Question No.

1 Research performs distinct function to assist manager to enhance decisions making process in the course of effectively gathering information? Elaborate this statement. Answer Yes I am fully agreed with this statement because the function which are done by research are definitely improve the decision making process of the managers and research over any issue helps the managers for better decisions with fruitful / positive results. When we discuss about the good decisions or enhancement in the decision making process at the same time we know that behind of this decision always a good research is working and supporting these decisions. So, good research always requires the following characteristics which are written in detail:i. Purpose Clearly Defined:-

The business research is always done for a specific purpose, it may be a problem which someone want to solve or may be some decision to take for any enhancement in business. This specific purpose should be well known to the researcher and also decision maker. Doubt in the purpose statement may cause any negative impact over the decision and also may raise the legal issue among the researcher and decision maker. ii. Research Process Detailed:-

Whatever research should be done, all the details about the research work should be in written form point to point to basis. This job will make the repeat research very easy. Means and sources through which the data has been obtained should be mentioned. But all the these details can be hide except secrecy point of view. iii. Research Design Thoroughly Planned:-

Planning is a very important key for the success of any task and especially in business research. Planning means that the samples you collect for the research purpose, these sample evidences should be available with you. Observations should be recorded in written form.

Influence of personal bias should be minimized during selecting and recording data. iv. High Ethical Standards Applied:-

The decision makers always provide an independent environment to the researcher and at the other hand the researchers responsibility is that he / she should safeguard the observations / findings either positive or negative about the decision makers product. It is ethically unfair that the researcher disclose the information / research activity to the competitors of the decision maker. Security and welfare of the participants, colleagues and organization which they belong should be kept into consideration during and after the research activity. Careful considerations must be given to those research situations in which there is a possibility of physical or psychological harm, exploitation, invasion or privacy or loss of dignity. v. Limitations Frankly Revealed:-

Complete frankness between researcher and decision maker is a very important key of the successful research, because any limitation, flaws should not keep secret from each other. The complete information especially regarding sensitive matters should be passed to the researchers. Validity and reliability of the data may effect the effectiveness of the decision. vi. Analysis Adequate for Decision Makers Need:-

Research is defined as human activity based on intellectual application in the investigation of any subject. The primary purpose for applied research is discovering, interpreting, and the development of methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge on a wide variety of scientific matters of our world and the universe. Research can use the scientific method, but need not do so. Scientific research relies on the application of the scientific method, a harnessing of curiosity. This research provides scientific information and theories for the explanation of the nature and the properties of the world around us. It makes practical applications possible. Scientific research is

funded by public authorities, by charitable organisations and by private groups, including many companies. Scientific research can be subdivided into different classifications according to their academic and application disciplines. Historical research is embodied in the historical method. The term research is also used to describe an entire collection of information about a particular subject. Basic research Basic research (also called fundamental or pure research) has as its primary objective the advancement of knowledge and the theoretical understanding of the relations among variables (see statistics). It is exploratory and often driven by the researchers curiosity, interest, and intuition. Therefore, it is sometimes conducted without any practical end in mind, although it may have unexpected results pointing to practical applications. The terms basic or fundamental indicate that, through theory generation, basic research provides the foundation for further, sometimes applied research. As there is no guarantee of short-term practical gain, researchers may find it difficult to obtain funding for basic research. Traditionally, basic research was considered as an activity that preceded applied research, which in turn preceded development into practical applications. Recently, these distinctions have become much less clear-cut, and it is sometimes the case that all stages will intermix. This is particularly the case in fields such as biotechnology and electronics, where fundamental discoveries may be made alongside work intended to develop new products, and in areas where public and private sector partners collaborate in order to develop greater insight into key areas of interest. For this reason, some now prefer the term frontier research. Research processes Scientific research Generally, research is understood to follow a certain structural process. Though step order may vary depending on the subject matter and researcher, the following steps are usually part of most formal research, both basic and applied:

Formation of the topic

Hypothesis Conceptual definitions Operational definitions Gathering of data Analysis of data Test, revising of hypothesis Conclusion, iteration if necessary

A common misunderstanding is that by this method a hypothesis can be proven or tested. Generally a hypothesis is used to make predictions that can be tested by observing the outcome of an experiment. If the outcome is inconsistent with the hypothesis, then the hypothesis is rejected. However, if the outcome is consistent with the hypothesis, the experiment is said to support the hypothesis. This careful language is used because researchers recognize that alternative hypotheses may also be consistent with the observations. In this sense, a hypothesis can never be proven, but rather only supported by surviving rounds of scientific testing and, eventually, becoming widely thought of as true (or better, predictive), but this is not the same as it having been proven. A useful hypothesis allows prediction and within the accuracy of observation of the time, the prediction will be verified. As the accuracy of observation improves with time, the hypothesis may no longer provide an accurate prediction. In this case a new hypothesis will arise to challenge the old, and to the extent that the new hypothesis makes more accurate predictions than the old, the new will supplant it. Historical The historical method comprises the techniques and guidelines by which historians use historical sources and other evidence to research and then to write history. There are various history guidelines commonly used by historians in their work, under the headings of external criticism, internal criticism, and synthesis. This includes higher criticism and textual criticism. Though items may vary depending on the subject matter and researcher, the following concepts are usually part of most formal historical research:

Identification of origin date Evidence of localization Recognition of authorship Analysis of data Identification of integrity Attribution of credibility

Research methods

The goal of the research process is to produce new knowledge, which takes three main forms (although, as previously discussed, the boundaries between them may be fuzzy):

Exploratory research, which structures and identifies new problems Constructive research, which develops solutions to a problem Empirical research, which tests the feasibility of a solution using empirical evidence

Research can also fall into two distinct types:

Primary research Secondary research

Research is often conducted using the hourglass model.[1] The hourglass model starts with a broad spectrum for research, focusing in on the required information through the methodology of the project (like the neck of the hourglass), then expands the research in the form of discussion and results. Publishing Academic publishing describes a system that is necessary in order for academic scholars to peer review the work and make it available for a wider audience. The 'system', which is probably disorganized enough not to merit the title, varies widely by field, and is also always changing, if often slowly. Most academic work is published in journal article or book form. In publishing, STM publishing is an abbreviation for academic publications in science, technology, and medicine. Most established academic fields have their own journals and other outlets for publication, though many academic journals are somewhat interdisciplinary, and publish work from several distinct fields or subfields. The kinds of publications that are accepted as contributions of knowledge or research vary greatly between fields. Academic publishing is undergoing major changes, emerging from the transition from the print to the electronic format. Business models are different in the electronic environment. Since about the early 1990s, licensing of electronic resources, particularly journals, has been very common. Presently, a major trend, particularly with respect to scholarly journals, is open access. There are two main forms of open access: open access publishing, in which the articles or the whole journal is freely

available from the time of publication, and self-archiving, where the author makes a copy of their own work freely available on the web. Research funding Most funding for scientific research comes from two major sources, corporations (through research and development departments) and government (primarily through universities and in some cases through military contractors). Many senior researchers (such as group leaders) spend more than a trivial amount of their time applying for grants for research funds. These grants are necessary not only for researchers to carry out their research, but also as a source of merit. Some faculty positions require that the holder has received grants from certain institutions, such as the US National Institutes of Health (NIH). Governmentsponsored grants (e.g. from the NIH, the National Health Service in Britain or any of the European research councils) generally have a high status.

Question No. 2 Being a researcher in manufacturing organization, how can you search the opportunities and monitor the threats of your product. Answer Question No. 3 Develop a correlation between concept, hypothesis and theory. Discuss the significant features and classifications of developing theory? Answer
A hypothesis (from Greek ) consists either of a suggested explanation for an observable phenomenon or of a reasoned proposal predicting a possible causal correlation among multiple phenomena. The term derives from the Greek, hypotithenai meaning "to put under" or "to suppose." The scientific method requires that one can test a scientific hypothesis. Scientists generally base such hypotheses on previous observations or on extensions of scientific theories. Even though the words "hypothesis" and "theory" are often used synonymously in common and informal usage, a scientific hypothesis is not the same as a scientific theory. A Hypothesis is never to be stated as a question, but

always as a statement with an explanation following it. It is not to be a question because it states what he/she thinks or believes will occur. In early usage, scholars often referred to a clever idea or to a convenient mathematical approach that simplified cumbersome calculations as a hypothesis; when used this way, the word did not necessarily have any specific meaning. Cardinal Bellarmine gave a famous example of the older sense of the word in the warning issued to Galileo in the early 17th century: that he must not treat the motion of the Earth as a reality, but merely as a hypothesis. In common usage in the 21st century, a hypothesis refers to a provisional idea whose merit requires evaluation. For proper evaluation, the framer of a hypothesis needs to define specifics in operational terms. A hypothesis requires more work by the researcher in order to either confirm or disprove it. In due course, a confirmed hypothesis may become part of a theory or occasionally may grow to become a theory itself. Normally, scientific hypotheses have the form of a mathematical model. Sometimes, but not always, one can also formulate them as existential statements, stating that some particular instance of the phenomenon under examination has some characteristic and causal explanations, which have the general form of universal statements, stating that every instance of the phenomenon has a particular characteristic. Any useful hypothesis will enable predictions by reasoning (including deductive reasoning). It might predict the outcome of an experiment in a laboratory setting or the observation of a phenomenon in nature. The prediction may also invoke statistics and only talk about probabilities. Karl Popper, following others, has argued that a hypothesis must be falsifiable, and that one cannot regard a proposition or theory as scientific if it does not admit the possibility of being shown false. Other philosophers of science have rejected the criterion of falsifiability or supplemented it with other criteria, such as verifiability (e.g., verificationism) or coherence (e.g., confirmation holism). The scientific method involves experimentation on the basis of hypotheses in order to answer questions and explore observations. In framing a hypothesis, the investigator must not currently know the outcome of a test or that it remains reasonably under continuing investigation. Only in such cases does the experiment, test or study potentially increase the probability of showing the truth of a hypothesis. If the researcher already knows the outcome, it counts as a "consequence" and the researcher should have already considered this while formulating the hypothesis. If one cannot assess the predictions by observation or by experience, the hypothesis classes as not yet useful, and must wait for others who might come afterward to make possible the needed observations. For example, a new technology or theory might make the necessary experiments feasible. In the United States of America, teachers of science in primary schools have often simplified the meaning of the term "hypothesis" by describing a hypothesis as "an educated guess". The failure to emphasize the explanatory or predictive quality of scientific hypotheses omits the concept's most important and characteristic feature: the purpose of hypotheses. People generate hypotheses as early attempts to explain patterns observed in nature or to predict the outcomes of experiments. For example, in science, one could correctly call the following statement a hypothesis: identical twins can have different personalities because the environment influences personality. In contrast, although one might have informed one's self about the qualifications of various political candidates, making an educated

guess about the outcome of an election would qualify as a scientific hypothesis only if the guess includes an underpinning generic explanation.

Contents
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1 Evaluating hypotheses 2 Scientific hypothesis 3 See also 4 References

Evaluating hypotheses
Karl Popper's hypothetico-deductive method (also known as the method of "conjectures and refutations") demands falsifiable hypotheses, framed in such a manner that the scientific community can prove them false (usually by observation). According to this view, a hypothesis cannot be "confirmed", because there is always the possibility that a future experiment will show that it is false. Hence, failing to falsify a hypothesis does not prove that hypothesis: it remains provisional. However, a hypothesis that has been rigorously tested and not falsified can form a reasonable basis for action, i.e., we can act as if it is true, until such time as it is falsified. Just because we've never observed rain falling upward, doesn't mean that we never will--however improbable, our theory of gravity may be falsified some day. Popper's view is not the only view on evaluating hypotheses. For example, some forms of empiricism hold that under a well-crafted, well-controlled experiment, a lack of falsification does count as verification, since such an experiment ranges over the full scope of possibilities in the problem domain. Should we ever discover some place where gravity did not function, and rain fell upward, this would not falsify our current theory of gravity (which, on this view, has been verified by innumerable well-formed experiments in the past)--it would rather suggest an expansion of our theory to encompass some new force or previously undiscovered interaction of forces. In other words, our initial theory as it stands is verified but incomplete. This situation illustrates the importance of having well-crafted, wellcontrolled experiments that range over the full scope of possibilities for applying the theory. In recent years philosophers of science have tried to integrate the various approaches to evaluating hypothesis, and the scientific method in general, to form a more complete system that integrates the individual concerns of each approach. Notably, Imre Lakatos and Paul Feyerabend have produced novel attempts at such a synthesis. Both men also happen to be former students of Popper.

Scientific hypothesis
People refer to a trial solution to a problem as a hypothesis often called an "educated guess" because it provides a suggested solution based on the evidence. Experimenters may test and reject several hypotheses before solving the problem.

According to Schick and Vaughn,[1] researchers weighing up alternative hypotheses may take into consideration:

Testability (compare falsifiability as discussed above) Simplicity (as in the application of "Occam's razor", discouraging the postulation of excessive numbers of entities) Scope - the apparent application of the hypothesis to multiple cases of phenomena Fruitfulness - the prospect that a hypothesis may explain further phenomena in the future Conservatism - the degree of "fit" with existing recognized knowledge-systems

Theories
The word theory has many distinct meanings in different fields of knowledge, depending on their methodologies and the context of discussion. Definitively speaking, a theory is a unifying principle that explains a body of facts and the laws based on them. In other words, it is an explanation to a set of observations. Additionally, in contrast with a theorem the statement of the theory is generally accepted only in some tentative fashion as opposed to regarding it as having been conclusively established. This may merely indicate, as it does in the sciences, that the theory was arrived at using potentially faulty inferences (scientific induction) as opposed to the necessary inferences used in mathematical proofs. In these cases the term theory does not suggest a low confidence in the claim and many uses of the term in the sciences require just the opposite.

Purpose
Theories are constructed to explain, predict, and master phenomena (e.g., inanimate things, events, or behavior of animals). In many instances we are constructing models of reality. A theory makes generalizations about observations and consists of an interrelated, coherent set of ideas and models.

[edit] Description and prediction

Echoing the philosopher Karl Popper, Stephen Hawking in A Brief History of Time states, "A theory is a good theory if it satisfies two requirements: It must accurately describe a large class of observations on the basis of a model that contains only a few arbitrary elements, and it must make definite predictions about the results of future observations." He goes on to state, "Any physical theory is always provisional, in the sense that it is only a hypothesis; you can never prove it. No matter how many times the results of experiments agree with some theory, you can never be sure that the next time the result will not contradict the theory. On the other hand, you can disprove a theory by finding even a single observation that disagrees with the predictions of the theory." The "unprovable but falsifiable" nature of theories is a consequence of the necessity of using inductive logic.

[edit] Assumptions to formulate a theory

This is a view shared by Isaac Asimov. In Understanding Physics, Asimov spoke of theories as "arguments" where one deduces a "scheme" or model. Arguments or theories always begin with some

premises"arbitrary elements" as Hawking calls them (see above)which are here described as "assumptions". An assumption according to Asimov is...
...something accepted without proof, and it is incorrect to speak of an assumption as either true or false, since there is no way of proving it to be either (If there were, it would no longer be an assumption). It is better to consider assumptions as either useful or useless, depending on whether deductions made from them corresponded to reality. ... On the other hand, it seems obvious that assumptions are the weak points in any argument, as they have to be accepted on faith in a philosophy of science that prides itself on its rationalism. Since we must start somewhere, we must have assumptions, but at least let us have as few assumptions as possible.

Question No. 4 Discuss in detail the research data procedure. Elaborate the nature and types of primary and secondary data sources. Answer
Data refer to a collection of facts usually collected as the result of experience, observation or experiment, or processes within a computer system, or a set of premises. This may consist of numbers, words, or images, particularly as measurements or observations of a set of variables. Data are often viewed as a lowest level of abstraction from which information and knowledge are derived. Raw data is a term for unprocessed data, it is also known as primary data. It is a relative term (see data). Raw data can be input to a computer program or used in manual analysis procedures such as gathering statistics from a survey. It can refer to the binary data on electronic storage devices such as hard disk drives (also referred to as low-level data). In computing it may have the following attributes: possibly containing errors, not validated; in several different (colloquial) formats; uncoded or unformatted; and suspect, requiring confirmation or citation. For example, a data input sheet might contain dates as raw data in many forms: "31st January 1999", "31/01/1999", "31/1/99", "31 Jan", or "today". Once captured, this raw data may be processed and stored as a single format, perhaps a Julian date, so as to be easier for computers and humans to interpret during later processing. Raw data (sometimes called sourcey data or eggy data) is data that has not been processed for use. A distinction is sometimes made between data and information to the effect that information is the end product of data processing. Raw data that has undergone processing is sometimes referred to as cooked data. Although raw data has the potential to become "information," it requires selective extraction, organization, and sometimes analysis and formatting for presentation. For example, a point-of-sale terminal (POS terminal) in a busy supermarket collects huge volumes of raw data each day, but that data doesn't yield much information until it is processed. Once processed, the data may indicate the particular items that each customer buys, when they buy them, and at what price. Such information can

be further subjected to predictive technology analysis to help the owner plan future marketing campaigns. As a result of processing, raw data sometimes ends up in a database, which enables the data to become accessible for further processing and analysis in a number of different ways. Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raw_data"

Secondary data
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. Please improve this article if you can. (March 2008) In research, Secondary data is collecting and possibly processing data by people other than the researcher in question. Common sources of secondary data for social science include censuses, large surveys, and organizational records (Mintel). In sociology primary data is data you have collected yourself and secondary data is data you have gathered from primary sources to create new research. In terms of historical research, these two terms have different meanings. A primary source is a book or set of archival records. A secondary source is a summary of a book or set of records. Advantages to the secondary data collection method are - 1) it saves time that would otherwise be spent collecting data, 2) provides a larger database (usually) than what would be possible to collect on ones own However there are disadvantages to the fact that the researcher cannot personally check the data so it's reliability may be questionned.
Secondary data analysis

There are two different types of sources that need to be established in order to conduct a good analysis. The first type is a primary source which is the initial material that is collected during the research process. Primary data is the data that the researcher is collecting themselves using methods such as surveys,direct observations, interviews, as well as logs(objective data sources). Primary data is a reliable way to collect data because the researcher will know where it came from and how it was collected and analyzed since they did it themselves. Secondary sources on the other hand are sources that are based upon the data that was collected from the primary source. Secondary sources take the role of analyzing, explaining, and combining the information from the primary source with additional information. Secondary data analysis is commonly known as second-hand analysis. It is simply the analysis of preexisting data in a different way or to answer a different question than originally intended. Secondary data analysis utilizes the data that was collected by someone else in order to further a study that you are interested in completing.

In contrast to secondary data, primary data comes from observations made by the researchers themselves. This often creates credibility issues that do not arise with secondary data. Common sources of secondary data are social science surveys and data from government agencies, including the Bureau of the Census, the Bureau of Labor Statistics and various other agencies. The data collected is most often collected via survey research methods. Data from experimental studies may also be used.

Contents
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1 Sources of secondary data 2 Combining data with secondary data 3 Collecting, reviewing, and analyzing secondary data 4 Challenges of secondary data analysis 5 Examples of secondary data in use of current research 6 References

[edit] Sources of secondary data

Sources of people from secondary year data classified into qualitative and quantitative. Examples of qualitative sources are biographies, memoirs, newspapers, etc. Quantitave sources include published statistics (e.g., census, survey), data archives, market research, etc.[1] Today, with Internet capabilities, thousands of large scale datasets are at the click of a mouse for secondary data analyst. Globally, there are many sources available. These sources can arrive from the data arranged by governmental and private organizations, to data collected by any social researcher. Secondary data analysis is a growing research tool in our modern day society. Social scientists have the opportunity to explore massive amounts of secondary data. Sources for these data are vast, yet there are some concrete sources in need of mentioning: U.S. Bureau of the Census The United States Government has kept track of the census of the population for over two hundred years. Moreover, the census includes housing, the labor force, manufacturers, business, agriculture, foreign aspects, and so on. Census data can be used for a number of research questions. For example, a researcher can study the behavior of persons not only in one state, or one region, but they can specifically study a small area such as one city block. Anyone has access to the large amounts of statistics, and information on the nearly one hundred surveys conducted by the bureau, by visiting their Web site at (http://www.census.gov). Integrated Public Use Microdata Series Samples of U.S. census gathered for over one hundred years, including historical census files from other countries, are available through this microdata series. These samples are on an individual level.

They are available at the University of Minnesotas Minnesota Population Center. These data provide codes and names for all samples in an easy-to-use format. Samples can include demographic measures, educational, occupational, and all work indicators. You can view this data at www.ipums.umn.edu. Bureau of Labor Statistics This source collects data on employment, industrial relations, prices, earnings, living conditions, occupational safety, technology, and productivity. Reports are published each month in this Bureau and they can be viewed at (http://stats.bls.gov). International Data Sources This is a strong source for comparative researchers, and can deal with economic and political aspects, including political events across many other nations. The U.S. is involved with the use of our Social Security Administration, reports from this administration can be used to classify other nations. In Europe, a Eurobarometer Survey Series is used to publish reports on social and political attitudes. ICPSR Established in 1962, ICPSR is an active partner in social science research and instruction throughout the world. ICPSR's unique combination of data resources, user support, and training in quantitative methods make it a vital resource for fostering inquiry and furthering the social sciences. ICPSR maintains and provides access to a vast archive of social science data for research and instruction. To ensure that data resources are available to future generations of scholars, ICPSR preserves data, migrating them to new storage media as changes in technology warrant. A unit within the Institute for Social Research at the University of Michigan, ICPSR is a membershipbased organization, with over 640 member colleges and universities around the world. A Council of leading scholars and data professionals guides and oversees the activities of ICPSR. For more information, please visit: http://www.icpsr.umich.edu. Qualitative Data Sources Qualitative datasets are far less available as secondary data sources. Several university-based secondary data sources are qualitative, yet at the same time, most have limited access to them. Crosscultural research is made available through the Human Relations Area Files, a Yale University source. ICPSR also carries some qualitative sources, but the data in these sources can be difficult to interpret.

[edit] Combining data with secondary data

Where It's Used For what different purposes can data from archives be used? The first and simplest case would be for descriptive purposes, such as a phone book. A particular contribution of the data archives can be made to comparative research, both, across nations and over time. In the early years of data archives, when secondary analysis was not yet a popular research strategy, the idea of comparative research based on

archival data was promoted in conferences already some 40 years ago. In the first case this would allow for comparative analysis over time, in the second for comparative analysis across societies or nations. Therefore, the design of comparative surveys is crucial for making empirical knowledge cumulative over space and time. Combing Data From a Different Source with Different Time Periods Equally important are longitudinal studies which can be compiled over time. For example, in a research project on "Attitudes Towards Technology" it is of crucial importance to include data collected in the fifties and sixties in order to answer the research question whether potential threats from new technologies have decreased the level of technology acceptance or whether tendencies to reject new developments concentrate on particular technologies only, and if so, under what circumstances. Combining Existing Secondary Data Sources with New Primary Data Sources Imagine that we could get hold of a good collection of surveys taken in earlier years, such as detailed studies about changes going on in this phase and hopefully additional studies in the years to come. Analyzing this data base over time could give us a good picture of what changes actually have taken place in the orientation of the population and of the extent to which new technical concepts did have an impact on subgroups of the population. Furthermore, data archives can help to prepare studies on change over time by monitoring what questions have been asked in earlier years and alerting principal investigators to important questions which should be repeated in planned research projects. Actually, data archives should consider including funds in their budgets which allow them to collect data for relevant questions in order to avoid interruptions in important time series. Technical Challenges in Combining Data Sets A number of methodological and technical requirements have to be observed and should be implemented rigorously. Just to mention the most important: Some methodologists require that the questions should be functionally equivalent, whereas others claim that the question texts must be phrased identically. Frequently, it is not the linguistic identity which matters. Sometimes it is much more important, whether the questions are understood by the respondent in the same way. Thus, a thermometer or scale used as a representation for intensity of attitudes in the more developed societies may be replaced by a ladder in less developed societies. Both, thermometer and ladder, would still measure the same dimension in the conceptual world of the respective respondents. A second requirement would be comparability of samples, thus, a cross-national representative random sample would be hard to compare with the local quota sample in one community in a different nation. Several other factors have to be controlled as well, in particular contextual influences at the time of field work or political or environmental events, which are related to the topic of the research.

Question No. 5 Analyze logically data acquiring legitimacy relating to internal and external analysis? What special problems do open-ended questions have and how

can these be reduced? In what situations the open-end question is most useful? Answer