DISCIPLINED DRIVING IS THE ONLY ROAD

HUMAN SAFETY
A survey of over 1600 drivers is reported, the results of which are consistent
with those reported in an earlier study (Reason et al. 1990), which identified
a three-fold typology of aberrant driving behaviours. The first type, lapses,
are absent-minded behaviours with consequences mainly for the perpetrator,
posing no threat to other road users. The second type, errors, are typically
misjudgements and failures of observation that may be hazardous to others.
The third type, violations, involve deliberate contraventions of safe driving
practice. In the present study the survey instrument used, the Driver
Behaviour Questionnaire, was also shown to be reliable over time. Each type
of behaviour was found to have different demographic correlates. Most
importantly, accident liability was predicted by self-reported tendency to
commit violations, but not by tendency to make errors or to have lapses. The
implications for road safety are discussed.

The National Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety Act allowed new standards to be set by
the federal government. Regulation of these standards is also managed by the federal
government.

The reduction of the rate of death attributable to motor-vehicle crashes in the United
States represents the successful public health response to a great technologic advance of
the 20th century--the motorization of America. Six times as many people drive today as
in 1925, and the number of motor vehicles in the country has increased 11-fold since then
to approximately 215 million[1] The distance traveled in motor vehicles is 10 times higher
than in the mid-1920s. Despite this steep increase in motor-vehicle travel, the annual
death rate has declined from 18 per 100 million vehicle miles traveled (VMT) in 1925 to
1.7 per 100 million VMT in 1997--a 90% decrease (Figure 1).[1]

Figure 1
Systematic motor-vehicle safety efforts began during the 1960s. In 1960, unintentional
injuries caused 93,803 deaths[1]; 41% were associated with motor-vehicle crashes. In
1966, after watching 5 years of rising motor-vehicle-related fatality rates, the Highway
Safety Act created the National Highway Safety Bureau (NHSB), which later became the
National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA). The systematic approach to
motor-vehicle-related injury prevention began with NHSB's first director, Dr. William
Haddon.[2] Haddon, a public health physician, recognized that standard public health
methods and epidemiology could be applied to preventing motor-vehicle-related and
other injuries. He defined interactions between host (human), agent (motor vehicle), and
environmental (highway) factors before, during, and after crashes resulting in injuries.
Tackling problems identified with each factor during each phase of the crash, NHSB
initiated a campaign to prevent motor-vehicle-related injuries.

In 1966, passage of the Highway Safety Act and the National Traffic and Motor Vehicle
Safety Act authorized the federal government to set and regulate standards for motor
vehicles and highways, a mechanism necessary for effective prevention[2][3] Many
changes in both vehicle and highway design followed this mandate. Vehicles (agent of
injury) were built with new safety features, including head rests, energy-absorbing
steering wheels, shatter-resistant windshields, and safety belts[3][4] Roads (environment)
were improved by better delineation of curves (edge and center line stripes and
reflectors), use of breakaway sign and utility poles, improved illumination, addition of
barriers separating oncoming traffic lanes, and guardrails[4][5]

The results were rapid. By 1970, motor-vehicle-related death rates were decreasing by
both the public health measure (deaths per 100,000 population) and the traffic safety
indicator (deaths per VMT) (Figure 2).[1]

Figure 2
Changes in driver and passenger (host) behavior also have reduced motor-vehicle crashes
and injuries. Enactment and enforcement of traffic safety laws, reinforced by public
education, have led to safer behavior choices. Examples include enforcement of laws
against driving while intoxicated (DWI) and underage drinking, and enforcement of
safety-belt, child-safety seat, and motorcycle helmet use laws[5][6]

Government and community recognition of the need for motor-vehicle safety prompted
initiation of programs by federal and state governments, academic institutions,
community-based organizations, and industry. NHTSA and the Federal Highway
Administration within the U.S. Department of Transportation have provided national
leadership for traffic and highway safety efforts since the 1960s.[2] The National Center
for Injury Prevention and Control, established at CDC in 1992, has contributed public
health direction[7][8] State and local governments have enacted and enforced laws that
affect motor-vehicle and highway safety, driver licensing and testing, vehicle inspections,
and traffic regulations.[2] Preventing motor-vehicle-related injuries has required
collaboration among many professional disciplines (e.g., biomechanics has been essential
to vehicle design and highway safety features). Citizen and community-based advocacy
groups have played important prevention roles in areas such as drinking and driving and
child-occupant protection.[6] Consistent with the public/ private partnerships that
characterize motor-vehicle safety efforts, NHTSA sponsors "Buckle Up America" week,
which focuses on the need to always properly secure children in child-safety seats
(additional information is available by telephone, [202] 366-5399, or on the World-Wide
Web at http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov).

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Specific public health concerns

• 2 21st century challenges
• 3 Sources
• 4 Related Journal
• 5 See also

• 6 References

[edit] Specific public health concerns

High-Risk Populations"'Pushing it to the limit

• Alcohol-impaired
drivers Annual
motor-vehicle crash-
related fatalities
involving alcohol
has decreased 39%
since 1982, to
approximately
16,000; these deaths
account for 38.6% of
all traffic deaths.[9][10]
Factors that may
have contributed to
this decline include
increased public
awareness of the
dangers of drinking
and driving; new and
tougher state laws;
stricter law
 enforcement; an
increase in the
minimum legal
drinking age;
prevention programs
that offer alternatives
such as safe rides
(e.g., taxicabs and
public
transportation),
designated drivers,
and responsible
alcohol-serving
practices; and a
decrease in per
capita alcohol
consumption[5][6]

• Young drivers and

passengers Since
1975, motor-vehicle-
related fatality rates
have decreased 27%
for young motor-
vehicle occupants
(ages 16-20 years).
However, in 1997
the death rate was
28.3 per 100,000
population--more
than twice that of the
U.S. population
(13.3 per 100,000
population).[9]
Teenaged drivers are
more likely than
older drivers to
speed, run red lights,
make illegal turns,
ride with an
intoxicated driver,
and drive after
drinking alcohol or
using drugs.[11]
Strategies that have
contributed to
 improved motor-
vehicle safety among
young drivers
include laws
restricting purchase
of alcohol among
underaged youths[6]
and some aspects of
graduated licensing
systems (e.g.,
nighttime driving
restrictions).[12]

• Pedestrians From
1975 to 1997,
pedestrian fatality
rates decreased 41%,
from 4 per 100,000
population in 1975 to
2.3 in 1997 but still
account for 13% of
motor-vehicle-
related deaths.[9]
Factors that may
have reduced
pedestrian fatalities
include more and
better sidewalks,
pedestrian paths,
playgrounds away
from streets, one-
way traffic flow, and
restricted on-street
parking.[6]

Occupant-Protection Systems

Safety belts In response to legislation, highly visible law enforcement, and public
education, rates of safety belt use nationwide have increased from approximately 11% in
1981 to 68% in 1997 (8). Safety belt use began to increase following enactment of the
first state mandatory-use laws in 1984.[6] All states except New Hampshire now have
safety-belt use laws. Primary laws (which allow police to stop vehicles simply because
occupants are not wearing safety belts) are more effective than secondary laws (which
require that a vehicle be stopped for some other traffic violation).[6][13][13] The prevalence
of safety belt use after enactment of primary laws increases 1.5-4.3 times, and motor-
vehicle-related fatality rates decrease 13%-46%.[13]
Child-safety and booster seats All states have passed child passenger protection laws, but
these vary widely in age and size requirements and the penalties imposed for
noncompliance. Child-restraint use in 1996 was 85% for children aged less than 1 year
and 60% for children aged 1-4 years.[14] Since 1975, deaths among children aged less than
5 years have decreased 30% to 3.1 per 100,000 population, but rates for age groups 5-15
years have declined by only 11%-13%.[9] Child seats are misused by as many as 80% of
users[15][16][17] In addition, parents fail to recognize the need for booster seats for children
who are too large for child seats but not large enough to be safely restrained in an adult
lap-shoulder belt[18] Safety is not Guaranteed.

[edit] 21st century challenges

Despite the great success in reducing motor-vehicle-related death rates, motor-vehicle
crashes remain the leading cause of injury-related deaths in the United States, accounting
for 31% of all such deaths in 1996 (CDC, unpublished data, 1999). Furthermore, motor-
vehicle-related injuries led all causes for deaths among persons aged 1-24 years. In 1997,
motor-vehicle crashes resulted in 41,967 deaths (16 per 100,000 population), 3.4 million
nonfatal injuries (1270 per 100,000 population) (9), and 23.9 million vehicles in crashes;
cost estimates are $200 billion.[1]

The challenge for the 21st century is to sustain and improve motor-vehicle safety. Future
success will require augmentation of the public health approach to 1) expand surveillance
to better monitor nonfatal injuries, detect new problems, and set priorities; 2) direct
research to emerging and priority problems; 3) implement the most effective programs
and policies; and 4) strengthen interagency, multidisciplinary partnerships. Key public
health activities will be to

• continue efforts
shown to reduce
alcohol-impaired
driving and related
fatalities and
injuries.
• promote strategies
such as graduated
licensing that
discourage teenage
drinking and other
risky driving
behaviors such as
speeding and
encourage safety belt
use.
• enhance pedestrian
safety, especially for
children and the
 elderly, through
engineering solutions
that reduce exposure
to traffic and permit
crossing streets
safely and by
encouraging safer
pedestrian behaviors,
such as crossing
streets at
intersections, and
increasing visibility
to drivers and driver
awareness of
pedestrians.
• accommodate the
mobility needs of
persons aged greater
than 65 years--a
population that will
almost double to 65
million by 2030--
through a
combination of
alternative modes of
transportation (e.g.,
walking and better
public
transportation) and
development of
strategies to reduce
driving hazards[6][19]

• encourage the 30%

of the population
who do not wear
safety belts to use
them routinely.
• encourage proper use
of age-appropriate
child-safety seats
and booster seats,
especially for older
children who have
outgrown their child
seats but are too
 small for adult lap-
shoulder belts.
• conduct
biomechanics
research to better
understand the
causes of nonfatal
disabling injuries, in
particular brain and
spinal cord injuries,
as a foundation for
prevention strategies.
• develop a
comprehensive
public health
surveillance system
at the federal, state,
and local levels that
track fatal and
nonfatal motor-
vehicle-related
injuries and other
injuries and diseases
(i.e., outpatient and
emergency
department visits,
hospitalizations,
disabilities, and
deaths) as a basis for
setting prevention
and research
priorities.

Automobile safety is the avoidance of automobile accidents or the minimization of

harmful effects of accidents, in particular as pertaining to human life and health.
Numerous safety features have been built into cars for years, some for the safety of car's
occupants only, some for the safety of others.
Distance covered by vehicles in one second.
Road traffic injuries represent about 25% of worldwide injury-related deaths (the leading
cause) with an estimated 1.2 million deaths (2004) each year - World Health Organization
[1]
).

Major factors in accidents include driving under the influence of alcohol or other drugs;
inattentive driving; crash compatibility between vehicles; driving while fatigued or
unconscious; encounters with road hazards such as snow, potholes, and crossing animals;
or reckless driving.

Contents
[hide]

• 1 History
• 2 Colour
• 3 Passenger safety when driving
o 3.1 Pregnant women
o 3.2 Children
 3.2.1 Infants
 3.2.2 Toddlers
 3.2.3 Young children
 3.2.4 Teenage Drivers
• 4 Safety dangers
• 5 Safety features
o 5.1 Active safety
o 5.2 Passive safety
• 6 See also
• 7 References

• 8 External links
 [edit] History
Car safety became an issue almost immediately after the invention of the automobile,
when Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot crashed his steam-powered "Fardier" against a wall in
1771. One of the earliest recorded automobile fatalities was Mary Ward, on August 31,
1869 in Parsonstown, Ireland.

In the 1930s, plastic surgeon Claire L. Straith and physician C. J. Strickland advocated
the use of seatbelts and padded dashboards. Strickland founded the Automobile Safety
League of America [2][3].

In 1934 GM performed the first barrier Crash test [4].

In the 1940s SAAB incorporated aircraft safety thinking into automobiles making the
Saab 92 the first production car first with a safety cage[5]. In fact Volvo introduced the
Safety Cage in 1944 (while Saab did in 1949).[6]

In 1942 Hugh De Haven published the classic Mechanical analysis of survival in falls
from heights of fifty to one hundred and fifty feet [7]

In the 1950's, Mercedes-Benz extensively crash tested prototypes. [8].

In 1958, the United Nations established the World Forum for Harmonization of Vehicle
Regulations, an international standards body advancing auto safety. Many of the most life
saving safety innovations, like seat belts and roll cage construction were brought to
market under its auspices.

In 1966, the US established the United States Department of Transportation (DOT) with
automobile safety one of its purposes. The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB)
was created as an independent organization on April 1, 1967, but was reliant on the DOT
for administration and funding. However, in 1975 the organization was made completely
independent by the Independent Safety Board Act (in P.L. 93-633; 49 U.S.C. 1901).

The NTSB and its European equivalent, EuroNCAP have each issued independent safety
tests for all new automobiles, without reciprocity.

In June, 2004 the NTSB released new tests designed to test the rollover risk of new cars
and SUVs. Only the Mazda RX-8 got a 5-star rating. However, the correlation between
official crash test results and road deaths in vehicles is not exact. An alternative method
of assessing vehicle safety is to study the road accident statistics on a model-by-model
basis.

Despite technological advances, the death toll of car accidents remains high: about
40,000 people die every year in the US. While this number increases annually in line with
rising population and increased travel, the rate per capita and per vehicle miles travelled
decreases. In 1996 the US had about 2 deaths per 10,000 motor vehicles, comparable to
1.9 in Germany, 2.6 in France, and 1.5 in the UK [9]. In 1998 there were 3,421 fatal
accidents in the UK, the fewest since 1926 [10].

A much higher number of accidents result in permanent disability.

[edit] Colour
A Swedish study found that pink cars are indeed safer, with black cars being most likely
to be involved in crashes. This test also showed Saab to be the "safest car in Sweden [In
terms of passive safety]" (Land transport NZ 2005).

In Auckland New Zealand, a study found that there was a significantly lower risk of
serious injury in silver cars; with higher risks in brown, black, and green cars. (Furness et
al, 2003)

[edit] Passenger safety when driving

[edit] Pregnant women

When pregnant, women should continue to use seatbelts and airbags properly. A
University of Michigan study found that "unrestrained or improperly restrained pregnant
women are 5.7 times more likely to have an adverse foetal outcome than properly
restrained pregnant women" [2]. If seatbelts are not long enough, extensions are available
from the car manufacturer or an aftermarket supplier.

[edit] Children

Car safety is especially critical for young children, as car safety is generally designed for
normal sized adults. Safety features that could save an adult can actually cause more
damage to a child than if the feature was not there. It is important to review with others,
who may be supervising the child, the rules for car safety. All children age 12 and under
should ride in the back seat. Also children weighing less than 85 lb (40 kg) should be in
the back seat. This is especially the case if there are airbags in the front seat, as airbags
are only designed to protect adults and may injure children. That is not just an opinion
but is also law in many of the U.S. states and other countries. The Center for Injury
Research and Prevention at The Children's Hospital Of Philadelphia has developed a
website for parents and caregivers with extensive information about transporting children
safely in automobiles.

Child safety locks prevent children from accidentally opening doors from inside the
vehicle, even if the door is unlocked. The door, once unlocked, can then be opened only
from the outside. To find out more about laws relating to children car safety contact your
local department of transportation authority.

[edit] Infants
Newborn babies should be put in a car seat until they weigh at least 20 or 22 pounds (10
or 11 kg). These carriers are designed to be placed in the rear seat and face towards the
rear with the baby looking towards the back window. Some of these carriers are
"Convertibles" which can also be used forward facing for older children. With infants,
these should only be used facing the rear. Harness straps should be at or below shoulder
level.

A rear-facing infant restraint must never be put in the front seat of a vehicle with a front
passenger air bag. A rear-facing infant restraint places an infant's head close to the air bag
module, which can cause severe head injuries or death if the air bag deploys. Modern cars
include a switch to turn off the airbag system of the passenger seat, in which case a child-
supporting seat must be installed.

[edit] Toddlers

This article or section appears to contradict itself. Please help fix this problem.

Toddlers over 1 year old and between 10 and 20 kg (20 and 40 pounds) should be placed
in rearward facing child seats or convertibles placed in the rear seat. Harness straps
should be at or above the child's shoulders. In Scandinavia the recommendation is to use
rearward facing seats up to the age of 4 or 5 (size of seat permitting), and in Scandinavia
you will find very few children under the age of 4 facing forward.

[edit] Young children

Children who weigh less than 80 pounds (35 kg), are younger than 8, or are shorter than 4
ft 9 in (1.4 m) are advised to use belt positioning booster seats which raise them to a level
that allows seat belts to work effectively. These seats are forward facing and must be used
with both lap and shoulder belts.

Make sure the lap belt fits low and tight across the lap/upper thigh area and the shoulder
belt fits snug crossing the chest and shoulder to avoid abdominal injuries.

There are two main types of booster seats. If the car's back seat is lower than the child's
ears, a high back booster seat should be used to help protect the child's head and neck. If
the car's seat back is higher than the child's ears, a backless booster seat can be used.

[edit] Teenage Drivers

Most areas in the United States will issue a full driver's license at the age of 16, and all
within a range between 14 and 18 [3]. In addition to being relatively inexperienced, teen
drivers are also cognitively immature, compared to other drivers. This combination leads
to an increased risk of accidents among this demographic. [11].

[edit] Safety dangers

Main safety dangers for automobiles are the wind (maintaining the direction) and the
rain.

Other safety dangers include drunk driving, driving when fatigued or unconscious, or
driving with distractions inside the car.

Driving while talking on your cell phone can be exceptionally hazardus, due to the fact
that you are taking your mind off driving, even with hands free items, such as bluetooth
headsets. [citation needed]
This short section requires expansion.

[edit] Safety features

Active safety refers to systems in a vehicle which utilize feedback, using information
about a car's external environment to change the response of the vehicle and improve the
safety of the vehicle in the pre-crash time period, or during the crash event.

Passive safety refers to built-in features of the vehicle such as crumple zones, seatbelts,
and airbags, which work passively to prevent injury and do not change their action in
response to crash scenario or severity.

[edit] Active safety

To make driving safer and prevent crashes from occurring, and also to better protect
occupants during a crash, cars may have the following active safety features:

• Turn signals and

brake lights,
including Center
High Mounted Stop
Lamps (CHMSL)
• Rear end Collision
Warning Lamps
senses deceleration
of lead vehicle and
flashes amber
warning strobe
rearward to warn
following vehicles of
a pending braking or
stopping event
• Variable assist power
steering allows
assistance to the
motorist while
 parking, but reduces
steering effort
assistance at
motorway speeds
• Headlight
wipers/washers
• Mercedes style
ribbed tailights to
prevent snow and
grime build-up
• Dynamic steering
response (DSR)
corrects the rate of
power steering
system to adapt it to
vehicle's speed and
road conditions.
• Traction control
(TCS) actuates
brakes or reduces
throttle to restore
traction if driven
wheels begin to spin.
• Hill holder.
• Four wheel drive
(AWD) with a center
differential.
Distributing power
to all four wheels
lessens the chances
of wheel spin. It also
suffers less from
oversteer and
understeer than front
wheel drive, but
more understeer than
rear wheel drive.
• Reverse backup
sensors, which alert
drivers to nearby
objects in their path,
are installed in some
high-end vehicles,
but may also be
purchased separately.
• Electronic Stability
Control (ESC, also
known by ESP and
other numerous
manufacturer-
specific names).
Uses various sensors
to intervene when
the car senses a
possible loss of
control. The car's
control unit can
reduce power from
the engine and even
apply the brakes to
prevent the car from
understeering or
oversteering. See car
stability
• Lateral Support :
Lane Departure
Warning System
(LDWS).
• Directional
headlights, which
allow the driver to
see obstacles ahead
in the roadway while
cornering.
• Low center of
gravity and other
conventional features
promoting good car
handling and
braking, and helping
to avoid rollover.
• Comfortable
suspension and
seating to avoid
accidents from driver
fatigue.
• Large (relative to
weight) high
performance tires,
suited to the weather
and road conditions,
 contribute to braking
and handling. Soft
high histeresis
rubber, tread and
cord design are
important. See Run
flat tire.
• Visibility for the
driver, mirrors,
elimination of blind
spots and possibly
other awareness aids
such as radar,
wireless vehicle
safety
communications and
night vision.
• Death Brake; there is
a move to introduce
deadman's braking
into automotive
application,
primarily heavy
vehicles, there may
also be a need to add
penalty switches to
cruise controls.
• Four wheel steering
gives, at the cost of
mechanical
complexity, quicker,
more accurate
maneuvers at high
speed and/or
decreased turning
circle at low speed. It
may also help
stability.
• Adaptive cruise
control (ACC).
• AWAKE and
intelligent car
features.
• Precrash system
• Seatbelts might also
play a minor role in
 active safety by
keeping (via locking
of the inertial reel)
the driver firm on
his/her seat in a
high-g turn or
deceleration. This
has been further
developed and
patented by
Mercedes-Benz in
the PreSafe™
technology which
provides a synergy
between active and
passive systems,
helping the driver
avoid a danger and
preparing him/her
for an imminent
crash.

• Brakes
o Anti-lock
braking
system
(ABS)
 Electr
onic
brakef
orce
distrib
ution
(EBD
)
 Corne
ring
Brake
Contr
ol
(CBC
)
o Emergency
brake assist
(EBA)
 o Brake assist
system
(BAS)
o Forward
Collision
Warning
System
(FCW)
o Lane
Departure
Warning
System
(LDW)
o Dynamic
Brake
Control
(DBC).
o Inboard
brakes allow
large fade
resistant discs
or drums,
without
contributing
to unsprung
weight and
wheel
bounce,
which
degrade
braking,
handling and
ride, and
increase
mechanical
loads.

[edit] Passive safety

Ferrari F430 drivers steering wheel with airbag.

When a crash is imminent, various passive safety systems work together to minimize
injury to the individuals involved. Much research has been done using crash test dummies
to make modern cars safer than ever. Recently, attention has also been given to cars'
design regarding the safety of pedestrians in car-pedestrian collisions. Controversial
proposals in Europe would require cars sold there to have a minimum/maximum hood
height. This has caused automakers to complain that the requirements will restrict their
design choices, resulting in ugly cars. Others have pointed out that a notable percentage
of pedestrians in these accidents are drunk. From 2006 the use of "bull bars" (known as
"roo bars" in Australia), in fashion on 4x4s and SUVs, will be illegal.

• Seatbelts (or safety

belts) absorb energy
and limit forward
motion of an
occupant, and help
keep occupants from
being ejected from
the vehicle.
• Airbags: There are
many types of
airbags, all of which
should be considered
supplemental
restraint systems
(SRS), used in
addition to belts.
o Front airbags
inflate in a
medium
 speed head
on collision
to cushion
the impact of
the head to
the steering
wheel
(driver) or
dashboard to
the (front
passenger) .
o Side airbags
inflate in a
side impact
(T-bone)
collision to
cushion the
torso and
sometimes
the pelvis and
head.
o Curtain
airbags
protect the
head and
upper body
of passengers
in a side
collision.
Newer
models may
stay inflated
for a longer
period of
time, and
may help to
keep unbelted
occupants in
vehicle
during a
rollover, but
should be
considered
supplemental
to belts and
 never used in
place of belts.
o Knee airbags
inflate in
frontal
impact
collisions to
protect the
driver's knees
and are now
available in
many newer
high end
model
vehicles.
• Crumple zone
technology absorbs
the energy of a
collision by
displacing the impact
of a crash and
diverting it from the
internal (passenger
compartment)
critical structure of
the vehicle.
• Side impact bars for
protection against
side on collisions
• Collapsible steering
column, sometimes
provided with steel
sheet bellows.
• Crash compatibility
can be improved by
matching vehicles by
weight and by
matching crumple
zones with points of
structural rigidity,
particularly for side-
on collisions. Some
pairs of vehicle front
end structures
interact better than
others in crashes.
 • Cage construction is
designed to protect
vehicle occupants.
Some racing vehicles
have a tubular roll
cage
• Reinforced side door
structural members
• Fuel pump shutoff
devices turn off gas
flow in the event of a
collision for the
purpose of
preventing gasoline
fires.
• Active pedestrian
protection systems
[4].
• Driver State Sensor -
Research, Utilizing
cutting edge video
processing
technology, the
system remotely and
unobtrusively
measures 3D head
pose and eyelid
motion parameters of
the driver.
• Padding of the
instrument panel and
other interior parts of
the vehicle likely to
be struck by the
occupants during a
crash. Whilst largely
being supplanted by
airbags, it still plays
an important role in
preventing injuries.

2 . prevent vehicular pollution than cure

Industrial growth has created high levels of air pollution in Thailand. Vehicles and
factories contribute to air pollution, particularly in Bangkok.[1]

Motorcycles at the Nana intersection, Bangkok

Sources of Air Pollution

• Vehicles — motorcycles make up around 75% of the vehicles on the road in

Thailand; diesel trucks and buses also contribute many pollutants.
• Industry — Bangkok and the rest of the Central Region contribute between 60
and 70 percent of the country’s industrial emissions.
• Power plants — most energy production relies on burning of fossil fuels
• Agricultural burning
• Garbage burning
• Open cooking
• Forest fires

Burning in southeast Asia often creates haze. In 2002 Thailand joined an agreement with
the Association of Southeast Asian Nations to reduce the haze from forest fires, but issues
throughout the region are still common.[2]

The Pollution Control Department and other agencies have developed standards and
reduced air pollution from most sources. The standards focus shifting to lower-emission
vehicle engines, improving public transportation, and requiring factories and power
plants to reduce emissions. In most areas of the country, air pollutants are now within
acceptable levels according to national standards.

Water Resources
Despite the annual southwest monsoon, Thailand is subject to drought, particularly the
northeastern region.[3] As of 2002, Thailand had less available water per person than any
other country in Asia, and nearly one third of its water was “unsuitable for human
consumption.”[4]

Like air pollution, water pollution is most serious in the populous Central Region, with
high levels of industrial and domestic wastewater. The depletion of the water table around
Bangkok has led to land subsidence.

Coastal waters also face challenges. The Gulf of Thailand is primarily polluted by
domestic wastewater, and further by waste from industry and tourism. In addition to the
Gulf, high pollution levels were found at the mouths of the Chao Phraya, Tha Chin, Pak
Panang, Pattani and Ranong rivers. Coastal water quality in most areas, however, are
within acceptable standards.
Water pollution has become obvious in many areas. In 1997, hundreds of thousands of
fish and other aquatic life in the Nam Phong River died as a result of industrial river
pollution.[5] Large amounts of arsenic were found in the groundwater in the Nakhon Si
Thammarat province, a result of mining industry in the area. [6]

[edit] Health Effects

Water pollution results in typhoid, dysentery, hepatitis, trachoma, hookworm infection

and diarrhea. In 1999, hospitalization rates were:

• Typhoid — 4,000
hospitalizations
• Dysentery — 7,000
• Diarrhea — 95,000

Exposure to toxins and heavy metals in water causes skin disease, liver cancer and birth
defects. Klity Creek in Kanchanaburi province was found to carry dangerous levels of
lead from a lead separation plant upstream. Lead levels are apparently the cause of many
cases of Down's Syndrome in village children, unidentified illnesses in adults, and many
cattle deaths. In 1998, the plant was closed and the creek dredged, although by 2000 lead
levels were still considered unsafe.

[edit] Improvement Efforts

In 1992, the government passed several pieces of legislation to prevent water pollution;
the laws primarily limit industrial water contamination:

• Enhancement and
Conservation of
National
Environment Quality
Act (NEQA) of 1992
• Factories Act of
1992
• Navigation in Thai
Waterways Act
(Volume 14 ) as
amended in 1992
• Public Health Act of
1992
• Cleanliness and
Tidiness of the
Country Act of 1992

The government continues to invest in wastewater treatment plants. In 2000, enough

treated water was available to support 29% of the population, with more treatment plants
under construction; upon completion, treated water would be able to support 65% of the
population. The most common water treatment techniques are inexpensive to build and
maintain, including oxidation ditches, aerated lagoons and stabilization ponds. The
government is also investigating more effective and modern techniques such as
constructed wetlands.

[edit] Wildlife
Main article: Wildlife of Thailand
Thailand’s wildlife is threatened by poaching, habitat loss, and an industry that sells wild
animals as pets. [7]

Asian elephants
The elephant is Thailand's national symbol. Although there were 100,000 elephants in
Thailand a century ago, the population of elephants in the wild has dropped to an
estimated 2,000.[8] Poachers have long hunted elephants for ivory, meat and hides. Young
elephants are often captured for use in tourist attractions or as work animals, although
their use has declined since the government banned logging in 1989. There are now more
elephants in captivity than in the wild, and environmental activists claim that elephants in
captivity are often mistreated.[9]

Poaching of protected species remains a major problem. Hunters have decimated the
populations of tigers, leopards and other large cats for their valuable pelts. Many animals
(including tigers, bears, crocodiles and king cobras) are farmed or hunted for their meat,
which is considered a delicacy, and for their supposed medicinal properties. Although
such trade is illegal, the famous Bangkok market Chatuchak is still known for the sale of
endangered species.[10]

The practice of keeping wild animals as pets threatens several species. Baby animals are
typically captured and sold, which often requires killing the mother. Once in captivity and
out of their natural habitat, many pets die or fail to reproduce. Affected populations
include the asiatic black bear, Malayan sun bear, white-handed lar, pileated gibbon and
binturong.[7]

Large-scale deforestation and development have encroached on many former wildlife

habitats, and pesticides in their food supply has reduced bird populations. Several species
of sawfish are listed as critically endangered because of because of habitat loss and
overfishing.[11]

[edit] Wildlife Conservation

Conservation efforts by the government include: [12]

 • 1960 Wild Animal
Reservation and
Protection Act,
which designated
protected forest and
non-hunting areas
• 1961 National Park
Act
• 1964 National Forest
Reserve Act
• 1989 Logging ban in
natural forests
• 1992 Forest
Plantation Act
• 1992 Enhancement
and Conservation of
National
Environmental
Quality Act
• 1992 Wild Animals
Reservation and
Protection Act
(WARPA)

Until the acts of 1989 - 1992, conservation policies were difficult to enforce, and often
took a back seat to economic development.[13] These acts represented a major shift in Thai
policy, and are part of the government’s cooperation with the Convention on International
Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), an international wildlife
protection agreement.

The government now requires that at least 15% of its land area be protected as forest, and
22% is currently protected as wildlife sanctuaries or national parks. To enforce CITES,
the government also maintains border checkpoints to prevent animal smuggling, and
works to educate the public about wildlife preservation. Thailand’s Buddhist culture, with
its emphasis on respect for all life, has become a key component of the country’s
conservation efforts.[7]

[edit] Notes
Air pollution is a chemical, particulate matter, or biological agent that modifies the
natural characteristics of the atmosphere. The atmosphere is a complex, dynamic natural
gaseous system that is essential to support life on planet Earth. Stratospheric ozone
depletion due to air pollution has long been recognized as a threat to human health as
well as to the Earth's ecosystems.
Worldwide air pollution is responsible for large numbers of deaths and cases of
respiratory disease. While major stationary sources are often identified with air pollution,
the greatest source of emissions is actually mobile sources, mainly automobiles. Gases
such as carbon dioxide, which contribute to global warming, have recently gained
recognition as pollutants by some scientists.

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Pollutants
• 2 Sources of air pollution
• 3 Indoor air quality (IAQ)
• 4 Health effects
• 5 Reduction efforts
o 5.1 Control devices
• 6 Air quality standards
o 6.1 Canada
o 6.2 European Union
o 6.3 United Kingdom
o 6.4 United States
• 7 Affected areas
• 8 Atmospheric dispersion modeling
• 9 Greenhouse effect and ocean acidification
• 10 See also
• 11 References
• 12 External links
o 12.1 Air quality science and general
information
o 12.2 Air quality modelling

o 12.3 Effects on human health

Pollutants

Before desulfurization filters were installed, the emissions from this power plant in New
Mexico contained excessive amounts of sulfur dioxide.
There are many substances in the air which may impair the health of plants and animals
(including humans), or reduce visibility. These arise both from natural processes and
human activity. Substances not naturally found in the air or at greater concentrations or in
different locations from usual are referred to as 'pollutants'.

Pollutants can be classified as either primary or secondary. Primary pollutants are

substances directly emitted from a process, such as ash from a volcanic eruption or the
carbon monoxide gas from a motor vehicle exhaust.

Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly. Rather, they form in the air when primary
pollutants react or interact. An important example of a secondary pollutant is ground level
ozone - one of the many secondary pollutants that make up photochemical smog.

Note that some pollutants may be both primary and secondary: that is, they are both
emitted directly and formed from other primary pollutants.

Major primary pollutants produced by human activity include:

• Sulfur oxides (SOx)

especially sulfur
dioxide are emitted
from burning of coal
and oil.
• Nitrogen oxides
(NOx) especially
nitrogen dioxide are
emitted from high
temperature
combustion. Can be
seen as the brown
haze dome above or
plume downwind of
cities.
• Carbon monoxide is
colourless,
odourless, non-
irritating but very
poisonous gas. It is a
product by
incomplete
combustion of fuel
such as natural gas,
coal or wood.
Vehicular exhaust is
a major source of
carbon monoxide.
• Carbon dioxide
(CO2), a greenhouse
gas emitted from
combustion and
respiration.
• Volatile organic
compounds (VOC),
such as hydrocarbon
fuel vapors and
solvents.
• Particulate matter
(PM), measured as
smoke and dust.
PM10 is the fraction
of suspended
particles 10
micrometers in
diameter and smaller
that will enter the
nasal cavity. PM2.5
has a maximum
particle size of 2.5
µm and will enter the
bronchies and lungs.
• Toxic metals, such as
lead, cadmium and
copper.
• Chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs), harmful to
the ozone layer
emitted from
products currently
banned from use.
• Ammonia (NH3)
emitted from
agricultural
processes.
• Odors, such as from
garbage, sewage, and
industrial processes
• Radioactive
pollutants produced
by nuclear
explosions and war
explosives, and
 natural processes
such as radon.

Secondary pollutants include:

• Particulate matter
formed from gaseous
primary pollutants
and compounds in
photochemical smog,
such as nitrogen
dioxide.
• Ground level ozone
(O3) formed from
NOx and VOCs.
• Peroxyacetyl nitrate
(PAN) similarly
formed from NOx
and VOCs.

Minor air pollutants include:

• A large number of
minor hazardous air
pollutants. Some of
these are regulated in
USA under the Clean
Air Act and in
Europe under the Air
Framework
Directive.
• A variety of
persistent organic
pollutants, which can
attach to particulate
matter.

Sources of air pollution

Dust storm approaching Stratford, Texas

Using a controlled burn on a field in South Georgia in preparation for spring planting.

Anthropogenic sources (human activity) related to burning different kinds of fuel

• "Stationary Sources"
as smoke stacks of
power plants,
manufacturing
facilities, municipal
waste incinerators
• "Mobile Sources" as
motor vehicles,
aircraft etc.
• Combustion-fired
power plants
• Controlled burn
practices used in
agriculture and
forestry management
• Motor vehicles
generating air
pollution emissions.
• Marine vessels, such
as container ships or
 cruise ships, and
related port air
pollution.
• Burning wood,
fireplaces, stoves,
furnaces and
incinerators

Other anthropogenic sources

• Oil refining, power

plant operation and
industrial activity in
general.
• Chemicals, dust and
crop waste burning
in farming, (see Dust
Bowl).
• Fumes from paint,
hair spray, varnish,
aerosol sprays and
other solvents.
• Waste deposition in
landfills, which
generate methane.
• Military uses, such
as nuclear weapons,
toxic gases, germ
warfare and rocketry.

Natural sources

• Dust from natural

sources, usually
large areas of land
with little or no
vegetation.
• Methane, emitted by
the digestion of food
by animals, for
example cattle.
• Radon gas from
radioactive decay
within the Earth's
crust.
 • Smoke and carbon
monoxide from
wildfires.
• Volcanic activity,
which produce
sulfur, chlorine, and
ash particulates.

Indoor air quality (IAQ)

Main article: Indoor air quality

The lack of ventilation indoors concentrates air pollution where people often spend the
majority of their time. Radon (Rn) gas, a carcinogen, is exuded from the Earth in certain
locations and trapped inside houses. Researchers have found that radon gas is responsible
for over 1,800 deaths annually in the United Kingdom.[citation needed] Building materials
including carpeting and plywood emit formaldehyde (H2CO) gas. Paint and solvents give
off volatile organic compounds (VOCs) as they dry. Lead paint can degenerate into dust
and be inhaled. Intentional air pollution is introduced with the use of air fresheners,
incense, and other scented items. Controlled wood fires in stoves and fireplaces can add
significant amounts of smoke particulates into the air, inside and out. Indoor pollution
fatalities may be caused by using pesticides and other chemical sprays indoors without
proper ventilation.

Carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning and fatalities are often caused by faulty vents and
chimneys, or by the burning of charcoal indoors. 56,000 Americans died from CO in the
period 1979-1988.[citation needed] Chronic carbon monoxide poisoning can result even from
poorly adjusted pilot lights. Traps are built into all domestic plumbing to keep sewer gas,
hydrogen sulfide, out of interiors. Clothing emits tetrachloroethylene, or other dry
cleaning fluids, for days after dry cleaning.

Though its use has now been banned in many countries, the extensive use of asbestos in
industrial and domestic environments in the past has left a potentially very dangerous
material in many localities. Asbestosis is a chronic inflammatory medical condition
affecting the tissue of the lungs. It occurs after long-term, heavy exposure to asbestos
from asbestos-containing materials in structures. Sufferers have severe dyspnea
(shortness of breath) and are at an increased risk regarding several different types of lung
cancer. As clear explanations are not always stressed in non-technical literature, care
should be taken to distinguish between several forms of relevant diseases. According to
the World Health Organisation (WHO), these may defined as; asbestosis, lung cancer,
and mesothelioma (generally a very rare form of cancer, when more widespread it is
almost always associated with prolonged exposure to asbestos).

Biological sources of air pollution are also found indoors, as gases and airborne
particulates. Pets produce dander, people produce dust from minute skin flakes and
decomposed hair, dust mites in bedding, carpeting and furniture produce enzymes and
micron-sized fecal droppings, inhabitants emit methane, mold forms in walls and
generates mycotoxins and spores, air conditioning systems can incubate Legionnaires'
disease and mold, and houseplants, soil and surrounding gardens can produce pollen,
dust, and mold. Indoors, the lack of air circulation allows these airborne pollutants to
accumulate more than they would otherwise occur in nature.

Health effects
The World Health Organization states that 4.6 million people die each year from causes
directly attributable to air pollution. Many of these mortalities are attributable to indoor
air pollution. Worldwide more deaths per year are linked to air pollution than to
automobile accidents. Published in 2005 suggests that 310,000 Europeans die from air
pollution annually. Direct causes of air pollution related deaths include aggravated
asthma, bronchitis, emphysema, lung and heart diseases, and respiratory allergies. The
US EPA estimates that a proposed set of changes in diesel engine technology (Tier 2)
could result in 12,000 fewer premature mortalities, 15,000 fewer heart attacks, 6,000
fewer emergency room visits by children with asthma, and 8,900 fewer respiratory-
related hospital admissions each year in the United States.

The worst short term civilian pollution crisis in India was the 1984 Bhopal Disaster.
Leaked industrial vapors from the Union Carbide factory, belonging to Union Carbide,
Inc., U.S.A., killed more than 2,000 people outright and injured anywhere from 150,000
to 600,000 others, some 6,000 of whom would later die from their injuries. The United
Kingdom suffered its worst air pollution event when the December 4th Great Smog of
1952 formed over London. In six days more than 4,000 died, and 8,000 more died within
the following months. An accidental leak of anthrax spores from a biological warfare
laboratory in the former USSR in 1979 near Sverdlovsk is believed to have been the
cause of hundreds of civilian deaths. The worst single incident of air pollution to occur in
the United States of America occurred in Donora, Pennsylvania in late October, 1948,
when 20 people died and over 7,000 were injured.[1]

The health effects caused by air pollutants may range from subtle biochemical and
physiological changes to difficulty in breathing, wheezing, coughing and aggravation of
existing respiratory and cardiac conditions. These effects can result in increased
medication use, increased doctor or emergency room visits, more hospital admissions and
premature death. The human health effects of poor air quality are far reaching, but
principally affect the body's respiratory system and the cardiovascular system. Individual
reactions to air pollutants depend on the type of pollutant a person is exposed to, the
degree of exposure, the individual's health status and genetics. People who exercise
outdoors, for example, on hot, smoggy days increase their exposure to pollutants in the
air.

Reduction efforts
There are many air pollution control technologies and urban planning strategies available
to reduce air pollution; however, worldwide costs of addressing the issue are high.[citation
needed]
Of course, these costs are a small fraction of the economic damage that air pollution
will inflict on every nation of earth. Within the last decade the cost of air pollution
annually in most of Europe is between 1-3 percent GDP and is at least 5 percent GDP of
China.

Many countries have programs to or are debating how to reduce dependence on fossil
fuels for energy production and shift toward renewable energy technologies or nuclear
power plants.

Efforts to reduce pollution from mobile sources includes primary regulation (many
developing countries have permissive regulations), expanding regulation to new sources
(such as cruise and transport ships, farm equipment, and small gas-powered equipment
such as lawn trimmers, chainsaws, and snowmobiles), increased fuel efficiency (such as
through the use of hybrid vehicles), conversion to cleaner fuels (such as bioethanol,
biodiesel), or conversion to electric vehicles with renewable energy