the excursions above alevel on a storagescope. Such a study [4] has verified closely the results given byRice [2]. The error in the analysis of Lob results from his use of the vertical window conditioning in the terminology of Kac and Slepian [3] for the crossing level A . A horizontal window conditioning for the crossing level. i.e.. conditioning in a small time interval At. should give the correct density [3, p. 1220. the discussion in connection with (3.8)]. However, in this case the numerical calculation of the density requires a far more complex program than theone used by Lob [I 1. A statement to the effect that the density of T for large crossing levels is a half Gaussian was made by Palmer [ 5 ] but was later withdrawn [6], which perhaps indicates some amount of subtlety in the problem. DAVRAS YAVUZ Dept. of Elec. Engrg. Middle East Technical University Ankara, Turkey REFERENCES
[ I ] W. Lob, The distribution of FMdiscriminator clock widths, Proc. IE(Lctters), H. vol. 57, pp. 732-733, April 1969. [2] S. 0. Rice, Distribution of the duration of fades in radio transmission: Gaussian noise model, BellSys. Tech. J . , pp, 5 8 1 4 3 5 , May 1958. [3] M. Kac and D. Skpian, Large e x d o n s of Gaussian processes, Ann. Moth. Statist., vol. 30, pp. 1215-1228, December 1959. [4] D. Y a w and D. T. Hess, False clicks in FM detection, to be published. [5] D. S. Palmer, Properties ofrandom function, Proc. Cambridge Phll. Soc., vol. 52. pp. 672486, October 1956. [6] The statement was made in Note Added in Roof on page 686 of Palmers paper [5], but WBS withdrawn in a letter to R (e footnote on page 586 t Rices paper [Z]). i se a o

A New Technique for Short-Pulse Compensation in Phased-Array Scanning

Abstract-A new technique is briefly described for wide-angle scanning when the spatial pulsewidth is smaller than the length of the phased array. The concept obviates the ncled for the long-time delayers used with subarrays; it employs a binary phase code on the array-element modulo-2% phase shifters and a decoder matched to this phase code.

Comments on The Distribution of FM-Discriminator Click Widths

Abstract-It is shown that the results given Lob concerning the by distribution of F M discriminator click widths are incorrect. The error in Lobs analysis is indicated.

INTRODUCTION

O the various methods for electronically scanning a large antenna f

array [l], direct control of the phase and/or time delay at each element (Le., the phased array) appears the most practical. Many future phasedarray systems will employ short-pulse (wide-band) signals whose spatial widths are less than the distance across the array. When such a wide-band signal is transmitted at angles considerably off broadside by an array steered only by modulo-217 phase shifters, an undesired stretching of the pulse will occur; Skolnik [3] refers to this as the spatial bandwidth of an antenna. The conventional solution to this temporal distortion of the signal involves the segmentation into subarrays and use of variable long-time delayers in each subarray channel. In planar arrays, however, the number of subarray time delayers becomes quite large. Furthermore, the requirements that the delay through each be accurately controllable, and that the device operate over a wide band (up to25 percent of the center frequency)
Manuscript received March 30, 1970.

The results presented by Lob [l]are in obvious contradiction with other published results [2]-[4]. The problem of finding the distribution (or density) of the length in time T of the excursions above a given level A for a Gaussian random process X([) witha specified autocorrelation function Rxx(7)has received a great deal of attention [2]-[5]. The exact solution for this density is not available except for the crossing level A + m . Rice shows [2, eq. ( 6 6 ) ] for example, that for large crossing levels A and , for small values of the random variable T , this density behaves as

Manwript received November 17, 1969; revised December 30, 1969.