ue La Salle unlverslLy uasmarlnas

College of Lnglneerlng ArchlLecLure and 1echnology

Lnglneerlng ueparLmenL

LCL1 412L rlnclples of CommunlcaLlons
lM 8ecelver
uocumenLaLlon




Ca[lgas ken LesLer
Lqulpado Alkenn Lole l
Manalaysay !an lan 8
1an !ohn hlllp 8
vales !usLln uemeL M
vlcenLe 8oberL v
LCL43


Lng'r Clovannl Arlola
LaboraLory lnsLrucLor
lnLroducLlon
A frequency modulaLor ls clrculL LhaL varles carrler frequency ln accordance wlLh Lhe modulaLlng slgnal
1he varlaLlon of Lhe carrler frequency lmplles Lhe lnformaLlon Lo be LransmlLLed and Lhen laLer recelved
by Lhe recelver clrculL Llke Lhe AM Lhe lM sysLem also conslsLs of a LransmlLLer and a recelver
1he fronL end an lM recelver Lyplcally conslsLs of Lhe 8l ampllfler mlxer and a Luner
ln Lhls pro[ecL we used Lhe CxA1691M/S lM/AM 8adlo lC lL ls an lC deslgned for radlocasseLLe Lape
recorders lL has a bullLln lM/AM selecL swlLch has a large ouLpuL of Al ampllfler 8l ampllfler Mlxer
aand CSC (lncorporaLlng AlC varlable capaclLor) ll ampllfler quadraLure deLecLor and a Lunlng LLu
drlver uslng an lC ls beLLer Lhan consLrucLlng Lhe several ampllfler sLages manually 1he lC helps
mlnlmlze Lhe errors ln maklng Lhe clrculL and maxlmlzes Lhe Llme for maklng Lhe enLlre recelver clrculL
8lock ulagram of lM sysLem

1he 8l ampllfler selecLs and ampllfles Lhe deslred sLaLlon from Lhe many 1he selecLed frequency ls
applled Lo Lhe mlxer 1he ouLpuL of an osclllaLor ls also applled Lo Lhe mlxer 1he mlxer and osclllaLor
form a l8LCuLnC? CPAnCL8 clrculL 1he ouLpuL from Lhe mlxer ls Lhe lnLermedlaLe frequency (lf) 1he
lf slgnal ls fed lnLo Lhe lf ampllfler 1he ampllfled lf slgnal ls fed Lo Lhe demodulaLor 1hls clrculL
recovers Lhe audlo slgnal and dlscards Lhe rf carrler Some of Lhe audlo ls fed back Lo Lhe osclllaLor as
an Au1CMA1lC l8LCuLnC? CCn18CL volLage 1he audlo slgnal volLage ls lncreased ln ampllLude by a
volLage ampllfler 1he power level ls lncreased sufflclenLly Lo drlve Lhe loudspeaker by Lhe power
ampllfler

SchemaLlc ulagram
150 U
10.7
3.3 uF
100 kU
100 kU
3 pF
27 pF
100 kU






8ackground Lo lM recelver deslgn
An AM recelver relles upon Lhe orlglnal carrler slgnal (sLaLlon frequency) havlng been ampllLude
modulaLed 1hls means Lhe orlglnal ampllLude (sLrengLh) varles aL an audlo raLe Looklng aL Lhe flgure
below we can see an unmodulaLed carrler slgnal as lL mlghL be seen on an oscllloscope


An unmodulaLed carrler slgnal
as you can see Lhe ampllLude of Lhe carrler slgnal ls unvarylng lL remalns consLanL ln helghL looklng from
Lhe Lop of Lhe flgure Lo Lhe boLLom of Lhe flgure 1hls carrler ls common Lo boLh AM and lM slgnals
erhaps Lhe AM carrler slgnal repeaLs each cycle from polnL (a) Lo polnL (b) blue below aL Lhe raLe of
810000 Llmes a second Lhls represenLs a frequency of 810 khz and would be ln Lhe am radlo band


Cne compleLe cycle of slgnal
lf Lhe slgnal were varled aL 101700000 cycles per second Lhen lL would be 1017 Mhz and locaLed ln Lhe
lM radlo band
now lf Lhe unmodulaLed carrler slgnal ls ampllLude modulaLed lL looks llke Lhe slgnal below


An AM slgnal
Pere you wlll noLlce LhaL Lhe audlo modulaLlng slgnal whlch ls deplcLed ln red has varled Lhe sLrengLh of
Lhe carrler slgnal whlch ls deplcLed green for purposes of Lhls lllusLraLlon
?ou should be able Lo see Lhe carrler slne wave envelope ls belng varled ln sLrengLh by Lhe red audlo
slgnal ln Lhe recelver clrculL a dlode deLecLor can converL LhaL envelope above back lnLo Lhe orlglnal
audlo slgnal for laLer ampllflcaLlon alLhough some dlsLorLlon does resulL
lL was Lo an exLenL Lhls dlsLorLlon properLy LhaL people soughL a beLLer means of Lransmlsslon More
lmporLanL lL was dlscovered LhaL nolse (elLher man made C8M or naLural nolse C8n) was ampllLude ln
lLs properLles
1he blue llnes represenL nolse lmpulses caused perhaps by auLomoblle lgnlLlon nearby fluorescenL
llghLlng your compuLer or aLmospherlc nolse such as a dlsLanL sLorm noLe Lhe blue llnes exLend beyond
Lhe ampllLude envelope Lhey could be many Llmes Lhe magnlLude of Lhe recelved slgnal
nearly everyone has experlenced sLaLlc crashes Lhrough an AM radlo when nearby llghLnlng sLrlkes
lor Lhese reasons frequency modulaLlon evolved lnsLead of varylng Lhe ampllLude of Lhe carrler slgnal
whlch remalns consLanL we vary Lhe carrler frequency more or less by Lhe audlo frequency
lf a carrler slgnal ls frequency modulaLed (fm) lL looks llke one below


lrequency modulaLed carrler
?ou should lmmedlaLely noLe LhaL Lhe carrler frequency ls varylng yeL Lhe ampllLude has remalned
consLanL
8equlremenLs of an lM recelver
vPl 8ecepLlon
ln mosL enLerLalnmenL varleLy recelvers le 88 108 Mhz Lhe local osclllaLor operaLes aL a consLanL 107
Mhz hlgher or lower Lhan Lhe recelved slgnal eg 987 Mhz Lo 1187 Mhz
LlmlLlng AcLlon
LlmlLlng can be descrlbed as Lhe acLlon of overampllflcaLlon where Lhe slgnal ls overdrlven ln sLages and
subsequenLly cllpped Looklng aL flgure (a) below we can lmaglne whaL happens when lL ls ampllfled
and cllpped (b) ampllfled once agaln and cllpped agaln (c)

AM modulaLed slgnal belng cllpped
naLurally we donL puL a normal AM slgnal Lhrough a llmlLer Lhls ls usually only done wlLh lM slgnals l
slmply provlded flgure 3 above so you could geL Lhe general ldea ?ou should noLlce LhaL all Lhe
ampllLude modulaLlon lnformaLlon (lncludlng nolse) ls progresslvely belng removed 1hls ls exacLly whaL
happens ln a llmlLer only Lo a much greaLer ampllflcaLlon
Means Cf ueLecLlon
A number of lM deLecLlon schemes have evolved over Lhe years 1he prlnclpal dlscreLe ones were
(a) lM ulscrlmlnaLor

lM dlscrlmlnaLor
1hls dlscrlmlnaLor slmply works on Lhe prlnclpal LhaL wlLh no modulaLlon applled Lo Lhe carrler Lhere ls
no oupuL aL Lhe deLecLor 8rlefly 11 converLs Lhe lM slgnal Lo AM and when recLlfled Lhe ouLpuL ls sLlll
zero because Lhey would be equal buL opposlLe ln polarlLy lf modulaLlon ls applled Lhen Lhere ls a shlfL
ln Lhe phase of Lhe lnpuL componenL wlLh a correspondlng dlfference ln Lhe slgnals ouL of Lhe dlodes
1he dlfference beLween Lhese ouLpuLs ls Lhe audlo
As an aslde Lhls ls somewhaL slmllar Lo some AuLomaLlc llne 1unlng (Al1) schemes ln some am
recelvers noLably early 1v recelvers WlLh no frequency varlaLlon Lhere ls no ouLpuL wlLh frequency
drlfL Lhere wlll be an ouLpuL dlfference (ln elLher dlrecLlon) whlch ls ampllfled and applled Lo fronL end
Lunlng dlodes for correcLlon



(b) 8aLlo ueLecLor
1he schemaLlc looks a llLLle slmllar Lo Lhe dlscrlmlnaLor buL has a Lhlrd (LerLlary) wlndlng on Lhe
secondary of 11 dlode u2 has lLs polarlLy reversed and Lhe Lwo dlvlder reslsLors are replaced by
capaclLors 1hls scheme was qulLe popular ln enLerLalnmenL Lype recelvers ?ou deLecL lM buL noL AM
and lL placed some relaxaLlon on Lhe severe llmlLlng requlremenLs
(c) CrysLal ulscrlmlnaLor
Cnce favoured by radlo amaLeurs buL superseded by laLer lC deslgns
(d) hase Lock Loops
Among Lhe relaLlvely newer deslgns and LLs overcome many of Lhe drawbacks and cosLs assoclaLed
wlLh bulldlng and allgnlng LC dlscrlmlnaLors
8evlew So lar And SLereo 8ecepLlon
Cver Lhe lasL 20 years developmenLs ln Lhe manufacLure of dedlcaLed and compleLe lM recelvers on a
chlp have made an ln depLh revlew of earller lnformaLlon presenLed LoLally redundanL
1hese developmenLs lnclude companlon devlces Lo handle sLereo recepLlon








ulscusslon
kI Amp||f|er Stage
1he 8l ampllfler also called low nolseampllfler processes Lhe weak lnpuL slgnals lncreaslng Lhelr
ampllLude prlor Lo mlxlng 1he 8l ampllfler ls usually a slmple class A clrculL SlnglesLage 8l ampllflers
are convenLlonal excepL for some smallslgnal appllcaLlons LhaL requlre larger scale of ampllflcaLlon
before Lhe mlxer 1he 8l ampllfler can be a cascode Lo provlde sufflclenL ampllflcaLlon for weaker
slgnals
M|xer Stage
1he slgnal ampllfled Lhrough Lhe 8l lnpuL ampllfler ls Lhe applled Lo Lhe lnpuL of Lhe mlxer 1he mlxer
ouLpuL ls Lhe lnpuL slgnal Lhe local osclllaLor lnpuL slgnal and Lhe sum and dlfference frequencles of Lhe
slgnals A Luned clrculL whlch ls usually locaLed aL Lhe ouLpuL of Lhe mlxer selecLs Lhe dlfference
frequency or lnLermedlaLe frequency (ll) 1he sum frequency may also be selecLed as Lhe ll ln some
appllcaLlons 1he mlxer may be a dlode a balanced modulaLor or a LranslsLor MCSlL1s and hoL carrler
dlodes are preferred as mlxers because of Lhelr lownolse characLerlsLlcs 1he lnpuL slgnal
s
whlch ls
applled Lo one lnpuL and Lhe slne wave from Lhe local osclllaLor
o
ls applled Lo Lhe oLher lnpuL 1he
slgnal Lo be LranslaLed Lo anoLher frequency can be a slmple slne wave or any complex modulaLed slgnal
conLalnlng sldebands Llke an ampllLude modulaLor a mlxer essenLlally performs a maLhemaLlcal
mulLlpllcaLlon of lLs Lwo lnpuL slgnals 1he osclllaLor ls Lhe carrler and Lhe slgnal Lo be LranslaLed ls Lhe
modulaLlng slgnal 1he ouLpuL conLalns noL only Lhe carrler slgnal buL also sldebands formed when Lhe
local osclllaLor and lnpuL slgnal are mlxed 1he ouLpuL of Lhe mlxer Lherefore conslsLs of slgnals

s
,
o
,
o
+
s
, anu
o
-
s
oi
s
-
o
1he local osclllaLor slgnal
o
usually appears ln Lhe mlxer
ouLpuL as does Lhe orlglnal lnpuL slgnal
s
ln some Lypes of mlxer clrculLs





ConcepL of a mlxer

I Stage
1he ouLpuL of Lhe mlxer ls an ll slgnal conLalnlng Lhe same modulaLlon LhaL appeared on Lhe lnpuL 8l
slgnal 1hls slgnal ls ampllfled by one or more ll ampllfler sLages and mosL of Lhe recelver galn ls
obLalned ln Lhese sLages SelecLlve Luned clrculLs provlde flxed selecLlvlLy
Demodu|at|on
1he hlghly ampllfled ll slgnal ls flnally applled Lo Lhe demodulaLor or deLecLor whlch recovers Lhe
orlglnal modulaLlng lnformaLlon 1he demodulaLor for lM ls a quadraLure deLecLor 1he ouLpuL of Lhe
demodulaLor ls Lhen fed Lo an audlo ampllfler wlLh sufflclenL volLage and power galn Lo operaLe Lhe
speaker



Concluslon
1hls hardware was a compllanL Lo Lhe lM LransmlLLer hardware 1hls lM recelver conLalns Lhe baslc
elemenL of a recelver 1he lM recelver concepL was enLlrely lnLegraLed on Lhe lC used Lhe CxA1691M/S
lM/AM 8adlo lC




























&Some noLes abouL lM

lM appllcaLlons are dlvlded lnLo Lwo broad caLegorles
Wldeband lM (WlM)
narrowband lM (n8lM)

1he prlmary dlfference beLween Lhe Lwo Lypes of lM ls Lhe number of sldebands ln Lhe modulaLed
slgnal Wldeband lM has a large number (LheoreLlcally lnflnlLe) number of sldebands narrowband lM
has only a slngle palr of slgnlflcanL sldebands lL ls posslble Lo deLermlne lf a parLlcular lM slgnal wlll be
wlde or narrow band by looklng aL a quanLlLy called Lhe uevlaLlon 8aLlo (u8) lL ls deflned as Lhe raLlo of
Lhe maxlmum devlaLlon of Lhe lM slgnal Lo Lhe maxlmum modulaLlng frequency


1he u8 ls also Lhe modulaLlon lndex of Lhe hlghesL modulaLlng frequency lf Lhe u8 10 Lhe modulaLlon
ls called wldeband lM (WlM) lf Lhe u8 10 Lhe modulaLlon ls narrow band lM (n8lM)

Cne of Lhe drawbacks of wldeband lM ls Lhe large bandwldLh requlred Commerclal lM broadcasLlng
requlres 130 kPz of bandwldLh Lo LransmlL a13 kPz audlo slgnal 3 Llmes Lhe bandwldLh requlred for an
AM slgnal

1he flgure below compares Lhe specLra of a WlM slgnal (u8 3) and a n8lM slgnal (u8 03) 1he
separaLlon beLween sldebands ls equal Lo Lhe modulaLlng frequency 1hus Lhe bandwldLh for n8lM ls
2&fm whlch ls Lhe same as for AM Powever for WlM Lhe bandwldLh ls approxlmaLely 2n& fm where
n Lhe number of sldebands



lM ls used ln Lhe followlng appllcaLlons

1 noncommerclal broadcasLlng from 88 90 MPz (WlM)
2 Commerclal broadcasLlng from 90 108 MPz (WlM)
3 1elevlslon audlo (WlM)
4 ubllc Servlce communlcaLlons (pollce flre deparLmenLs eLc) from 30 30 MPz 136174 MPz 430470
MPz and 800 MPz (n8lM)
3 AmaLeur 8adlo Servlce CommunlcaLlons 293 297 MPZ 32 34 MPz 144 148 MPz 222 223 MPz
440 430 MPz 902 MPz 1240 1300 MPz and oLher frequencles above 23 CPz (n8lM)
6 olnLLopolnL mlcrowave llnks used by LelecommunlcaLlons companles (Lhls ls very wldeband lM Lhe
devlaLlon of Lhe carrler can be 10 MPz or more)

1he ouLpuL powers used can range from 10 mW Lo 100 kW noLe LhaL lM ls noL used aL frequencles
below approxlmaLely 30 MPz 1here are Lwo reasons for Lhls

1 Cver Lhe horlzon propagaLlon ln Lhls frequency range (Lhe resulL of lonospherlc refracLlon) can lnLroduce
slgnlflcanL phase dlsLorLlon lnLo a wldeband lM slgnal
2 1he bandwldLh avallable ln Lhls reglon of Lhe radlo specLrum ls llmlLed so oLher modes such as SS8
(slngle sldeband suppressed carrler) are used LhaL are more specLrum efflclenL (SS8 requlres 3 kPz of
bandwldLh for a 3kPz audlo slgnal vs 6 kPz for n8lM and 12 kPz for WlM)

JDL8AND IM (JIM)
lM 88CAuCAS1lnC
Commerclal lM broadcasLs occur ln Lhe vPl range beLween 88 and 108 MPz 1he carrler frequencles
sLarL aL 881 MPz and are separaLed by 200 kPz lnLervals 1he maxlmum audlo bandwldLh allowed ls 13
kPz and Lhe devlaLlon ls llmlLed Lo +/ 73 kPz LlmlLlng Lhe devlaLlon Lo Lhls value leaves a 23 kPz guard
band aL each end of Lhe channel LhaL llmlLs lnLerchannel lnLerference 1he u8 for commerclal lM
broadcasLlng ls 73/13 30 1hls ls clearly a wldeband lM slgnal
1LLLvlSlCn AuulC
1he audlo porLlon of an analog (n1SC) Lelevlslon slgnal ls senL uslng lM 1he maxlmum permlLLed
frequency devlaLlon ls 23 kPz and Lhe maxlmum audlo frequency ls 13 kPz 1he u8 for commerclal lM
broadcasLlng ls 23/13 167 1hls ls a wldeband lM slgnal
Cln11CCln1 MlC8CWAvL
1elephone companles have made exLenslve use of mlcrowave sysLems for medlum and long dlsLance
Lrunk clrculLs alLhough many of Lhese mlcrowave sysLems are belng replaced by opLlcal flber A Lyplcal
polnLLopolnL dlglLal mlcrowave sysLem such as Lhe A11 u8630 operaLed wlLh a carrler frequency of 6
CPz and carrled 9408 3 kPz volce channels ln a bandwldLh of 210 MPz 1he effecLlve u8 ls 210
MPz/(3kPz&9408) 744

NAkkCJ 8AND IM (N8IM)

n8lM ls wldely used ln buslness and publlc servlce communlcaLlons 1he u8 for n8lM ls resLrlcLed Lo
values beLween 03 and 10 8y holdlng Lhe u8 Lo such small values only Lhe carrler and Lhe flrsL
sldeband are of slgnlflcanL ampllLude When only one sldeband and Lhe carrler are LransmlLLed Lhe
n8lM slgnal occuples Lhe same bandwldLh as an AM slgnal 1hls overcomes one of Lhe drawbacks of
wldeband lM Lhe large bandwldLh requlred 1he lCC permlLs Lhe bandwldLh of n8lM slgnals Lo be
from 10 Lo 30 kPz dependlng on Lhe asslgned carrler frequency and Lhe Lype of operaLlon auLhorlzed

8eferences
hLLp//wwwycarsorg/Ll8A/Module208/fmappshLm
hLLp//wwwhobbypro[ecLscom/block_dlagrams/fm_recelverhLml
rlnclples of LlecLronlc CommunlcaLlon SysLems 38u LdlLlon by Louls L lrenzel
hLLp//wwwdlgchlpcom/daLasheeLs/parLs/daLasheeL/000/CxA1691php
hLLp//wwwelecLronlcsLuLorlalscom/recelvers/fmradlorecelvers2hLm