Land and Water Development

Syllabus
Land and Water Development Introduction to the Specialisation Land and Water Development. Availability of land and water resources on a global and regional scale to meet the present and future food requirements. Need for land and water development in rural and urban areas. Principles of land and water development. Economic and social incentives and history. Physical planning and environmental impact aspects. Various aspects of water management.
5 periods Oral discussion
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iii
Contents
CONTENTS
Page
INTRODUCTION 1.1 1.2 1.3 Scope of the subject and definitions These lecture notes References
1.1 1.1 1.2 1.2
NEED FOR LAND AND WATER DEVELOPMENT 2.1 Need for land and water development for agriculture in view of population growth and sustainable rural development 2.1.1 Food supply on a global scale: past, present and outlook to the future 2.1.2 2.2 2.3 2.4 Factors that determine crop yield
2.1 2.2
2.7
2.21 2.23 2.24 2.27
Need for land and water development for urban and industrial growth Crucial questions References
PRESENT AND FUTURE AVAILABILITY OF LAND AND WATER RESOURCES 3.1 3.2 3.3 Land resources Water resources References
3.1
3.1 3.3 3.10
CONCEPTS OF LAND AND WATER DEVELOPMENT 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 Development approach Development strategies Development stages Socio-economic requirements
4.1 4.1 4.1 4.7 4.11
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Page
4.5 4.6
Environmental considerations References
4.13 4.14
PHYSICAL PLANNING IN RURAL AND URBAN AREAS 5.1 5.2 5.3 Area and time scales Future changes and developments References
5.1 5.1 5.7 5.8
WATER MANAGEMENT IN RURAL AND URBAN AREAS 6.1 Water management 6.1.1 6.1.2 6.2 Factors influencing the design of water management systems Flood management and flood protection
6.1 6.1 6.1 6.6 6.9 6.16 6.17 6.19 6.33 6.34 6.38 6.40 6.41 6.41 6.44
Irrigation 6.2.1 6.2.2 Irrigation in sloping areas Irrigation in level areas
6.3
Drainage 6.3.1 6.3.2 Drainage in sloping areas Drainage in level areas
6.4 6.5
Combined and separate irrigation and drainage systems Basic components in urban drainage systems 6.5.1 6.5.2 6.5.3 Role of water in an urban environment Review of urban water management systems Properties of and requirements regarding urban water management systems
6.6
References
6.48
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Introduction
The pace of change in our world is speeding up, accelerating to the point where it threatens to overwhelm the management capacity of political leaders. This acceleration in history comes not only from advancing technology, but also from unprecedented world population growth, even faster economic growth, and the increasingly frequent collisions between expanding human demands and the limits of the earth's natural systems.
Lester R. Brown, 1996
INTRODUCTION
1.1
SCOPE OF THE SUBJECT AND DEFINITIONS
These lecture notes are dealing with the utilisation of natural and man made land areas and the physical measures to make these suitable or improve the conditions for various land uses, like: agriculture (area of special attention); urban and industry; nature reserves; recreation areas.
Land and water development is the technology of adapting and managing land and water resources for specific forms of land use in rural, urban and industrial areas.
Land reclamation is dealing with the technical methods and institutional aspects of land utilisation, given the specific conditions and potential land use of a particular natural area.
Land consolidation is dealing with the technical and institutional aspects to modify rural areas in order to improve the land use conditions rationalise agricultural production.
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Introduction
1.2
THESE LECTURE NOTES
These lecture notes start with a description of the need for land and water development, primarily for agriculture in view of population growth and sustainable rural development. The various aspects of food supply on a global scale in the past, at present and in future will be reviewed. This will be followed by a description of the need for land and water development related to urban and industrial development. In chapter 3 a brief review will be given of the present and future availability of land and water resources. In chapter 4 the various concepts of land and water development will be reviewed, including socio-economic requirements and environmental considerations. In addition a review will be given of physical planning aspects in rural and urban areas. Finally the water management issues in rural and urban areas will be reviewed, including the various aspects of irrigation, drainage and flood management, with their interactions.
The lecture notes cover primarily hydraulic and hydrological engineering aspects of land utilisation. Also involved are: structural engineering, soil science, agronomy, economy, sociology, and environmental aspects and impacts.
1.3
REFERENCES
Brown, L.R., et al., 1996, State of the World 1996, The Worldwatch Institute, Earthscan Publications Ltd., London, United Kingdom.
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Need for land and water development
NEED FOR LAND AND WATER DEVELOPMENT
Developments depend on the physical conditions at any given place. Looking at the situation in various countries, several developments can be distinguished, which sooner or later will ask for intensive attention. Why certain developments occur depends on the needs of society, how they occur can be seen as the result of the interaction of the will to develop, vision on desired developments, available means (capital, labour, materials), technology and management
Van Dis, 1993
In analysing the need for land and water development, for the rural areas distinction should be made between the need caused by the increase in population and in the consumption per person, compensation for the loss of agricultural land, and the reduction in existing yield levels. For the urban and industrial areas, the need is caused by the rapid development of such areas all over the world (Schultz, 1993).
There is a great need for land and water development, aiming at the improvement of living and production conditions in the rural areas, land reclamation, and the development of urban and industrial areas with related facilities. The projects will have to be developed and implemented in such a way that on the one hand the objectives are realised, and on the other hand the environmental impacts are at an acceptable level. The projects may strongly differ in type and scale. Answers to the following crucial questions determine the living conditions of the users for many decades: what will be the need for development; which level of service will be required; what will be the role of the government; what will be the side effects of the development.
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Through the history land and water development has gone through different stages. In a wet country like the Netherlands, for example, first water management activities aimed at reclaiming lowlands by simple small-scale drainage systems. Due to the resulting subsidence providing safety against floods followed this. This was initially realised by making artificial mounds and in a later stage by building dikes (Van de Ven, 2004 and De Bruin and Schultz, 2003). Then came the stage of agricultural water management, which implied the discharge of excess water during winter. Later it also included the provision of irrigation water for the higher areas. In the twentieth century, the Dutch ran into a wide variety of water quality problems, which drew much attention in the seventieth and eightieth. In the ninetieth, attention was drawn to a wider concept of water management, called integrated water management. In this concept, account is taken of all functions waters fulfil, including those of nature and environment, so that these functions can be secured on the long term. In the beginning of the twenty-first century we are still in this phase. However, in studies for future development even the approach is based on integrated environment management.
2.1
NEED FOR LAND AND WATER DEVELOPMENT FOR AGRICULTURE IN VIEW OF POPULATION GROWTH AND SUSTAINABLE RURAL
DEVELOPMENT
Initially man used to live from collecting, hunting and fishing. By this way of living the density at which the system would be in balance amounted less than 1 person/km2. Some 10,000 years ago man started with the domestication of animals and cultivation of land (most probably in the Middle East, or China, or simultaneously). Shifting cultivation allowed for an increase in density to 3 persons/km2.
In the period prior to the Industrial Revolution (1650 - 1750) the average population growth amounted to only some 0.3% annually. The rate of growth of the worlds population showed a sharp increase in the seventeenth and eighteenth century. This increase was closely related to the Agricultural Revolution and the Industrial Revolution. The Agricultural Revolution resulted in a change in the way of living. Before the Industrial Revolution biological energy
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converters controlled the supply of energy. With the Industrial Revolution fossil energy became available to cultivate land, breed animals and to produce fertilisers. After the Industrial Revolution the population growth raised to 3% annually. The following causes for this explosive growth may be mentioned: the invention of the steam engine by Watt in 1752, which can be considered as the start of the Industrial Revolution; the introduction of fertilisers in the nineteenth century increased crop yields tremendously, for example for cereals from less than 1,000 kg/ha to more than 8,000 kg/ha at present; many diseases, such as cholera, pest and small pox, common in the Middle Ages and decimating entire populations, became controlled, or even extinguished. This also applied to agricultural crops; large regions in the world with a low population density, such as North America and Australia became immigration areas. For example in the period 1846 - 1930 some 50 million people immigrated to new areas, where they introduced the new techniques of the Industrial Revolution.
In 1804 there were 1 billion people. 2 billion was reached in 1927. By December 2005, there were 6.5 billion people of which almost 80% lived in the developing world with an average growth rate of 2.2%. The others inhabited the industrialised countries, with a growth rate of 0.6%. Projections for the year 2025 show an increase in population up to 8 billion people, from which the major part is expected to take place in developing countries (Figure 2.1) (UN Population Bureau, 2005).
The population and its growth for the least developed countries, the emerging countries and the developed countries are given in Figure 2.2. In this figure the three categories of countries have been identified based on the Gross National Income per capita (GNI) and the classification as given by UNCTAD (The World Bank, 2003 and UNCTAD, 2002). GNI being defined as the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) plus net receipts of primary income (compensation of employees and property income) from abroad, divided by the midyear population. The UNCTAD classification is based on factors, viz.: low national income (per capita GDP under US$ 340), weak human assets (a composite index based on health, nutrition
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and education indicators) and high economic vulnerability (a composite index based on indicators of instability of agricultural production and exports, inadequate diversification and economic smallness). Based on these considerations the categories are: developed countries (GNI > ~US$ 14,000). Most of the countries in Western and Central Europe, North America, the larger countries in Oceania and some countries in Asia; emerging countries (a higher standard of living than the least developed countries as identified by UNCTAD and a GNI < ~US$ 14,000). Most of the Eastern European countries (including Russia), most of the countries in Central and South America, most of the countries in Asia (including China, India and Indonesia), and several countries in Africa; least developed countries (based on the UNCTAD classification). Most of the countries in Africa, several countries in Asia, 1 country in Central America and most of the smaller countries in Oceania.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1950
Figure 2.1
1970
1990
2010
2030
2050
Growth of the world population since 1950 and medium projection up to 2050 (UN Population Bureau, 2005)
Population density is generally expressed compared to the total area of a country. If we look, however, at the population density with reference to the arable land then the result per Continent is shown in Table 2.1 (International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage, 2004 and Schultz, et al., 2005). From Table 2.1 it can be easily observed that the Asian continent
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has by far the largest population and the highest population density, both with reference to the total area, as well as to the arable land. If we also take into account the population growth as shown in Figures 2.1 and 2.2, than it will become clear that in the coming decades most of the activities with respect to water management and flood protection may be expected in Asia. If we have a closer look on a country basis than Table 2.2 shows the five most densely populated and the five least densely populated countries with respect to the arable land.
10 8 6 Million 4 2 0 2005 2025 Year 2050 Least Developed Countries Emerging Countries Developed Countries
Figure 2.2
World population and growth in least developed countries, emerging countries and developed countries (Schultz, et al., 2005)
The world economy is growing even faster than the population. It has expanded from US$ 4 trillion in output in 1950 to more than US$ 20 trillion in 1995 (Brown, 1996). Due to this development the standard of living in many countries is rising rapidly. This results among others in an increase in consumption and a change in diet per person. This is an extra contribution to the required increase in food production, which, together with the increase in population results in the expectation that duplication in food production will have to be achieved in the coming 25 years (Van Hofwegen and Svendsen, 2000).
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Table 2.1 Continents and types of countries ranked according to population density with reference to arable land (International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage, 2006 and Schultz, et al., 2005).
Continent Total area in 10 ha
6
Arable land in 10 ha
6
Total population in million
Population density in persons/km2 with reference to total area Arable land
Asia Africa Europe America Oceania World
3,177 3,032 2,299 3,997 806 13,311
558 213 297 390 53 1,511
3,911 906 729 892 33 6,471
123 30 32 22 4 49
701 425 245 229 63 428
Developed countries Emerging countries Least developed countries
3,186 8,046 2,079
375 996 140
961 4,751 759
30 59 37
256 477 541
2.1.1
Food supply on a global scale: past, present and outlook to the future
Food requirement
Agriculture has the objective to supply man with energy. The daily food requirement per person is 10,000 kJ energy from carbohydrates (sugar) and fat and 70 g protein (including minerals and vitamin).
In case of a vegetarian Table 2.3 gives the amount of cereals, pulses and vegetables that are required to meet the daily energy and protein requirement. In the same table the area of land needed to feed one vegetarian is indicated, given the average production rates in the world. So
2.6
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for one vegetarian about 1,600 m2 of agricultural land is needed. In other words, with present average production rates 6 vegetarians can be fed from one hectare of agricultural land. Presently 6 billion people have their food from 1.6 billion ha of agricultural land, which means that on average less than 3 persons are fed from one hectare. The difference is, among others, caused by the fact that most people eat meat to get protein. The production of energy through meat is very inefficient. It requires ten times as much land to produce the same amount of energy in the form of meat.
Table 2.2 Some characteristic data for the five most densely and five least densely populated countries with reference to the arable land (International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage, 2006 and Schultz, et al., 2005).
Country/ geographic unit Total area in 106 ha Arable land in 10 ha
6
Population density in persons/km2 with reference to total area arable land
Economic status *)
Five most densely populated Chinese Taipei Japan South Korea Egypt Bangladesh 4 38 10 100 14 0.7 4.8 1.9 3.4 8.5 23 128 48 74 142 596 339 481 70 985 3,243 2,691 2,543 2,074 1672 D D D E L
Five least densely populated Australia Congo, Republic Kazakhstan Canada Russia *) D = Developed country 774 34 273 997 1,708 49 8 22 46 126 20 7 15 32 143 3 12 5 3 8 42 51 68 70 114 D L E D E
E = Emerging country
L = Least developed country
Regarding the actual food consumption there is a striking difference between developing and developed countries. Per capita consumption in the least developed countries averages 180 kg of grain per year. The same consumption in the developed countries amounts to a figure of
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1,000 kg (World Resources Institute, 1992).
Table 2.3
Area required to feed one vegetarian for one year for assumed average world production rates
Food Amount per person in gram/day Average yield in kg/ha 600 100 250 1,800 1,000 23,000 Required area per person in m2 1,200 360 40
Cereals Pulses Vegetables
The best indicator for the food situation is the number of calories per capita and per day as given in Table 2.4. The figures differ widely from one region to another. The absolute minimum is 1,600 to 1,700 calories. Sub-Saharan Africa is only little above it. In spite of the target set by the FAO at the first World Food Conference in 1974 to abandon hunger within ten years world-wide, 800 million people in 88 countries suffer from acute lack of sufficient food. Half of these countries are situated in Africa, 23 in Asia, 12 in Eastern Europe and 9 in Latin America. Moreover, 2 billion people suffer from permanent under nourishment, which situation may already occur for many generations. The under nourishment is caused by too little variation in the total food package.
Cereals form the most important part of the food. Table 2.4 gives yields in kg/ha, which are highest in Western Europe and North America and very low in Africa. There are various reasons for this fact, one being the prevailingly low quality of the African soils.
Relation between crop yield and population growth
Until 1950 there was a close relation between crop production and size of the population. The growth in agricultural area was more or less equal to the growth in population. If there was not enough food, the agricultural area extended. The yield per ha remained until the beginning of this century more or less constant. For realising the increase in yield the best soils were selected. Thus, during calamities there was no buffer and the extent of the population
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declined, which was rather common in Europe, even in the middle of the nineteenth century. An example is Ireland, where the population decreased from 8.5 million around the middle of the nineteenth century to 4.5 million at present.
Table 2.4
Area
Production of food and cereals in 1990 in different regions

Population in million cal/ cap.-day Yield in kg/ha Availability in kg/cap.-year Cropland/ capita in ha 0.28 0.28 Food consumption Cereals
World Western Europe Eastern Europe Russia Asia North and Central America South America Africa Sub-Saharan Africa
5,293 498
2,700 3,400 -
2,600 5,000 4,000 1,800 2,600 3,600
340 590
288 3,109 427
2,400 3,650
680 250 800
0.81 0.15 0.65
297 648 -
2,700
2,040 1,150
270 130 -
0.49 0.30 -
2,100
Figure 2.3 shows that between 1950 and 2000 the agricultural area has increased by 21% and the population growth was 123%. This would have meant starvation if the production per ha was not increased. Figure 2.4 shows the growth in world grain production. In the period 1950 - 2000 the grain production increased by 2.6 times the production of 1950. This could be the case because of better varieties, tillage practices, and water management. The increase in the production per ha realised up to now can be summarised as follows: 1950 - 1960 1960 - 1970 26% 21%
1970 1980 20%
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10 ha 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 1950 1960 Total grain land in 10 ha Per capita grain land in ha 1970 1980 1990
6
ha 0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00 2000
Year
Figure 2.3
Development of world grain land
10 ton 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 1950 1960 1970 Year 1980 1990 World grain production in 106 ton Per capita grain production in kg
kg 1,000 900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 2000
Figure 2.4
Development of world grain production
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The increase in production with time is an S-shaped curve with a certain limit. In other words, the increase in agricultural production is slowing down. Unfortunately, the increase in slowing down of the population growth is at a much lower level than for agriculture. Although the population increase during the second half of the twentieth century is substantially higher than the increase in agricultural area the grain production per person is not much affected due to the increase in production per ha.
Required increase in worlds food production
The growth in population and worlds economy results in a tremendous growth in the demand for natural resources. Since 1950 the need for grain and for the principal rangeland products beef and mutton - has tripled, consumption of seafood has increased more than four times and water use has tripled. The increase in human demands for resources is beginning to outgrow the capacity of earths natural systems. As this happens, the global economy is damaging the foundation on which it rests. Evidence of the damage to the earths ecological infrastructure takes the form of collapsing fisheries, falling water tables, shrinking forests, eroding soils, dying lakes, crop-withering heat waves, and disappearing species (Brown, 1996).
Worlds food production, although steadily growing, fluctuates widely because of adverse weather conditions, or natural disasters. The neck and neck race between food demand and food production is presently in balance in most of the countries, while in the industrialised countries food surpluses are found. Present problems with food shortage are mainly related to matters of distribution and regional imbalance. During the last decades, the required global increase in agricultural production has been realised, amongst others by the introduction of High Yielding Varieties of rice (HYV) and the improvement of water management systems. In this period, China, Indonesia and India, with a total of more than 2 billion inhabitants, became self-sufficient in rice.
Urbanisation and industrialisation, erosion, desertification, waterlogging, salinization, environmental considerations, or degeneration of existing irrigation and drainage systems are the causes of loss of agricultural land and reduction in agricultural yields (Schultz, 1993). On
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a global scale not less than 2 billion ha are subject to deterioration. Degeneration in an extreme and irreparable form has occurred on 9.5 million ha (5.2 million in Africa). Urbanisation and industrialisation result in a loss of about 13 million ha cultivated land annually. In arid and semi-arid regions, the introduction of irrigation has gradually resulted in waterlogging and/or salinization problems, so that approximately 1.5 million ha have to be taken out of production annually. In addition, most agricultural production in the world uses farming practices that are environmentally unsustainable. Efforts are ongoing in the industrialised countries to encourage more sustainable practices. Environmental sound agriculture may result in more extensive agricultural practices, or may demand for highly advanced irrigation and drainage systems with water treatment and recycling. These developments make it doubtful whether agricultural exploitation will remain feasible under these conditions. Degeneration of existing irrigation and drainage systems, due to lack of attention to operation and maintenance, is a worldwide phenomenon.
In the sixtieth half of the total growth rate in food production came from newly reclaimed areas. This dropped to one third in the seventieth and still more in the eightieth. The rate of reclaiming new lands was 1% per year in the fiftieth but not more than 0.2% per year in 1990.
The spectacular increase of food production in the period 1960 - 1990 was mainly due to the expansion of irrigation, which secured 70% of the production growth in the period 1961 1980, the proportion for Asia being even higher.
In order to get an impression of the distribution of the present agricultural production and the net realised export surplus, data over the period 1999 - 2004 with respect to cereals have been collected (FAO, 1999 - 2004). Under cereals the following crops are covered: rice, wheat, maize, sorghum and millets. Because rice is a very important crop in most of the emerging and least developed countries separate tables are shown for rice. The data for the continents as well as for the categories of countries are shown in the Tables 2.5 to 2.8. Table 2.5 and 2.6 show respectively the cereal and rice production in million tonnes. In the Tables 2.7 and 2.8 the net trade (export) surplus of cereals and rice is shown in million tonnes, as well as in percentage of the own production.
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Table 2.5 World cereal production in million tonnes for the period 1999 - 2004 (FAO, 1999 - 2004)
1999 Asia Africa Americas Europe Oceania World 1,031 112 525 385 36 2,088 2000 996 113 531 386 35 2,060 2001 1,001 118 518 429 40 2,106 2002 982 115 475 434 20 2,025 2003*) 997 132 559 356 39 2,083 2004**) 1,024 127 554 419 36 2,160
857 1,118 114
862 1,081 118
887 1,099 119
843 1,070 112
846 1,105 132
906 1,124 130
Global stock in million tonnes *) estimated **) forecasted
611
630
599
571
475
398
Interesting in Table 2.5 and 2.6 is that we see more or less a stable production over the past six years in the continents, as well as in the type of countries. While in the same period the population has grown, this implies that the global stock will have decreased. Table 2.5 and 2.6 show indeed a gradual decrease in the global stock, both for cereals and for rice.
From the Tables 2.7 and 2.8 it can be derived that the developed countries have a net trade surplus, although it is only about 12% and 1.5% of their own production for respectively cereals and rice. The emerging countries have a modest trade deficit of about 5% and 1.5% of their own production for respectively cereals and rice. The least developed countries, however, have the major trade deficit of about 38% and 12% of their own production for respectively cereals and rice. Some characteristic average data on the cereal production are shown in Figure 2.5 and on the rice production in Figure 2.6.
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Table 2.6 World rice production in million tonnes for the period 1999 2004 (FAO, 1999 - 2004)
1999 Asia Africa Americas Europe Oceania World 555 17 34 3 1 610 2000 545 18 32 2 1 599 2001 545 17 32 3 2 599 2002 517 18 32 3 1 572 2003*) 538 18 31 3 0 592 2004**) 556 18 35 3 1 613
26 533 51
25 519 55
26 519 53
26 491 55
23 511 57
25 530 58
Global stock in million tonnes *) estimated **) forecasted
136
150
148
141
116
103
Figure 2.5 clearly shows that the largest cereal production is taking place in Asia, which takes the major share of the cereal production in the emerging countries. However, the production in kg/inhabitant is by far the largest in the developed countries. From Figure 2.6 it can be easily derived that by far most of the rice production takes place in Asia. The net export surplus is in all cases marginal.
The critical issue with which the world is confronted today is the problem of how to double the global food production in the next 25 years and to triple it with says 50 years (double population and more food per person, especially in Asia and Africa) (Van Hofwegen and Svendsen, 2000). It is unclear whether these production increases indeed can be achieved. Some factors foresee well for global production - for example, improvements in the emerging market economies of Central Europe and agreements to liberalise agricultural trade. In the longer term, improvements in for example Russias farm economy are certainly possible. Better control of diseases (human and farm animal) could also open up large areas of
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potentially productive farming and grazing land in Africa.
Table 2.7 Net cereal trade surplus in million tonnes (T), or in % of own production (OP)
1999/00 T Asia Africa Americas Europe Oceania OP 2000/01 T OP 2001/02 T OP 2002/03 T OP 2003/04* T OP Average T OP -7 -38 15 4 56
-81.1 -7.9 -74.0 -7.4 -76.8 -7.7 -54.7 -5.6 -60.0 -6.0 -69.3 -40.7 -36.5 -43.5 -38.7 -44.8 -38.0 -50.2 -43.6 -43.1 -32.8 -44.5 82.4 15.7 82.1 15.5 80.7 15.6 59.6 12.6 93.8 16.8 79.7 18.7 4.9 12.5 3.2 17.9 4.2 34.6 8.0 -6.7 -1.9 15.4
20.7 57.7 20.6 58.4 21.0 52.6 13.4 67.7 18.0 46.2 18.7
Developed countries Emerging countries Least developed countries *) estimated
116.9 13.6 103.5 12.0 106.4 12.0 98.2 11.7 91.7 10.8 103.3 -74.5 -6.7 -62.4 -5.8 -62.8 -5.7 -41.9 -3.9 -43.8 -4.0 -57.1 -41.5 -36.4 -43.5 -37.0 -45.4 -38.2 -53.5 -47.6 -45.8 -34.6 -45.9
12 -5 -39
Table 2.8 Net rice trade surplus in million tonnes (T), or in % of own production (OP)
1999/00 T Asia Africa Americas Europe Oceania 5.4 OP 1.0 2000/01 T 5.8 OP 1.1 2001/02 T 7.1 OP 1.3 2002/03 T 8.2 OP 1.6 2003/04* T 8.3 OP 1.5 Average T 7.0 OP 1 -38 2 -46 0
-5.2 -29.7 -5.8 -33.0 -6.6 -38.2 -8.0 -44.9 0.9 2.7 1.2 3.7 0.4 1.3 1.2 3.7
-7.7 -42.5 -6.6 0.0 0.0 0.7
-1.6 -51.6 -1.3 -40.6 -1.4 -43.8 -1.5 -46.9 0.3 21.4 0.1 9.1 0.2 11.1 0.1 7.7
-1.5 -46.9 -1.5 -0.2 -50.0 0.1
Developed countries Emerging countries Least developed countries *) estimated
0.3 6.3
1.2 1.2
0.5 5.5
2.0 1.1
0.2 6.1
0.8 1.2
0.1 7.8
0.4 1.6
0.6 6.9
2.6 1.4
0.3 6.5
1 1 -13
-6.6 -12.9 -6.0 -10.9 -6.3 -11.8 -7.9 -14.4
-7.5 -13.1 -6.9
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1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 -200 Developed countries Emerging countries Least developed countries Asia Americas Oceania Africa Europe
Pr. in million ton Pr. in kg/inhabitant NTS in million ton NTS in kg/inhabitant
Pr. = production
NTS = net trade surplus
Figure 2.5. Some characteristic average data on the situation with respect to cereal production
600 500 400 300 200 100 0 -100 Emerging countries Least developed countries Americas Asia Oceania Developed countries Africa Europe Pr. in million ton Pr. in kg/inhabitant NTS in million ton NTS in kg/inhabitant
Pr. = production
NTS = net trade surplus
Figure 2.6. Some characteristic average data on the situation with respect to rice production
At first sight and considering the world as a whole the problem to achieve the required
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increase in food production does not look insurmountable. The objective would be realised within an average annual growth of 2.4%. There do not seem to be reasons why such a percentage could not be maintained in future. Two favourable factors can be observed: increase of yield and reserve of agricultural land. With respect to the yields there is no biological reason why the global average of cereals in the year 1990 (2,600 kg/ha) could not be doubled. Besides the cropland area of 1990 (1,500 million ha) there is a reserve of 2,000 million ha of potential agricultural land of which some 600 million ha consist of lowland. In some areas (for instance the delta of the Mekong river in Vietnam) spectacular results have been booked with the introduction of 100-days rice varieties enabling to raise two crops per year avoiding critical periods of deep flooding or low flow and intrusion of sea water.
This optimistic picture is offset by a number of negative factors. First of all there is the slowing down of the reclamation of new agricultural land. This is due to the fact that the best areas have already been reclaimed. In Asia, for instance, it is estimated that 82% of the potential agricultural land area is already under production. There are still large reserves of potential agricultural land in America and Sub-Saharan Africa but for much of these reserves the soil is marginal, being suitable only for perennial tree crops, or rainfall is unreliable.
There is much ecological opposition against conversion of the tropical rain forests (Amazon, Yunnan forests in China, Thailand, and Myanmar) into agricultural lands. The lowlands, which have a high potential, comprise the wetlands (swamps and marshes, lakes, lagoons, or lower flood plains), which also form a valuable ecological asset. In recent years development of irrigation slowed down accordingly. Whereas between 1950 and 1980 the irrigated area increased with about 4 million ha per year, in 1990 it was only about 2 million. This reduction of irrigation investments is the result of the fall of product prices and disappointing low yields after the implementation of new projects. The frontiers of land resources are attained in countries with large irrigation systems. Either the available land resources are fully developed (Pakistan, Egypt, Japan, the Netherlands) or the costs of future expansion are becoming too high (India, China). In developing countries there remains an unused potential of over 100 million ha of irrigable land but a substantial part of it lies outside the regions of greatest need.
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Relation water management and agricultural production
With respect to water management related to agricultural production there are broadly speaking three agro-climatologic zones, being: temperate humid zone, arid and semi-arid zone and humid tropical zone. In addition, in principle, four types of cultivation practices may be distinguished, being: rainfed cultivation, without or with a drainage system; irrigated cultivation, without or with a drainage system. Dependent on the local conditions different types of water management with different levels of service will be appropriate (Schultz, 1993). In the temperate humid zone agriculture generally takes place without a water management system, or with a drainage system only. Supplementary irrigation may be applied as well. In the arid and semi arid zone agriculture is normally impossible without an irrigation system. Drainage systems may be applied as well for salinity control and the prevention of waterlogging. In the humid tropical zone generally a distinction is made in cultivation during the wet and the dry monsoon. During the wet monsoon cultivation is generally possible with a drainage system only, although quite often irrigation is applied as well to overcome dry spells. In the dry monsoon irrigation is generally required to enable a good yield.
The total cultivated area on earth is about 1.5 billion ha, which is 12% of the total land area. At about 1.1 billion ha agricultural exploitation takes place without a water management system (Table 2.9). Presently irrigation covers 270 million ha, i.e. 18% of worlds arable land. Irrigation is responsible for 40% of crop output and employs about 30% of population spread over rural areas. It uses about 70% of waters withdrawn from global river systems. About 60% of such waters are used consumptively, the rest returning to the river systems. Drainage of rainfed crops covers about 130 million ha, i.e. 9% of worlds arable land. In about 60 million ha of the irrigated lands there is a drainage system as well. From the 130 million ha rainfed drained land it is roughly estimated that about 15% crop output is obtained. No figures are available of the employment of the population in these areas, but it is supposed to be about 10%, which is relatively smaller than for the irrigated areas, while a significant part of these
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areas is located in the developed countries with relatively large farm sizes.
Table 2.9 Role of water management in agricultural cultivation practices in the different continents (International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage, 2006 and Schultz, et al., 2005).
Continent Total area in 10 ha
6
6
Water management practice in % of the arable land
No system Asia Africa Europe Americas Oceania World 3,177 3,032 2,299 3,997 806 13,311 558 213 297 390 53 1,511 3,911 906 729 892 33 6,471 56 92 74 73 90 70
Drainage *) 10 2 18 17 4 12
Irrigation **) 34 6 8 11 5 18
Developed countries Emerging countries Least developed countries *) **)
3,186 8,046 2,079
375 996 140
961 4,751 759
64 70 86
25 8 3
12 22 11
In total about 130 * 106 ha rainfed and 60 * 106 ha drainage of irrigated areas Irrigation may include drainage as well
The present situation and in particular the present development trends make it plausible that future expansion of the production will mainly be achieved by increase in yields and by cropping intensification. Reclamation of new land will be limited to special areas, which by virtue of location and quality are most promising for growing special crops (vegetables and fruits) and for urban and industrial expansion. The increase in agricultural yields can be realised through improved agricultural practices, water management, transport and marketing facilities. Studies into the world food supply in the coming decades underline that about 90% of the extra food should come from the present 1,500 million ha cropland of the world (World Resources Institute, 1992 and Van Hofwegen and Svendsen, 2000). However, a certain
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amount of food about 10% - needs to be produced on new agricultural land. These new lands can be reclaimed in upland and in lowland areas. For development of upland areas, irrigation and sometimes also drainage will be required, whereas for development of lowlands, drainage and in most cases also irrigation will be needed.
Form Table 2.9 it can be seen that still the largest agricultural area is without any water management system. In the rainfed areas without a water management system water harvesting, and watershed management can make some improvements. Such measures may undoubtedly help to improve the livelihood of poor farm families. There is, however, no way that the cultivated area without a water management system can contribute significantly to the required increase in food production. Due to this the share of irrigated and drained areas in food production will have to increase. This can be either achieved by installing irrigation, or drainage systems in the areas without a system, improvement, or modernisation of existing irrigation and drainage systems, installation of irrigation systems in the rainfed drained areas, or installation of drainage systems in irrigated areas. My personal estimate is that over the next 25 years this may result in a shift to the contribution to the total food production in the direction of 30% for the areas without a water management system 50% for the areas with an irrigation system and 20% for the rainfed areas with a drainage system. It has to be realised that these percentages refer to two times the present day food production. In addition it has to be realised that it will be extremely difficult to achieve this in an environmentally sustainable way, especially in the emerging countries.
2.1.2
Factors that determine crop yield
Factors that determine the crop yield are: soil conditions In the past the type of soil was governing the possibilities and constraints for agriculture. Soils used to be divided in poor and rich soils in order to distinguish between the nutrient availability for the crops. The introduction of fertilisers made this distinction redundant. Nowadays good and bad soils are distinguished, indicating the suitability of the soil for crop production in relation to water management, and tillage practices. In other
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words the soil physical conditions which determine the management of the soil are nowadays much more important than the chemical properties (nutrient supply). The following aspects play an important role: * water Deep-ploughing and organic matter can improve the moisture retention in the soil; * air Aeration of the root zone is of importance, as most plants get their oxygen via the roots. Aeration can be improved by drainage and improvement of the soil structure; * temperature The optimum temperature for most crops is between 15 and 35 oC. Temperature is an important reason for draining agricultural land in North-western Europe. By removing water from the soil in spring, the soil is heated at a faster rate and the cultivation of crops may start earlier; * nutrient supply During the last 40 years the use of fertilisers in the world has increased by a factor 10 from 14 to 145 million tons per year. It is expected that food production will decrease by 40% if the supply of fertilisers is abruptly discontinued; * root penetration The soil is the food hold for crops. Where required a good root penetration can be realised by measures like deep ploughing, subsoiling, drainage and fertilising; * injurious factors Injurious factors refer to soil toxicity, soil-born diseases and the like; CO2 concentration For the process of photosynthesis the plant uses water from the soil, taken up by the roots, CO2 from the air, taken up through the leaves and energy from the sun to produce sugars (and oxygen). The CO2 content in the air affects the photosynthesis process. In green houses the CO2 content is artificially increased. However, the natural CO2 content in the air of 0.03% cannot be influenced, although on a global scale it shows a tendency to rise due to the world-wide use of fossil energy and deforestation; radiation from the sun Radiation varies with latitude and during the year. Moreover it is influenced by the
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weather (cloudiness). Radiation determines to a large extent the agricultural production capacities. This can be illustrated by the fact that in tropical areas three to four crops per year can be grown whereas in temperate zones this is usually one crop per year; control of pests and diseases The introduction of monocultures necessitated the control of accompanying pests and diseases. Next to mechanical and chemical control, nowadays biological control is more and more applied, because of the limited unwanted side effects. Important is also the breeding of varieties resistant to pests and diseases; production efficiency Some crops show a relatively high photosynthetic efficiency, for example sugar cane, maize (corn), sorghum and millet. Other crops are less efficient. The difference between efficiencies is highest at low latitudes (high temperature, high light intensity); breeding of new varieties Introduction of high yielding varieties with favourable characteristics, such as resistance for lodging, quick leaf growth, and favourable grain/straw ratio; tillage practices Present low yields are often due to a lack of knowledge and capital to realise optimal tillage practices. Table 2.10 shows for a number of crops the theoretical maximum yield and the target yield, which is to be obtained on a large scale.
2.2
NEED FOR LAND AND WATER DEVELOPMENT FOR URBAN AND INDUSTRIAL GROWTH
Due to the rapid expansion of urban and industrial areas, the percentage of people living in urban areas increased from 30% in 1950 to 43% in 1990 (United Nations, 2000). It is expected that this development will continue to an estimated 61% in 2030 (Figure 2.7). The major part of urbanisation is expected to take place in deltaic and coastal areas. This means that lands have to be prepared for new urban and industrial areas. As the suitable locations have already been developed, this will be increasingly difficult (Oudshoorn, et al., 1999).
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Table 2.10
Potential crop yields in different climatic zones

Temperate zone (one crop) theoretical maximum in ton/ha ton/ha 106 kJ target yield in Tropics (per year) theoretical maximum in ton/ha ton/ha 106 kJ target yield in
Cereals Wheat Rice Maize (corn) Sorghum and millet Root crops Potato Cassava Sweet potato and yam Legume crops Soybean Ground nuts Dry beans 9 12 8 7 9 6 112 153 85 20 30 18 15 20 12 240 339 169 100 80 65 50 173 197 140 100 160 80 65 100 213 345 396 12 12 15 15 9 9 11 11 130 93 167 147 25 30 38 40 18 20 24 26 259 207 364 347
2.3
CRUCIAL QUESTIONS
The above shows that there is a great need for land and water development, aiming at the improvement of living and production conditions in the rural areas, land reclamation, and the development of urban and industrial areas with related facilities. The projects will have to be developed and implemented in such a way that on the one hand the objectives are realised, and on the other hand the environmental impacts are at an acceptable level. The projects may strongly differ in type and scale. Answers to the following crucial questions determine the living conditions of the users for many decades: what will be the need for development; which level of service will be required;
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September, 2006
what will be the role of the government; what will be the side effects of the development?
90 80 70 60 50 Percentage 40 30 20 10 0 World Africa Asia LAC MDR
1950 1990 2030
LAC = Latin America and the Caribbean
MDR = More Developed Regions
Figure 2.7
Percentage of urban population
Need for development
The need for development in rural areas is generally determined by the need to increase and/or to rationalise food production and to promote sustainable rural development. In other words, there is a direct link between the investments to be made and the benefits to be expected. These benefits generally include the increase in yields, but may also be expressed in a more efficient production by better transport facilities, an improved marketing system and sustainable development. This direct link enables planners to identify which investments may be justified. Land and water development projects for rural areas have been generally purely agricultural development projects. Recently also other land uses, like recreation and nature conservation, are integrated in the plans. From a technical point of view, the questions to be solved refer to the water management system, the infrastructure, the drinking water supply and sewerage, and required facilities. As all physical structures need to be maintained, all these questions have to be taken into account from a design point of view, and from an
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operation and maintenance point of view.
Investments in urban areas are generally justified by the need for areas for living, industry, and/or commercial development. In this case government investments generally have to be repaid by the sale of land, or through taxes. These projects are more complex than projects for rural areas, as many more components have to be developed and integrated. Another essential difference is that investments per square metre are much higher in urban areas than those needed in rural areas. From a technical point of view the questions to be solved refer to the preparation of building sites, foundation aspects, storage and removal of surplus rainwater, water supply for the green areas, infrastructure, drinking water supply and sewerage, and required facilities. The maintenance of public facilities is generally the responsibility of the municipality, who will levy taxes to finance the maintenance.
Required level of service
The success of a project is strongly determined by the creation of an attractive environment for the users to initiate and continue the proposed activities (Constandse, 1988). This means that the project has to be attractive and implies that it can be maintained adequately. From the development projects of the last decades it can be concluded that several land and water development projects did not improve the living conditions of the users. In the case of improved areas, this resulted in an unwillingness or incapability of the users to contribute to the required recovery of investments and/or operation and maintenance. In the case of newly developed areas, this simply meant that the settlers either tried to return to their previous living areas, or moved elsewhere.
In the design of water management systems for rural areas, the determination of the required level of service is a complicated matter, as the interaction between water management and crop yield is difficult to quantify. Insight in the sustainability of such systems requires first of all insight in the expected crop yield, farm practices and the capacity of the farmers to contribute to the required maintenance activities. Based on such information and on the meteorological, hydrological and soil conditions, water management systems can be designed.
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Where required, a legal framework and an organisational structure have to be developed to realise the operation, maintenance and management.
In urban areas, investments in property are generally that high, those investments in the urban water management system are easily justified. Here, however, the level of service also concerns various recreational facilities, like parks and sports fields, to make living in the urban area attractive.
Role of the government
In most land and water development projects the government plays an important role, as she initiates developments that fit in her development policy, and by preventing unwanted developments. Concerning the technical aspects, she is in charge for land use, or development plans, the required legal framework, standards concerning the functioning of systems, and in many cases for the actual implementation. It will be clear that the different levels in the government will play different roles.
Side effects of development
Each development will result in side effects. In many cases these side effects caused a lot of trouble (Volker, 1987). It is the responsibility of the organisation in charge of the development, to identify possible side effects and to prevent the negative ones as much as possible. This can be realised by adapted designs, and by establishing a legal framework and control mechanism. Some typical side effects are impact on the existing (geo)hydrological regime, damage to existing natural values, and pollution of air, soil and water. Especially this last aspect resulted and still results in many problems, leading to substantial costs afterwards for cleaning what was polluted. To prevent negative side effects as much as possible, many countries demand an environmental impact analysis and appropriate measures.
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2.4
REFERENCES
Brown, L.R., et al., 1996, State of the World 1996, The Worldwatch Institute, Earthscan Publications Ltd., London, United Kingdom.
Bruin, Dick de and Bart Schultz, 2003, A simple start with far reaching consequences. Irrigation and Drainage 52.1.
Constandse, A.K., 1988, Planning and creation of an environment, IJsselmeerpolders Development Authority, Lelystad, the Netherlands.
Dis, M.M.U. van, 1993, Key-factors, Water Management in the Next Century, Address presented during the SOTA-symposium, Royal Institute of Engineers in the Netherlands, Division of Water Management (in Dutch), the Hague, the Netherlands.
Hofwegen, P.J.M. van and M. Svendsen, 2000, A vision of water for food and rural development, the Hague, the Netherlands.
International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID), 2006, Updated statistics on irrigation and drainage in the world, www.icid.org, New Delhi, India.
Oudshoorn, H., Bart Schultz, A. van Urk, and P. Zijderveld, ed., 1999, Sustainable development of deltas. Proceedings International conference at the occasion of 200 year Directorate-General for Public Works and Water Management, Amsterdam, the Netherlands, 23 - 27 November, 1998, Delft University Press, Delft, the Netherlands.
Schultz, Bart, 1993, Land and water development. Finding a balance between implementation, management and sustainability, Inaugural address, IHE, Delft
September, 2006
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Schultz, Bart, 2001, Irrigation, drainage and flood protection in a rapidly changing world, Irrigation and Drainage, volume 50, no. 4. Schultz, Bart, 2001, Opening Address, 18th Congress of the International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID), Montreal, Canada.
Schultz, Bart, C.D. Thatte and V.K. Labhsetwar, 2005, Irrigation and drainage. Main contributors to global food production. Irrigation and Drainage, volume 54, no. 3.
Ven, G.P. van de, 2004, Man-made lowlands. History of land reclamation and water management in the Netherlands, 4th edition, Matrijs, Utrecht, the Netherlands.
UNCTAD, 2002. The Least Developed Countries Report. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, Geneva, Switzerland (www.unctad.org).
United Nations, Population Reference Bureau, The 2000 World Urbanization prospects.
UNDP Population Reference Bureau, 2005. 2005 world population data sheet, Washington DC, USA.
Volker, A, 1987, Negative Side effects of Irrigation and Drainage, Gulhati Memorial Lecture, 13th Congress of the International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID), Casablanca, Morocco.
World Bank, 2001. Global economic prospects and the developing countries, Washington DC, USA. World Bank, 2003, World Bank Atlas, 35th Edition, Washington DC, USA.
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The World Resources Institute, 1992, Towards Sustainable Development, World Resources 1992 - 1993, A Guide to the Global Environment, Oxford University Press, New York/Oxford.
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Present and future availability of land and water resources
PRESENT AND FUTURE AVAILABILITY OF LAND AND WATER RESOURCES
Land and water resources are among the most basic elements of human life. In this chapter some figures will be given about the present resources, the present use of these resources and the future needs and availability of resources. It is of importance in view of the rapidly growing population of the earth, the gradual improvement of the standard of living of a considerable portion of the population and the deterioration of the resources. The considerations will be focused on land resources but development of land resources to meet the future needs cannot be carried out without the development of water resources.
The analysis that will be given is referring to global and regional entities. Because of the uneven distribution of the resources and needs over the globe and within its regions this is not sufficient for policy formulation and planning. This has to be carried out for much smaller and more homogeneous areas such as hydrological units (river basins and sub-basins) and political entities (international river basins, countries, and provinces).
3.1
LAND RESOURCES
The present agricultural area of the world amounts to some 1,500 million ha, which is 12% of the total land area of 13,100 million ha. Presently irrigation covers more than 270 million ha, i.e. 18% of worlds arable land. It is responsible for 40% of crop output and employs about 30% of population spread over rural areas. It uses about 70% of waters withdrawn from global river systems. About 60% of such waters are used consumptively, the rest returning to the river systems enabling its reuse downstream. Drainage of rainfed crops covers about 130 million ha, i.e. 9% of worlds arable land. In about 60 million ha of irrigated lands drainage systems have been installed as well.
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3.1
Higher yields and higher crop intensities can only be obtained with a number of provisions, which all require investments and entail financial problems. These are: protection from floods; full control of water supply; adequate irrigation and/or drainage; advanced water management and cultivation practices; optimum use of farm inputs; institutional arrangements (irrigation and/or drainage associations with farmers participation, credit systems and extension services); modernisation of existing irrigation and drainage systems.
It is in these fields that the main obstacles are encountered in finding solutions for the future food needs of mankind.
Land development
Land development may concern (Segeren, 1983): reclamation of upland areas; reclamation of lowland areas; land consolidation.
Characteristic aspects of land reclamation
When reclamation is under consideration, the envisaged water management system and the projected land use are of importance. The water management system depends on irrigation and/or drainage requirements. The land use is mostly agriculture. However, lowland areas might also be developed for urban expansions, new towns and/or industry.
Measures to be taken during reclamation of upland areas, to improve the texture of the soil and to make it suitable for agriculture, refer to: leaching of salts and toxic elements;
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erosion control; terracing; water harvesting.
Measures to be taken during reclamation of lowland areas, to improve the texture of the soil and to make it suitable for agriculture, refer to: lowering of the groundwater table; leaching of salts and toxic elements; soil improvement, by adding for instance lime; application of chemicals; landfill.
Related to the reclamation of lowland areas also the level of protection is of importance. The level of protection depends on: values inside the projected area: value of property and human life; outside conditions, viz. sea, river, lake or canal.
Characteristic aspects of land consolidation
Land consolidation projects and programmes are generally executed in already cultivated areas, which may have a long social tradition. These projects or programmes can only be successful if they are developed and implemented in close consultation with the existing population, which will normally also be the users. Generally these projects or programmes are implemented at a smaller scale and over a longer time period than the land reclamation projects.
3.2
WATER RESOURCES
Land development will not be possible without a proportionate development of the water resources. Water is used for a great variety of purposes: irrigation and some special
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agricultural applications, domestic water, water in industries, navigation, recreation, and nature conservation. In many areas there is an increasing competition between these categories of users who have different requirements.
Water destined for irrigation occupies a special position among these categories, because it is the largest item on the balance (70%) and this water is to a large extent irretrievable in that most of this water does not return to the river like other withdrawals offering possibilities of reuse.
Water resources development
Since more than 5,000 years people have tried to make use of water and to protect themselves against it. Until about the seventeenth century various projects were implemented at a local scale, without a clear recognition of the phenomena involved and of the side effects. Some important events of the old history are shown in Table 3.1 (Biswas, 1972 and Postel, 1999).
The direct influence of mans water management activities concerns less than 1% of the water resources, the fresh water lakes, watercourses, and groundwater (Table 3.2). However, the side effects of mans activities influence almost all accessible waters on earth.
The hydrological cycle is the succession of stages, through which water passes from the atmosphere to the earth and then returns to the atmosphere (World Meteorological Organisation, 1974). Nearly all the precipitation falling on the land is derived from the oceans. Only 10% of it originates from evapotranspiration from the land surface. Within the hydrological cycle a cycle of water diversion, including water consumption through irrigation and domestic water supply and drainage, exists. This branching cycle - expressing the influence of man - is exerting significant influence on the primary hydrological cycle (Figure 3.1).
In studies on water resources development, water balances and possible changes by mans activities play an important role. Several types can be distinguished, like the water balance of
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the earth, of the human-social sphere, of a river basin, or of a local area, like a city or a polder. An important unit in water resources studies is the river basin. Water balances of river basins may show large differences. Discharges range from less than 15% of the precipitation for the river Nile in Egypt, to 70% for the Orinoco River in Venezuela. Initially, water balances and the influence of mans activities were only studied from a water quantity point of view; in some cases salt balances were made as well. Nowadays, there is an increasing requirement to include all relevant quantity and quality aspects in water balance studies. These studies should result in such an approach for land and water development projects, that they will be technically and economically sound, and will result in a sustainable development and exploitation of the concerned water resources (United Nations, 1992).
Table 3.1
Some recorded ancient hydraulic engineering events (Biswas, 1972, Postel, 1999 and Fahlbusch, ed., 2001)
Date (BC) *
Event
4000 Irrigation in the plains between Tigris and Euphrates rivers in a place called Eridu 3200 Reign of King Scorpion in Egypt. First recorded evidence of an irrigation system in Egypt 3000 King Menes constructed a dam along the Nile to protect the city of Memphis 2690 - 2950 Sadd-el Kafara dam built in Egypt probably for drinking water and irrigation. The worlds oldest large dam 2750 Origin of the Indus Valley water supply and drainage systems 2200 Various waterworks of the Great Y in China 1750 Water codes of King Hammurabi 1700 Josephs Well near Cairo, nearly 100 m in depth 1300 Irrigation and drainage systems in Nippur 750 Marib and other dams in river Wadi Adhanah in Yemen 714 Qanat system gradually spread to Iran, Egypt and India * In the absence of accurate information, several of these dates are approximate
In relation to land and water development projects, the meteorological factors precipitation and evapo(transpi)ration are of special importance. For precipitation this regards the annual rainfall, the distribution over the year, and the short-term intensity. In case the difference
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between precipitation and evapo(transpi)ration is negative, it determines the need for an irrigation system. In case of a surplus, it is decisive for the total amount of water to be discharged. The short-term rainfall extremes are important in the design of drainage systems. Depending on the ratio between the rainfall intensity and the interception and infiltration capacity of the soil, all the rainfall can infiltrate, or part of the rainfall is stored on the surface and may cause overland flow. In the urban areas infiltration is much lower or even zero, as a part of the soil is covered by streets, houses and squares, so there is a quick discharge.
Table 3.2 Amount of water on earth according to the survey conducted within the international geophysical year (Holy, 1982)
Water incidence 103 km3 % of total water World oceans Salt lakes and inland seas Icebergs and polar ice Water in atmosphere Water in plants and living organisms Fresh water lakes Water courses Soil and subsurface water Groundwater Fresh water total Water total 1,300,000 100 28,500 12 1 123 1 65 8,000 36,700 1,337,000 97.2200 0.0080 2.1360 0.0010 0.0001 0.0090 0.0001 0.0050 0.6200 2.7700 100.0000 % of fresh water 77.630 0.035 0.003 0.335 0.003 0.178 21.800 100.000 -
With respect to groundwater, the unsaturated zone and the saturated zone can be distinguished. The conditions in the unsaturated zone, like actual moisture content, wilting point, field capacity and saturation are of importance for the growth of dry food crops. Related to water management soils show a wide variety. For example, the average porosity may range from 5% for limestone to 45% for clay, and the permeability from 10-4 m/day for certain clay soils to more than 200 m/day for gravel. These differences influence the suitability of the various soil types as well as the design criteria for field irrigation and drainage systems.
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Water vapour Water vapour in atmosphere above land Water consumption Water users Precipitation Intake of water Drainage Runoff Branching cycle Land Ocean into ocean interchange Water vapour in atmosphere above ocean
Evaporation 10%
Evaporation 90%
Precipitation
Figure 3.1
Scheme of the hydrological cycle with the branching cycle, expressing the influence of man (Rodda and Matalas, 1987)
All the rainwater that falls on the earth and is not evaporated, transpired, or withdrawn artificially, contributes to the flow of the rivers. Dependent on different components, like the size of the river basin, the slopes in the terrain and soil texture, the discharge to the river differs. Depending on mans activities, the quality and quantity of water that enters the rivers may differ as well. Rivers can transport natural, or artificial components. The load can differ in relation to the discharge. Both quantity and quality of the river water will determine if it is useful for irrigation or domestic water supply.
Table 3.3 indicates for 1990 and 2025 the estimated and projected volumes of available renewable water resources and water use by continent. Table 3.4 shows the estimated and projected global water use by sector in 1950, 1990 and 2025. As can be seen from the tables on a global scale the use is only a small percentage of the resources and it seems that there is still a considerable reserve to meet the future needs. However, since the resources are formed by the river runoff not all that water can be used. Only a certain percentage can be abstracted, the remaining has to be drained off to the sea during floods and a minimum flow to the sea has to be maintained during other periods. On the other hand the possible contribution from groundwater comes in addition.
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Table 3.3
Estimated and projected volumes of available renewable water resources and water use by continent, 1990 and 2025 (Shiklomanov, 1997)
Available renewable water resources 109 m3/year m3/person m3/person in 1990 in 2025 Water use
Area
1990 withdrawal in 10 m
9 3
1990 consumption in 10 m
9 3
2025 withdrawal in 10 m
9 3
2025 consumption in 109 m3 216 329 123 1,971 217 23
Africa North America South America Asia Europe Australia and Oceania World
4,047 7,770 12,030 13,508 2,900 2,400
6,180 17,800 40,600 3,840 3,990 85,800
2,460 12,500 24,100 2,350 3,920 61,400
199 642 152 2,067 491 29
151 225 91 1,529 183 16
331 836 257 3,104 619 40
42,655
7,800
4,800
3,580
2,196
5,187
2,879
For industrialised countries like France and the UK the annual water use is about 550 m3 per person. In these countries there is relatively little irrigation. In Egypt the only water supply for agriculture is by water from the Nile corresponding with 1,200 m3 per person for year-round irrigation and withdrawal of water for industrial purposes is only 5%. Assuming that in the forthcoming five decades irrigation and industrialisation will expand all over the world it seems reasonable to ascertain that as a world average the water use for all practical purposes will be equivalent to about 1,000 m3 per person per year against the present figure of 660 m3.
Considering that the world population is supposed to double in fifty years and the readily available resources are about half of the figures in Table 3.3 it is evident that on a global basis the water resources will still be sufficient but that more or less severe water shortages may occur in certain regions. These are North Africa (Maghreb and Egypt) and the Middle East followed by Southeast Africa. In some regions such as North Africa and China and parts of South America there is a growing competition for both land and water from the industrial and
3.8
September, 2006
urban sectors. On the other hand there are regions where water resources will remain plentiful for many decades to come, such as South America (Amazon) and Middle Africa. This, however, will require regulations to cope with the uneven seasonal distribution of the river flow. So far this has only been achieved on a relatively small scale. Estimated and projected global water use by sector in 109 m3/year for 1950, 1990 and 2025 (Shiklomanov, 1997)
Item 1950 1990 2025
Table 3.4
withdrawal consump- withdrawal consump- withdrawal consumption Agriculture use Industrial use Municipal use Reservoirs Total 1,124 182 53 6 1,365 894 856 14 14 2,412 681 321 164 3,580 2,196 tion 1,907 73 53 3,162 1,106 645 275 5,187 2,879 tion 2,377 146 81
World population in millions Irrigated area in 106 ha
2,493
5,176
8,284
101
243
329
More than 45,000 large dams and an estimated 800,000 smaller ones have been built around the world, the major part in the period 1955 - 1990. The total effective capacity of these basins is more than 5,000 km3, which is 12.5% of the runoff of all rivers of the globe (ICOLD, 2006). This percentage is due to the fact that most of the largest rivers of the world (Amazon with 18% of this total, Congo, Brahmaputra, Mekong, Orinoco) are not, or hardly exploited. Much opposition exists for reasons of environmental concern, or resettlement issues against building of new major dams.
3.3
REFERENCES
3.9
September, 2006
Biswas, A.K., 1972, History of hydrology, 2nd edition, North-Holland publishing company, Amsterdam/London, the Netherlands/Great Britain.
Fahlbusch, H., ed., 2001, Historical dams, International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID), New Delhi, India.
Holy, M, Irrigation systems and their role in the food crisis, ICID bulletin, volume 31, no. 2, July 1982.
International Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD), 2005. Data on web site: www.icoldcigb.org
Postel, S., 1999. Pillar of Sand. Can the irrigation miracle last? W.W. Norton & Company, New York, USA and London, Great Britain.
Rodda, J.C. and N.C. Matalas, 1987, Water for the future. Hydrology in perspective, IAHS Publication no. 164, Proceedings of the Rome Symposium, April 1987, International Association of Hydrological Sciences, Wallingford, Great Britain.
Segeren, W.A., 1983, Introduction to Polders of the World, Polders of the World, Final report, International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement, Wageningen, the Netherlands.
Shiklomanov I.A., 1997, Assessment of water resources and water availability in the world. UN report: Comprehensive assessment of freshwater resources of the world. St. Petersburg, Russia.
United Nations, 1992, Agenda 21, chapter 18, Protection of the quality and supply of freshwater resources: application of integrated approaches to the development, management
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and use of water resources, Conches, Switzerland. World Meteorological Organisation (WMO), 1974, Guide to Hydrological Practices, 3rd edition, WMO publication no. 168, Geneva, Switzerland.
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Concepts of land and water development
CONCEPTS OF LAND AND WATER DEVELOPMENT
4.1
DEVELOPMENT APROACH
In general, land and water development projects have to fit into the development policy of a country or a region. Land and water development projects may strongly differ in type and scale. This refers to the reclamation and development of new areas, as well as to the improvement of existing areas. Various development approaches can be followed. Distinction can be made in: large scale rapid development; small-scale gradual development.
Another distinction in approach exists between: directly based to the final stage; step wise development.
For the different approaches it has to be taken into account that a project will have to follow various stages, and should include the socio-economic and environmental consequences of the proposed development.
4.2
DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES
Different development strategies have been followed and may be followed in the improvement of existing areas, or the reclamation of new areas (International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage, 2005).
For the improvement of existing areas, the following aspects play a role: role of the government; determination of improvement options;
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consultation with the users; institutional reforms and cost recovery; land ownership.
Regarding the reclamation of new areas, the possible approaches regard the following aspects: role of the government; installation of the physical infrastructure; identification of future users; establishment of new institutions.
Improvement of existing areas
In the improvement of existing areas the government generally plays a guiding role during the whole process. In the case generally different levels of government will have to co-operate, with their different responsibilities.
Determination of improvement options
In the improvement of existing areas various options, or combinations of these options generally arise, like: improvements of the physical infrastructure. Water management system, roads system, or water transport system; improvement of agricultural production conditions. Land reallocation, agricultural extension, crop diversification; improvement of market conditions. Credit facilities, storage facilities, market development.
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Consultation with the users
In the areas to be improved there are landowners and/or land users. The objective of the projects is generally to improve their living, or production conditions. This normally requires intensive consultations and approval procedures with the parties involved in order to find out which improvement options may be most successful.
Institutional reforms and cost recovery
In many instances the government is the owner and has the main responsibility for operation and maintenance. Related to the improvement this position can generally not be maintained and the involvement of the stakeholders will increase. This will require institutional reforms and cost recovery.
Land ownership
Land ownership has often resulted in significant problems and delays in land improvement projects. Therefore this aspect deserves a lot of attention from the early stages.
Reclamation of new areas
A government department or private company with or without external help may carry out Land suitability investigations. Large land reclamation projects often involve the government, a funding agency and one, or several consultants. Prior to fieldwork, initial discussions will take place to decide on the objectives of the development, and the data and assumptions on which they are to be based. The extent and boundaries of the area to be evaluated, and the kinds of land use may either be prescribed in the terms of reference, or may be part of the analyses. Appropriate physical or economic measures must be decided. The intensity and
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scales of the required surveys, and the phasing of activities should be agreed prior to the start of fieldwork. The administrative, logistical and financial implications of the work being undertaken should also be agreed.
As a rule, a government plays an important role in the development of land reclamation projects, either by promoting or by implementing them. If the government undertakes the project, at administrative level, it is recommended to make one Ministry responsible for the entire development. This implies that this Ministry should have the disposal of a budget to finance, to a certain level, the implementation of the project. It is recommended that a special Developing Authority be established within this Ministry, in which all involved disciplines and staff of other Ministries are involved. The tasks of such an authority could cover: planning and preparation of feasibility studies, designs, and tender documents;
contacts with and supervision of the activities of contractors, consultants, financiers, and users; responsibility of the overall co-ordination; responsibility of the exploitation during the soil ripening, or soil improvement process; leasing/selling of the lands.
The Developing Authority should be made responsible for an organisation and an annual budget, which is approved and monitored by the Ministry in charge. This implies a legislative framework, in which tasks and responsibilities, powers, obligations, and evaluation procedures of the activities are laid down. As land reclamation projects require many consultations with many parties and organisations, it is also recommended to formalise the several steps of these consultations.
When a private company, or organisation executes the land reclamation it is very important that at an early stage this company, or organisation reaches agreement with the different levels of government on the various relevant issues. If such an overall agreement has not been made, the company or organisation may run into problems, due to complicated decision making processes at government level, resulting in substantial delays, or even changes in policy.
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Design and installation of the physical infrastructure
The technical works usually imply a number of combined activities, like the provision of the water management infrastructure, transportation infrastructure (roads, water ways), land improvement, or land consolidation measures, construction of buildings and structures, and installation of facilities. The installation of the physical infrastructure can be approached in different ways. Basically a choice can be made between large scale integrated development and small-scale gradual development. In the first approach investments are generally high, as well as the revenues. Complication may be inefficiency due to institutional problems, especially in the initial stage. In the second approach, investments are generally low and spread over a long period. Risk of inefficiency, or failure is limited. In practice projects will be developed between these two extreme approaches.
During initial discussions, requirements for reports and maps at various stages should be decided. Regular production of progress reports and maps is a feature of efficiently organised land development investigations. These are essential as a basis for making major policy decisions at crucial stages of the study. It is also customary to produce interim reports in order to facilitate discussions and amendments before producing the final reports and maps.
Tidal lowland development in Indonesia, which was carried out in the last three decades, is a good illustration of reclamation in steps. The long-term strategy is based on several national development objectives, i.e. resettlement of people from the densely populated islands to unoccupied areas, and increase in food production. The initial step is the reclamation of tidal lowlands through the construction of open drainage systems, following a low input and simple technology approach. The development activities of this step aim at obtaining quick results. During the following steps, several interventions are undertaken, which are based on higher inputs and more sophisticated technology levels. Every next step is initiated when the measures taken in the former step have reached their optimal economic development. These interventions ultimately aim at the maximum natural and socio-economic resource utilisation of the lowlands, being polders.
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The advantages of a step-wise reclamation are the lower initial reclamation costs, the larger area that can be reclaimed with a given budget, a gradual change in the physical environment, a longer period for the new inhabitants to adapt themselves to the different circumstances, and a large flexibility to adapt the measures proposed in the original design to unexpected developments. Table 4.1 presents the features of the various stages with regard to hydraulic infrastructure and land use.
Table 4.1
Stage First stage
Features of step-wise tidal lowland development (Suryadi, 1996)

Feature open, uncontrolled drainage system rainfed agriculture one food crop annually subsistence farming transportation mainly boats semi-closed drainage system semi-controlled water management based on flood and saline water protection flushing in case of acid sulphate soils water conservation by surface and subsurface water control mainly rainfed agriculture more than one crop annually intermediate economic land farming agro-processing industry internal road system trans-area transport fully controlled water management system multiple cropping and integrated farming commercial farming sustained economic growth industrial development finalised road infrastructure
Intermediate stages
Final stage
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4.3
DEVELOPMENT STAGES
Development stages will normally be: project identification; pre-feasibility; feasibility; design; construction; operation, maintenance and management;
modernisation.
In each stage a different detail of information and a different type of study, planning and design is required. In the preparatory stages, the level of service and the side effects have to be taken into account in such a way that systems can be constructed, which allow for a proper operation, maintenance and management.
During the preparatory stages investigations for a project usually require three types of studies: reconnaissance level (pre-feasibility), identification of the feasibility of the proposed project, first of all on technical, but also on economic and environmental grounds; semi-detailed level (feasibility), additional activities to work out a preliminary plan, or several alternative plans, based on which the competent authorities can decide on implementation; detailed level (design), designs and preparation of tender documents.
As societies change in time, projects have to be designed in a flexible way, as to allow for modernising the works after a number of years.
From project identification to project implementation
In the early stages of land and water development investigations, land evaluation studies
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indicate in a preliminary way the suitability of land for the proposed land use and the land improvements that may be required. With further field studies, projects can be identified and a development plan be worked out. Projects can be ranked in order of priority. The priority projects are planned in more detail and each project plan progressively refined. In agricultural reclamation projects, the proposed crops, methods of reclamation, cultivation, inputs and land improvements are progressively adjusted until a satisfactory project plan is produced. In urban development projects the lay out of the new town, or the urban quarter is gradually more and more detailed, together with the economic feasibility and the relation to the surrounding area.
Various criteria can be used to decide whether a project plan is satisfactory. Apart from social and political objectives, which in practice are often paramount, a satisfactory plan is one that leaves farmers, or citizens, the community and the national economy better off. In other words, it results in the largest practicable increment in net benefits in an economic comparison of without project and with project situations. Such a plan will generally utilise limited resources of land and water, or inputs for the most productive use. A satisfactory plan is one, which is practicable and likely to work out under actual field conditions, not necessarily the most economically attractive on paper.
Land evaluation reports, maps and data continue to be useful after the planning stage, during design and implementation, and for monitoring the project. The detailed design of engineering works may depend on information collected earlier during the feasibility study. During the implementation and later management of a project, the feasibility study may provide a basis for monitoring changes in physical, social and economic conditions. In response to such changes, the recommendations may need modification and updating from time to time.
Levels of intensity of investigations
Studies of land and water resources and the production of land development proposals may be conducted at national level, at the level of a river basin or geo-hydrological basin, or at project level. The types of studies undertaken at these different levels are indicated in Table 4.2.
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Table 4.2
Levels
Levels of intensity of investigations

Type of study Project identification Pre-feasibility Feasibility Type of survey Reconnaissance Semi-detailed Detailed
National, river basin Project
Project identification at national and river basin level leads to a need for pre-feasibility and feasibility studies. These are followed by detailed design studies of water management systems (irrigation and drainage when applicable) and parcelling out. Different scales of survey serve these studies. The reconnaissance level is used in rural areas to investigate the irrigation, and/or drainage requirement. In urban areas a first idea is developed at this stage on the type of urban water management system. At the semi-detailed level an estimation of the costs is required, for which an estimation of the basis of the rural and/or urban water management systems has to be made. At the detailed level, the final plan can be established.
At the national level, investigations are required to provide a Master Plan for land and water development, including an assessment of the priorities accorded to respective regions and areas within a country. At the level of individual river basins or geo-hydrological basins, investigations provide the basis for water development, water control for different uses and for land use planning (for instance river basin protection, flood zoning, potential areas for irrigation, reclamation of deltaic, swampy and tidal zones). At the project level, a plan is formulated for investment in rural and/or urban drainage, irrigation and flood protection.
Reconnaissance surveys on a small scale, i.e. 1 : 100,000 to 1 : 250,000 are useful for broad resource inventory, the identification of promising areas for development, and to provide a basis for more detailed studies. Mapping units are usually compound and provide only estimates of the proportions of the conditions for the various land suitability categories. Economic studies at this stage broadly indicate levels of production and income.
Much of the information needed for irrigation, or drainage works is the same as needed for
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4.9
any land and water development project, and refers to geological, topographic and soil maps, climatic and agricultural, or urban data. The main objective of a reconnaissance study is to identify the feasibility of the proposed project, first of all on technical, but also on social, economic and environmental grounds. Studies at this level are mainly based on existing information but also include fieldwork. Necessary maps and data are: aerial photographs; maps with geology, topography, infrastructure, elevation, land use and land ownership; data on population, soils, surface and groundwater, climate, and agricultural systems; crop yields, salinity, and alkalinity.
At this level also the delineation of the area to be considered as a project area is done. For large areas, sub-units may be identified.
Semi-detailed surveys in pre-feasibility and feasibility studies for rural development are at scales from 1 : 25,000 to 1 : 50,000. For urban development, the scales are 1 : 5,000 to 1 : 10,000. This phase comprises the additional activities needed to work out the alternative sketch plans obtained from the reconnaissance study to a preliminary plan. It forms a basis for appraisal of projects. On the basis of the feasibility studies, the competent authorities should finally select the plans and decide on implementation. The data are the same as for the reconnaissance level but are needed in more detail. Therefore field surveys will be necessary. Required fieldwork may be studied for small areas (1,000 ha) as representative for the whole region (reference areas).
The output of detailed surveys consists of the definitive design of the project, the list of quantities, and the tender documents. Detailed surveys may be required for soils and topography. Soil surveys, at scales of 1 : 10,000 to 1 : 25,000, with soil series and phases as the main soil-mapping units, are used for project planning and implementation and for surveys at village or river basin level, including layout of farms and water management systems. If topography is important in delineating land, a more intensive survey (for instance at a scale of 1 : 5,000) may be required for land levelling and engineering applications. Very detailed surveys, at scales of 1 : 5,000 or larger, are necessary in rural areas where small
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4.10
contour intervals must be mapped in order to determine slope classes, or align irrigation and drainage channels and structures. In urban areas surveys at scales 1 : 2,000 to 1 : 5,000 may be required for several items, for example topographic map and maps of depth and bearing capacity of foundation layers.
4.4
SOCIO-ECONOMIC REQUIREMENTS
As the need for development in rural areas is generally determined by the need to increase and/or to rationalise the food production, there is a direct link between the investments to be made and the benefits to be expected. In the past, land reclamation projects were considered purely agricultural development projects, for which economic criteria were the only criteria on which a proposal for land reclamation was evaluated. This frequently resulted in a negative outcome, as on the economic time scale (order of 25 to 50 years) such a land reclamation project showed a rather low economic feasibility. It is always difficult to convince decision makers that the long term effects should be considered as well, as especially these kind of development activities have proved to be very feasible: they always contribute to the creation of new land where new developments are made possible.
Nowadays, more attention is paid to other than agricultural land uses in proposals for land reclamation, like urban and industrial development, new recreation potentials and nature conservation. It can be observed that evaluations are not restricted to economics any more, and that more attention is paid to these non-agricultural aspects of development as well.
The implementation of large-scale land reclamation projects may have large socio-economic effects. To obtain the optimum positive effects and to avoid/diminish negative implications, a socio-economic analysis of the works should be included from the first planning stages onwards. The factors that determine the rate of success of land reclamation projects and which should be included in such an analysis are: experience with land reclamation; mechanisation rate;
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technical know-how, skills and experience in operation and maintenance of water management systems;
employment conditions and customs of employers and employees;
wage levels and wage structure; time use patterns of skilled and unskilled manual workers.
In case of a wrong or neglected assessment, these factors can very seriously affect costs, duration and success of a land reclamation project.
In case the local experience is limited to manual operations or to operations involving traditional equipment, the construction timetable scheme must take these realities into account. Land reclamation according to traditional methods may lead to reclamation of a relatively small acreage of arable land only. If vast areas of suitable agricultural land were needed, excessively long reclamation periods would be the result. A highly mechanised approach could result in the required number of hectares of reclaimed land. However, such an approach may concur with the interests of the local population, because of the vast numbers of manual workers that would be in such a case put off.
Programme planning for land reclamation as such involves a lot of exercises in compromising the two social interests named in relation to factors like the pace of the operations and the level of mechanisation. Solutions for such conflicting interests may be found in various forms of labour divisions, which can link the involvement of modern machinery with the construction of larger and more comprehensive works, meanwhile assigning the details of construction to manual workers. Such approaches may cause the achievement of the highest level of mechanisation illusive from a technical point of view. However, one must consider that in this way a socially acceptable balance can be found providing both the timely completion of the construction on one hand and ample opportunities for employment and training of local workers on the other.
Finally, inquiries should be made to determine whether or not, and if so to what extend workers needed for the construction will be available during the seasons most suitable for the realisation of the construction. It may well be that these periods coincide with other activities
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of the population, such as planting or harvesting of crops, dwelling construction.
4.5
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
Until some twenty years ago, ecological data were only occasionally used in reaching a decision on land and water development projects. This could lead to unforeseen consequences. Increasingly ecological data are used in all decisions on land and water development projects.
Ecological data cannot easily be introduced in cost-benefit analyses. For functions of wetlands having direct economic output a value can be calculated, but many other aspects escape quantification in this way. Several procedures have been developed to solve this problem, like: comparison of primary production; environmental impact studies; calculation of the cost of shadow projects; multi-criteria analysis.
Mitigating measures
Partial inclusion of wetlands in reclaimed areas
The ecological impact of land reclamation is not confined to the reclaimed area only. There are implications throughout the web of life that is dependent on the area.
For example if reclamation takes place in mangrove or salt marsh areas. These areas offer the primary products of organic food, and provide sheltered, shallow water feeding and breeding grounds for insects, shellfish, crustaceans, fish and wildfowl. It is necessary to scrutinise proposals for reclamation to ensure that an adequate area of natural marsh or mangrove is left to serve as a base for the local food chain. Therefore, it should be tried to spare the
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ecologically valuable wetlands of the area under consideration as much as possible. However, it is rather difficult to formulate the criteria that are needed for the selection (minimum size, number, ecological circumstances) and to develop guidelines for the selection.
New nature in reclaimed areas
New natural habitats can be developed to replace losses or for other reasons. In this case proper attention has to be paid to the formulation of the desired development, if the measures required are also economically feasible, and in what way the measures will be technically implemented.
Landscape development in reclaimed areas
A land reclamation project can only be successful when the newly created environment is attractive for the future settlers. This means, amongst others, that landscaping deserves ample attention, which generally requires input from the government. Based on landscape plans, trees have to be planted as early as possible, as to prevent a uniform and dull landscape.
4.6
REFERENCES
International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID), 2005, Use of Water and Land for Food Security and Environmental Sustainability, Proceedings of the 19th ICID Congress, Beijing, China, 10 - 18 September, 2005, New Delhi, India.
Suryadi, F.X., 1996, Soil and water management strategies for tidal lowlands in Indonesia, PhD thesis, Delft University of Technology and International Institute for Infrastructural, Hydraulic and Environmental Engineering (IHE), Delft, the Netherlands.
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Physical planning in rural and urban areas
PHYSICAL PLANNING IN RURAL AND URBAN AREAS
Physical planning is The integration of physical, social and ecological values into a sustainable environment (Constandse, 1988). The development of areas determines the living conditions for the settlers for many decades. Therefore the physical planning has to be implemented in such a way, that for the areas to be reclaimed an environment will be created that in the rural area the settlers will cultivate the land according to planning, and in the urban area settlers will rent or buy a house and shops, offices and industries will be started. For rural areas to be improved, this means that the farmers should be convinced by their future practice about the improvements.
In physical planning different planning levels may be distinguished, like national planning, regional planning and local planning. In addition the following stages in planning may be distinguished: proposal; institutional consultation; public consultation; decision.
Each planning level requires its detail, appropriate information and its set of procedures in decision-making. These aspects will be dealt with. Special attention will be given to useful components of each planning level as well as to the interactions between the planning levels.
5.1
AREA AND TIME SCALES
In each land and water development project area and time scales may be distinguished. These scales can be considered as the basic units in a project. For each level a different set of aspects is of importance and different types of decisions will have to be taken during the development
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process. The stages regard: rural area: * * * * * * field; system; local; regional; country; global;
urban area: * * * * * * house or building; quarter; local; regional; country; global;
time: * * * * * one season; one year; lifetime of elements; generation; century.
Area scales
When we go into some more detail regarding the area scales for the rural area, then the following items may considered to be of importance at the field scale: basic unit in the lay out of an area: * * * paddy; dry food crops; tree crops;
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other influencing factors: * soil type clay, peat or sand; * field irrigation system basin, furrow, sprinkler, drip * field drainage system surface or subsurface, singular or composite, land forming, and soil improvement; * farm size private farming, small holders, co-operatives, state farms, or estates; * flexibility;
determination of optimal field sizes.
The economic sustainability of rural development projects would have to be considered by comparing the potentials for agricultural development versus the potentials that are created due to urban or industrial development. This means that agricultural exploitation would have to be possible in such a way that the farmers can obtain at least an income that is comparable with the equivalent incomes in the industry, or commercial sector.
Regarding future developments, in general there is a tendency to go from agriculture towards urbanisation, resulting, among others, in larger scale farming, cultivation of special crops, or part time farming. The lay out of projects would have to be such that farms can be easily adapted to the larger scales.
In the determination of field sizes the following aspects play a role: field dimensions: length, width, area; construction costs: * * * * irrigation; drainage; hydraulic structures; roads;
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operation and maintenance costs: * * agricultural exploitation; operation and maintenance.
If we look at the system scale, then it is obvious that it will make a substantial difference in the development if a project concerns land reclamation where the designer is basically free within certain boundary conditions to determine an optimal lay out, compared to the design possibilities when a project regards the improvement of a cultivated area. In the latter case the designer has to pay due attention to aspects like history, social status, and land property. At the local scale attention will have to be paid to: influence of the municipality; land use plan; settlement types: * * near the field; concentrated.
The development at regional scale is generally based at a general area development plan, or at an integrated regional development plan.
At country scale we have to look at aspects like: National planning; strong and weak points; physical conditions.
Last but not least in the list of area scales for the rural area, we have the global scale. In general in the development of projects, this scale will not get considerable attention, while it is more influencing the planning at national level. However, although in an indirect way, aspects like the growth of the worlds population and the resulting required increase in food production would deserve attention. In dealing with these aspects due attention would also have to be given to environmental considerations.
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When we go into some more detail regarding the area scales for the urban area, then at each level the items listed below may considered.
At the level of a house, or a building of first importance is which plot size will be required for the type of house that has to be build, in order to get a product that can be sold or rented to a future user. Although the plot size is only one of the criteria to be considered, it is a very important one while it determines the density of houses that can be realised for example per ha, which will have a strong influence on the feasibility of an urban development project.
At the level of a quarter, the number of houses and buildings play a role in order to create units with a logical ratio. For example a certain type of shop requires a certain number of clients, at a certain number of inhabitants you need a school, a doctor, or a hospital. These aspects are generally approached at the level of a quarter.
At local level it is first of all of importance, to determine at a very early stage, why the area to be developed would attract people who want to settle there. Here aspects play a role like availability of public transport, access roads, and economic activity.
At the regional level one would have to consider especially the traffic that will result from the newly development, and what facilities would have to be required regarding inter city traffic.
At country scale it is the national settlement policy, which plays an important role.
At a global scale, although there is certainly no planning at this level, one may observe that there is a strong tendency towards urban and industrial development in coastal lowland and delta areas. There are even forecasts that by 2025 more than 70% of worlds population will live in such areas.
Time scales
When we go into some more detail regarding the time scales, then the following items may
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considered being of importance at each level.
The smallest scale as far as a development project is considered, is created by one season. This scale is important to determine: functions of systems components; required operation and maintenance versus the capacity to get this implemented.
If we look at the scale of one year, then the requirements of the systems during different parts of the year are of importance. In this respect items like accessibility of an area and the functions that would have to be fulfilled by the water management system during the year are the relevant items. A clear distinction may generally be observed between the requirements in the wet and the dry season. Each element in a project has a certain lifetime, after which is has to be renovated or replaced. More specific this regards: irrigation and drainage: * watercourses: + regular maintenance; + periodic maintenance; + replacement; + emergency maintenance; * structures and pumping stations: + operation; + maintenance; + revision; + replacement; + emergency maintenance; roads: * * * * regular maintenance; periodic maintenance; replacement; emergency maintenance;
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Land and water development projects generally strongly influence the living conditions of the users. This means that they would have to accept and to appreciate the results of the project in order to be able to improve their living conditions. Here generally a longer-term process is going on which could be illustrated by calling it the generation scale. The first generation would have to get familiar with the project results, while the next generation will be much more used to the new conditions. This scale also implies that gradual improvements generally have a better overall result compared to rapid large-scale improvements.
The last step in the time scale concerns the century scale. Here the long term perspectives will have to be considered regarding for example: population growth, rise of the mean sea level and environmental sustainability.
5.2
FUTURE CHANGES AND DEVELOPMENTS
Development projects that have to be implemented in a cultivated area generally focus on: modification of existing conditions; rationalisation of productive potential; diversification of the area.
This requires first of all a good inventory of the existing conditions in order to determine what type of improvements result in the highest effect. This will not necessarily be the improvement of the physical infrastructure. It can, for example, also be the improvement of the marketing system, or the improvement of the security in the area. Based on an inventory during which the different relevant aspects and their scope for improvement are studied, decisions can be taken on the optimal set of development activities.
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5.3
REFERENCES
Constandse, A.K., 1988, Planning and creation of an environment, IJsselmeerpolders Development Authority, Lelystad, the Netherlands
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5.8
Water management in rural and urban areas
WATER MANAGEMENT IN RURAL AND URBAN AREAS
6.1
WATER MANAGEMENT
Man can control and use the water by several measures, like protection, hydraulic structures, irrigation, drainage, water supply. Water is polluted by man in several ways, like solid or liquid wastes from agriculture and industries, domestic wastewater, and discharge of cooling water. Important in the design of water management systems is that in present-day practice, aspects of risk and uncertainty are incorporated in the design. One accepts that at one time in some period there can be a failure.
Many people and organisations may be involved in water management. A schematic presentation of the actors in the field of rural water management is given in Figure 6.1.
RESPONSIBLE
CONTRIBUTING
Consultants Government Policy, legislation, national waters Main and distributary systems Contractors, manufacturers Universities, schools Agencies Research institutes Banks, donors Farmers Field systems NGOs, Int. organisations Farmers associations
Figure 6.1
Actors in the field of rural water management
6.1.1
Factors influencing the design of water management systems
The factors influencing the composition and dimensions of a water management system are
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6.1
meteorology, management of outside water, land use, soil, reclamation, geo-hydrology and water quality. Based on these factors, the level of service to be provided and a proper investigation of side effects, water management systems can be designed.
The types of land use and their distribution over an area can influence part or the entire water management system. There are several systems of parcelling out. They generally form the basis for the layout of the water management system. The choice between cultivation of paddy or dry food crops will have a direct influence on the parcelling, as well as on the dimensions of the water management systems. The same holds true for the farm sizes and farming systems that are envisaged in the area. They strongly determine the attractiveness of the improved, or newly created environment for the users or the settlers and thus the success of a project. The level of service that may be expected from the water management system has to fit in this approach.
During the reclamation of new areas, several steps may be required in the process of converting natural lands into fertile soils; they may even influence the final layout of an area. The differences in approach of the reclamation process will have their consequences for the layout and dimensions of the water management systems, as well as for the required flexibility for adaptations in future development steps.
As far as water quality is concerned, it plays a role both inside and outside a developed area. Inside, especially salinity and acidity can cause damage to crops. Outside, the required water quality in the receiving water body may put constraints on the discharge possibilities.
Modernisation of water management systems
The largest agricultural area is still without any water management system. In the rainfed areas without a water management system water harvesting, and watershed management can make some improvements. Such measures may undoubtedly help to improve the livelihood of poor farm families. There is, however, no way that the cultivated area without a water management system can contribute significantly to the required increase in food production. Due to this the share of irrigated and drained areas in food production will have to increase. This can be either achieved by installing irrigation, or drainage systems in the areas without a system, improvement, or modernisation of existing irrigation and drainage systems,
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6.2
installation of irrigation systems in the rainfed drained areas, or installation of drainage systems in irrigated areas.
In relation to the improvement and expansion of irrigation and drainage there are certain specific issues that deserve everyones attention. With respect to this one can see that in the developed countries a lot has already been achieved, but that in the emerging countries in particular, several issues still have to be resolved. It may require significant efforts from the parties concerned (Figure 6.1) to achieve sustainable solutions. The issues include: significant increase in irrigation efficiency and water saving at system level; institutional reforms in the direction of stakeholder controlled management and government support for modernisation and reclamation; increased stakeholder participation; transfer of systems, or of responsibilities; modernisation; finance for infrastructure and cost recovery.
Especially in the arid and semi-arid zone, the required increase in efficiency and water saving is a very important issue, while in quite some systems mining of ground and surface water resources is already going on (Plusquellec, 2002). Technologically many solutions are available, but the problem is often how the available solutions can be implemented under the specific conditions of the different systems (International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage, 2001 a and b).
In many countries institutional reforms in irrigation and drainage system management towards stakeholder-controlled management are on-going (Japanese National Committee of ICID, 2000, Czech Committee of ICID, 2001, and Ukraine National Committee of ICID, 2002). Transfers of systems, or of responsibilities are especially taking place in the following regions: Emerging countries: Asia, Central and South America; Central and Eastern European countries. These transfers may require quite different approaches (Schultz, et al., 2005). In the emerging countries, there is generally a farmers population. Until recently the main responsibility for operation and maintenance was generally in hands of the Government. In such cases the
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transfers concern the transfer of responsibility and may be of ownership of parts of the systems from the government to the farmers. In the countries with a transition economy, specific problems concern: the layout of the systems, which is mostly based on the former large-scale type of agricultural production, the transfer of irrigation system management from the traditional government agencies towards water management agencies and water users associations, the funding of modernization and resulting operation and maintenance, lack of good governance, unaffordable pumping systems and environmental degradation. In some of the countries, there is even not a clearly identified farmers group. These issues make the transfer process quite complicated.
Regarding the economic and financial aspects of irrigation management transfers in countries with a transition economy, three aspects are of special importance: government policy on agriculture and rural development; required area of agricultural lands and the part of these lands where irrigation and/or drainage can be applied under the new conditions; to find solutions that result in sustainable irrigation and drainage system management after transfer. It also has to be realised that in several of the countries a complete agricultural reform will be required, before irrigation or drainage system management transfer can be successfully planned and implemented, while in these countries the farmers are completely uncertain about their future and therefore not in a position to commit themselves to responsibilities that they cannot afford. The economic and financial questions that arise with respect to irrigation and drainage system management transfer, concern especially to: determination of best modernisation options; modernisation cost; resulting cost and efforts for operation and maintenance of the modernised systems; full cost recovery, or sustainable cost recovery (Tardieu and Prfol, 2002 and Tardieu, 2005); cost sharing; capacity to pay.
With respect to the modernisation of irrigation and drainage systems in the emerging countries it has to be realised that in these countries a significant part of these systems is more
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than thirty years old. While most of the increase in food production will have to come from existing cultivated land, the issue of modernisation, including the related institutional reforms and cost recovery aspects will deserve major attention in the coming decades. The issue of cost recovery is the more important in light of the sustainability of the modernised systems. In line with Figure 6.1 in Figure 6.2 an overview is given of responsibilities and funding options for modernization and operation and maintenance of systems where they have been modernised (Schultz, 2003). With respect to the level of the cost, the principle of sustainability cost as presented by Tardieu and Prfol (2002) and included in the ICID position paper on Irrigation and Drainage Services (Tardieu, 2005) deserves due attention.
MODERNIZATION
OPERATION AND MAINTENACE
Government Policy and legislation Projects of National importance Funding by Government Government Budget and loans from development banks
Government Policy and legislation National waters and major structures Funding by Government Recurrent Budget
Agencies Main and distributary systems Funding by government and farmers based on an agreed sharing of costs Government budget, loans form Development or private bank, farmers
Agencies Main and distributary systems Funding by farmers May be Government subsidy Funding by farmers May be Recurrent Government Budget
Farmers Field systems Funding or by their labour May be with Government subsidy Government subsidy, loans from private banks, their own money or labour
Farmers Field systems Funding or by their labour Their own money or labour May be loans by private banks
Figure 6.2
Responsibilities and funding options for modernization and operation and maintenance of systems when they have been modernised (Schultz, 2003)
What one also notices with respect to the modernisation of irrigation and drainage systems is that in the emerging countries, Governments are increasingly funding programmes and projects from their own budget and not anymore through donor funding. In fact one notices more or less two tracks developing in these countries, being government budget funding predominantly focusing on the increase in food production and the improvement of the standard of living in the rural area, and donor support and funding with a strong focus on poverty alleviation. The Government funding has increased so rapidly during the past years
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that in several of these countries it now constitutes already about 90% of the total funding of land and water development projects. Striking examples are China and India - together housing about one-third of the worlds population - where huge investments are being done and envisaged to be done in inter basin water transfers and modernisation of irrigation systems. Similar developments may be observed in many of the other emerging countries.
6.1.2
Flood management and flood protection
In low-lying areas, man often has to protect himself against water by controlling the river, or by building dikes. Flood protection may cause side effects of a hydraulic and morphological nature, whereas elimination of the overland flow may result in a rise of the river flood levels and changes in the sediment transport.
Dikes can be divided into sea dikes, river dikes and dikes along canals and inland waters. In the past, the crest height of a dike was determined based on the highest known flood level. Little was known about the relation between cost of preventing flooding and cost of damage that might result from it. In modern design, use is made of knowledge about forces on a dike, the strength of its elements and probabilistic design methods (Mazure, 1983). The occurrence of extremely high water levels can be described adequately in terms of frequency. However, the curves of extreme water levels, based on a relatively short period of observations, have to be extrapolated into regions far beyond the field of observation. Therefore the dike can never be designed in such a way that the risk of failure can be excluded.
Related to flood management and flood protection four developments will deserve all attention of those who are in charge of such measures along rivers, as well as in coastal and deltaic areas (Schultz, 2005): increase of population and industrialization in deltaic and coastal areas; rapid increase in value of property in urban and industrial areas; higher protection levels for rural areas, because of higher quality agricultural production; impacts of climate change.
During the past years there have been quite some debates regarding the possible impacts of climate change on respectively (Schultz, 2005):
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rise of the mean sea level; change in river regimes and increase in peak discharges of rivers; increase of droughts; increase in average annual rainfall and in peak rainfalls. Although such developments may be occurring, it has to be realized that the possible changes in design standards for water management and flood protection schemes due to the above mentioned impacts of climate changes are generally in the order of magnitude of 10 - 20% over the forthcoming 100 year. Locally there may be exceptions that can have more far reaching consequences, for example when drainage by gravity would have to be replaced by drainage by pumping.
However, if we look at the increase in population and increase in value of public and private property - crops, houses, buildings, infrastructure, public facilities - in flood prone areas, then such increases are much more significant than the possible impacts of climate changes. Therefore these increases would have to significantly dominating decision-making on water management and flood protection measures, than the issue of climate change. So far this has generally not been the case. The effect that the increase in value of property may have on design standards for flood protection works is indicated in Figure 6.3 (Schultz, 2001). In this theoretical figure the costs for flood protection measures are given for different design frequencies of the safety for a supposed situation in 1950. In addition the estimated damages as related to the design frequencies are given, based on the value of protected buildings, infrastructure and properties at the supposed value of 1950. An economically optimal design is obtained when the total of costs and damages would be minimal. For the 1950 situation such an optimal design would in this theoretical example be in the range of 1/1 year to say 1/50 year. In addition Figure 6.3 shows what the damage would be in 2005, when the same frequency for the design of the flood protection works be maintained and the values in the protected area would have increased ten times during the 55 years. In many flood prone areas this is an increase, which easily has occurred in reality. So, finally in Figure 6.3 the total line is given for the 2005 situation, based on the assumptions as outlined before. From this line it can be observed that the design frequency for the flood protection measures would have to be raised to say at least 1/1,000 year. This would mean significant investments in flood protection, just to maintain the economic optimal level. Final conclusions can only be drawn when the cost figures for designs at this safety level would be determined. Anyhow, from
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Figure 6.3 it can be easily derived that the impact of increase in values in a protected flood prone area will be in general significantly more important than the possible effects of climate change. In this theoretical example the increase in number of people has even not yet been taken into account.
1200
1000
800 Relative costs
Cost 1950 Total 1950 Total 2005
Damage 1950 Damage 2005
600
400
200
0 0 1:01 1:10 1/100 1/1,000 1/10,000 1/100,000 1/1,000,000 Design frequency
Figure 6.3
Indicative relations between design frequency, cost of flood protection works, related expectation of damages and relative total cost. The cost line is only given for 1950, applicable for the situation that no increases in the level of safety have been made since then. In theory the design frequency would have to be taken that coincides with the lowest level of the total cost
Rapid growth of Asian cities
Especially in flood prone areas in South and East Asia we may observe a very rapid growth of cities. During the past decades cities like: Bangkok, Dhaka, Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh city, Jakarta, Manila, Osaka, Shanghai, Taipei and Wuhan have shown more or less an explosion in population growth and have transformed from cities with less than one until two million inhabitants to cities with in some cases even more than 10 million inhabitants. The increase in
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the value of property in these cities has been in general even more rapid than the growth of the population.
In order to cope with the growth of these cities for new urban quarters very often reclamation has taken place of low lying parts in the neighbourhood of the existing urban area. From a flood protection and water management point of view this implies removal of storage area and increase in urban drainage discharges. The above developments have resulted in the following characteristics for these rapidly growing urban areas: protection levels that are generally far below the economic optimum (actual levels between 1/20 and 1/100 year); serious risk of loss of a large number of human lives when an extreme event would occur; costs of only physical solutions are generally unaffordable. Therefore the present problems can only be solved by the development of integrated flood management and flood protection measures for such urbanised areas. The development and implementation of such plans is urgently required.
The recent flooding of New Orleans
Recently, Hurricane Katrina caused, among other damages, the flooding of New Orleans in the USA. The flooding may serve as an example of the above considerations. The protection level of the dikes that protect New Orleans is about 1/100 per year. The surface level of the city is up to about 4 metres below mean sea level. The number of casualties due to the flooding was more than one hundred, and the damage is provisionally estimated at more than 100 billion US$. Giving New Orleans a substantial higher level of protection would have required an investment of less than 5% of the present damage.
6.2
IRRIGATION
For many centuries, irrigation has enabled societies to produce sufficient food. In figure 6.4 the development of irrigation by Continent over the last forty years is shown. Some key figures for the countries with the largest irrigated area are given in Table 6.1. Traditionally, surface water was diverted to make a better use of it or groundwater was taken from shallow hand-dug wells. An irrigation system may be composed of an inlet structure, a main irrigation
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system and a field irrigation system (Figure 6.5). Due to irrigation, accumulation of salt may occur in the root zone, which affects agricultural yields. In case the groundwater is brackish and at shallow depth, capillary rise may supply still more salt to the root zone. To control salinity, an additional amount of irrigation water in excess of the consumptive use may have to be applied to leach the salts from the root zone. The leachate generally has to be removed by a drainage system, and may cause problems for the downstream water users.
300 250 Million ha 200 150 100 50 0 1961 1966 1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 Year World Asia Africa Europe Americas
Figure 6.4
Development of irrigation by continent over the last forty years
Table 6.1 Some key figures for the countries with the largest irrigated area (International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage, 2004 and Schultz, et al., 2005)
Country Population in 106 % of population economically active in agriculture India China USA Pakistan Iran Mexico Thailand Indonesia Russia Turkey Total World 1,050 1,288 287 144 66 102 63 217 144 67 3,426 6,215 59 66 2 47 26 21 56 48 10 46 329 960 963 80 165 196 51 190 1,708 78 4,718 13,425 170 136 179 22 16 27 18 34 127 27 755 1,497 55 54 22 18 8 7 5 5 5 5 184 272 Total area in 106 ha Arable land in 106 ha Irrigated area In 106 ha
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The rapid expansion in worlds irrigated area has also resulted in some typical problems that will need our careful attention and effort to prevent and solve them. The following problems can be mentioned: in the arid and semi-arid regions: * * waterlogging and salinization; mining of groundwater resources, mainly because of the introduction of deep-wells at large scale; * negative impacts of new developments for downstream water users, both from a water quantity point of view - water shortages - as from a water quality point of view salinization, acidification, leaching of fertilisers and pesticides; * * complicated water right situations; trans-boundary problems in river basins;
in the temperate humid and humid tropical regions; *

* *
polluted drainage water due to salinization or the use of fertilisers and pesticides; water shortages downstream of rivers; trans-boundary problems in river basins.
Diversion structure/ head works
Main canal
Division structure
Division structure Offtake Tertiary unit
Sub-lateral Sub-lateral unit
Secondary canal/ lateral
Secondary unit
Conveyance and distribution system (open canals)
Figure 6.5
Schematic lay out of an irrigation system
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The inlet structure diverts the water from the river and brings it in the main irrigation system. Next to the hydraulic properties of the inlet structure, the sediment control functions are of crucial importance to get an optimal benefit of the inlet water and to prevent sediment accumulation in the irrigation canals as much as possible.
The main irrigation system transports the water from the inlet structure to the field irrigation system. Regarding the main irrigation system some less successful developments may be mentioned. In fact, it needs to be stressed that the construction of any infrastructure for irrigation or drainage does not yield benefits. The benefits only arise when the structure is operated and maintained properly, enabling the farmers to get a good yield from their crops.
Field irrigation systems transport the water from the main irrigation system or well over the fields. In recent years there have been important innovations in these systems. All kinds of micro irrigation systems have been developed (International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage, 1993). In this respect the climate control in green houses deserves special attention. In fact it is the most advanced field irrigation system. However, this system has also caused tremendous side effects through the discharge of polluted drainage water. Nowadays, the drainage water is monitored and mixed with fresh water and fertilisers to reach the required quality and recycled.
Generally, the installation, maintenance and operation of field irrigation systems are completely the responsibility of the farmers. This may imply that large investments have been made by a government for the design and construction of the inlet structure and the main system, whereas the benefits have been only marginal as the farmers did not even know which benefits they could get, and how these could be obtained. When a farmer does not install or maintain his field irrigation system properly, he, and maybe also his neighbours, will not get the envisaged amounts of water. In these cases, impressive feasibility studies proved to be just exercises. The insufficient attention that has been paid to the field irrigation system has caused an insufficient overall performance of several irrigation systems.
Design aspects of irrigation systems
In this section the detailed issues of the design of irrigation systems will not be presented. Reference is made to the lecture notes on hydraulic engineering aspects of irrigation and
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drainage and to the many text- and handbooks on the subject. In this chapter the focus will be on the key issues and problems.
The three components of an irrigation system should be designed in relation to each other. There is no sense in making a perfect field irrigation system and an inlet with a high capacity if the main irrigation system is unable to carry the water from the inlet to the field. Methods are now available to enable optimisation in the design of irrigation systems. Two types of optimisation may be distinguished. Firstly, the optimisation of the actual water application by preventing over-irrigation, controlling salinization, or optimal under-irrigation, should be mentioned. Secondly, the use of irrigation water in a river basin may be optimised, partly through optimising the distribution of irrigation water to the various schemes, and partly through optimising the use of water over the various types of users, like drinking water, irrigation water, electricity generation, and navigation. For irrigation with groundwater, the optimisation of the exploitation of a groundwater resources system is of relevance. For all these possibilities of optimisation there are computer models and information systems. However, reliable data needed for their input are not always available. Another problem may be the absence of a legal framework and a supporting control mechanism to achieve optimal use. Because of this problem the overall performance is often less than could be expected in the water resources framework.
Inlet
The design and construction of the inlet structure has always received substantial attention, and a rich experience is available all over the world. In addition to the hydraulic aspects, the inlet has to be designed in such a way that a minimum of sediment enters the system.
Main irrigation system
Of course all the tools are available to design such systems, like all kind of formulas and computer programmes for steady and non steady flow, data base systems, CAD and CAMsystems for computer aided design and management, and the GIS-systems for geographic information. All these tools may result in sound designs and constructions. However, the word sound should be interpreted carefully. It does not only mean that the system has to be technically sound, but it especially refers to the level of service that can be realised.
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In the design of irrigation canals an important item is formed by the velocity, which is adopted in the design. This is particularly true when laying out such canals in level areas. Firstly the concept of the maximum permissible velocity or non-erodible velocity is recalled. In alluvial silts and clays these velocities are around 0.8 to 1.5 m/s depending on the silt content of the water, the depth of the canal and other factors. However, such high velocities cannot be attained in level areas. More important is the minimum permissible velocity. When the water is clear the danger exists of growth of aquatic vegetation clogging the canals. To prevent this the velocity in the canals should not be less than 0.75 m/s and the depth not less than 0.5 m. In very deep canals (3 m and more) smaller velocities are permissible.
To prevent silting up of the canals when the water is carrying sediments, the velocity must also be higher than a certain minimum, which depends on many factors and on which many formulae and theories exist. Discarding extreme cases of canal size and silt content minimum velocities around 0.6 to 1.2 m/s are required. To generate velocities of this magnitude the hydraulic gradients must be of the order of 1 - 6 * 10-4 (0.1 - 0.6 m/km). If the land is sloping in the alignment of the canal with such a gradient almost ideal conditions exist for the design of regime canals. In level areas, however, there are no slopes.
Field irrigation system
Field irrigation systems may have various forms, like basin, furrow, sprinkler, drip, etc. For different systems different design criteria and design methods will apply.
In areas where there is a danger of soil salinization fresh irrigation water is supplied at a rate in excess of the consumptive use by the plants. The excess keeps the salinity of the soil below a certain level provided that this water (the leachate) is drained off. If leaching is applied continuously, the excess is usually between 10 and 30% of the consumptive use (1 to 3 mm/day). If leaching is applied intermittently, a higher rate is applied.
In the valley and the delta of the Nile in Egypt perennial irrigation and growth of crops the whole year round became possible after the construction of the High Aswan Dam. The perennial irrigation however causes waterlogging and secondary soil salinization. Due to this nowadays large areas of irrigated land are supplied with subsurface drainage systems. These
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systems are designed to drain off the leachate. In some areas even pump lift drainage is required for the purpose. Capacities of pumping stations are around 5 mm/day.
Construction aspects of irrigation systems
Construction aspects of irrigation systems may refer to the canals - which may be unlined, or lined -, the pipelines, or other irrigation devises, the structures in a system, pumps, or pumping stations, construction equipment, and equipment to control the construction, or the operation of the structures, and pumps, or pumping stations. All the materials and equipment are available in a wide range of possibilities, ranging from manual to fully automated control, construction and water application. Of course, developments will not stop and new equipment and materials will become available, leading to cheaper and more efficient construction, operation and maintenance. However, the basic problem is not the availability of the materials and equipment, but the selection of the most appropriate ones for the local conditions. Especially the application of control equipment has to be prepared very carefully with the users, as the operation of this equipment directly influences their benefits, and any imbalance in future water supply will easily result in damaged structures and equipment.
Operation and maintenance aspects of irrigation systems
In the traditional irrigation systems, water rights have developed during a very long period. This has brought a kind of a balance in the areas giving each user a more or less clear picture of his rights and the amount of water he may expect.
The operation of modern surface irrigation systems is a complicated matter, as these systems are generally of a size and a layout that the traditional water rights cannot properly be applied any more. This has frequently resulted in tensions, cutting of bunts and dikes, and all other kinds of activities that negatively influenced the functioning of the systems. In this respect irrigation with groundwater results in smaller management problems, as the relation between the system and the benefit is quite clear to the farmers. However, in this case the mining of groundwater may easily occur.
Of importance for maintenance are frequencies and activities. Maintenance frequencies can be divided in routine maintenance (once or a few times per year), periodic maintenance (once
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every five to twenty-five years), emergency maintenance and modernisation. The maintenance activities focus on shape, dimensions and flow resistance of canals and functioning of structures, pumps and pumping stations. The frequency of routine and periodic maintenance varies from country to country, and within a country from region to region. Important factors are climate, soil type, the growth rate of the vegetation, functions and dimensions of the system, size of the area, budget, and policy of the irrigation authority.
Modernisation of systems should also be mentioned here. It concerns the formulation of new objectives for the systems, which are in line with the developments and needs. The measures aim at improving the physical infrastructure, operation and maintenance activities, management as well as institutional measures.
Problems in operation, maintenance and management arise when the socio-economic aspects are insufficiently taken into account in the designs. It is easy to blame the users that they do not make use of the nicely designed and constructed systems in the way as was foreseen. In such cases also the engineers should be blamed for the fact that they insufficiently took into account the needs of the users.
Regarding irrigation a distinction can be made in irrigation in sloping areas and irrigation in level areas. Some aspects related to these types of areas are given in the next sub sections.
6.2.1
Irrigation in sloping areas
Typical features of irrigation in sloping lands are: generally the availability of irrigation water by gravity; requirement of a careful lay out based on the contour lines;
risk of erosion.
In the sloping areas we find many traditional irrigation schemes. These schemes often have functioned for decades, or even centuries. However, under the recent economic growth in many emerging countries agricultural exploitation in these schemes becomes uneconomical and farmers tend to stop with their traditional practices.
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6.2.2
Irrigation in level areas
Typical features of irrigation in level areas are the: fact that irrigation water supplied from outside may reach the boundary of the area at a low level with respect to land elevation so that the water cannot gravitate to the fields. This is a very common case because in such areas the water comes from a river or from a lake with a low level during the dry season or from another adjacent area; fact that the land slopes in such flat areas are very small or even absent; occurrence of brackish or even saline surface and groundwater in coastal areas or in arid zones; interrelationship between irrigation and drainage.
Irrigation in level areas has many common features with irrigation in sloping areas like the choice between irrigation systems (surface, subsurface or overheads), irrigation by rotation, irrigation on demand, assessment of irrigation requirements, and design of regime canals.
In irrigation canals the required velocities can be reached by making the canals in fill. If the irrigation water does not reach the boundary at a high level, pumps, or pumping stations must be installed to raise the water and to obtain the gradient required, unless the water supply to the crops is based on sub-irrigation (Figure 6.6). This can be achieved by a pumping station at that boundary in combination with a system of high level irrigation canals but also by small pumping stations or small pumps on the branch canals combined or not as explained earlier. Which of the two systems is the most suitable one depends on socio-economic factors (size of holdings, ownership), crops (rice or dry cash crops or vegetables and fruit) and physical factors (size of the system, water quality, topography). Water level 1 to 6 * 10 P.S. river
-4
Figure 6.6
Irrigation water supply with a pumping station
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When, however, the water should be conveyed over distances of ten kilometres and more high canals in fill must generally be built involving considerable amounts of earthwork and the necessity of expensive measures to prevent leakage and waterlogging. A more economic solution may be obtained while still having the required gradients by making the canals partly on fill and partly in cutting as shown in Figure 6.7. Booster pumping stations (PS) have to be installed in order to generate the necessary heads. The water level in the main canal may be partly below the land elevation but the adjacent lands can be irrigated by gravity owing to the fact that the branch canals in fill are supplied from a high level.
P.S.
P.S.
P.S. Land elevation Water level
Regulators
Figure 6.7
Irrigation water supply with booster pumping stations
Another solution could be to have just one booster pumping station and to supply the branch canals (in fill) by small pumping stations on those reaches of the main canal where the water level is low (Figure 6.8).
Special cases are those where the water is conveyed by a high level canal coming from a reservoir in an adjacent hilly area or by a high level canal branching off upstream from a nearby headwork on a river. It is then very attractive to install a high-level irrigation system thus avoiding any pumping. The system is then one with separate main and field irrigation canals and drains.
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Water level
Land elevation
P.S.
River Regulator
P.S.
P.S.
P.S.
Figure 6.8
Irrigation water supply with one booster pumping station and through pumping stations in the secondary canals
6.3
DRAINAGE
Some key data for the countries with the largest drained area are given in Table 6.2. The objectives of drainage are to create well-drained arable land, and/or to prevent soil salinization. Three types of drainage can be distinguished (Framji, et al., 1987 and Schultz ed., 1990): crop-season drainage, in areas with a rainfall excess during the cropping period; off-season drainage, in areas with a rainfall excess in the non-cropping season; salt drainage, the prevention and combat of soil salinization in irrigated areas.
An important distinction in the drainage of agricultural lands is between the drainage of areas with paddy fields for growing wetland paddy and the drainage of areas with fields for dry food crops, or tree crops. In the former case the objective is to control the depth of flooding on the fields and all or almost all runoff of excess water from rainfall takes place across the surface. In the second case the objective is to control the groundwater level below the surface and an important part of the runoff occurs as subsurface runoff.
Drainage for salinity control aims at removing salt from the soil so that a certain salinity of the soil moisture will not be exceeded which would be harmful to the plants.
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Table 6.2
Indicative key figures for the ten countries with the largest drained area
(International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage, 2004, and data base CEMAGREF)
Country Population in 10
6
% of population economically active in agriculture
Total area in 10 ha
6
6
Drained area In 106 ha
USA China Canada Russia Pakistan India Mexico Germany Great Britain Poland Total World
287 1,288 31 144 144 1,050 102 82 60 39 3,226 6,215
2 66 3 10 47 59 21 2 2 21
963 960 997 1,708 80 329 196 36 24 32 5,324 13,425
179 136 46 127 22 170 27 12 6 14 738 1,497
48 20 9 7 6 6 5 5 5 4 115 272
System components
A drainage system may consist of three components (Figure 6.9): field drainage system; main drainage system; outlet (open connection, sluice or pumping station).
The most common structures in open drains are: culverts; bridges; weirs.
Drop structures are, also, used where gradients agree too steep.
As with irrigation the three components should be designed in relation to each other. There is no sense in making a perfect field drainage system and an outlet with a high capacity if the main drainage system is unable to carry the water from the field to the outlet.
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Main drain
River, lake or sea
Ou tlet
Co llec
tor dra in
Sub m
ain
dra in
Collecto r drain
Branch drain
Br an ch
dr ain
Co ll
ect o
rd rai n
Main drain Submain drain Branch drain Collector drain Field drain Outlet
Fie l
dd
rai ns
Figure 6.9
Schematic lay out of a drainage system
The conditions of the recipient waters outside the drainage area should also be considered in the design. Difficulties are caused by backwater effects in main drains endangering drainage by gravity, silting up of main drains (like in deltas), or small heads in case of tidal drainage.
Design aspects of drainage systems
While the design of drainage systems is generally less well understood than the design of irrigation systems some more detailed information on the design of drainage systems will be given in this section.
When designing an embankment for protecting an area against the floods from a river no guarantee can be given that the embankment will never be overtopped. A certain risk has to be accepted. The higher the embankment the smaller the risk but the higher the cost. There is an economic optimum where the total of annual costs and annual damage is minimum.
The same applies to drainage. A standard has to be found defining a critical situation, which should not be equalled or exceeded, more than a certain frequency (once in so many years).
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The assessment of the standard is still largely an empirical matter since information on the relation between water level and damage is still insufficient.
Field drainage system
In 1940, Hooghoudt published his well known analytical solution of flow of groundwater to drains. After him, other scientists improved and extended his work. Nowadays, with the help of computers, practically each drainage flow problem can be solved (Food and Agriculture Organisation, 1980; Framji, Garg and Kaushish, 1987 and International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement, 1994). In the calculation a distinction has to be made between the determinations of drain depth and drain spacing and the required transport capacity of the drains. The economic optimal drainage may vary considerably, depending on the local economic conditions and agricultural standards. Recent developments focus on integrated computer models, which simulate the moisture regime in the saturated and unsaturated zone in relation to water supply and drainage, evapotranspiration, and climatic parameters. The results, expressed in moisture and oxygen availability, are then evaluated in terms of crop development and yield.
Drainage of paddy fields
In the case of paddy local rice varieties and high yielding varieties of rice can be grown. Local varieties are adapted to the prevailing hydrological conditions. They can still grow when the depth of flooding is steadily increasing. The so-called floating rice even grows in depths increasing up to 3 or 4 m provided that the rate of rise of the water is not more than 0.05 to 0.10 m/day, but the yields are low. On the other hand the modern short-stemmed high yielding varieties require a rather strict control of the water depth at the field. The normal depth is 0.05 to 0.07 m. Even with a still smaller depth the paddy would grow equally well but then there are difficulties with the level check of the land, the weed control and the supply of irrigation water.
Several standards are in use but a commonly applied one is that the normal depth of flooding of say 0.05 m should not be exceeded by more than 0.10 m once in 5 to 20 years on the average and that the excess water should be removed in 3 days (Figure 6.10). The frequency of exceedance (chance of occurrence 1/5 to 1/30 per year) depends on the general level of
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agriculture and other inputs (1/30 per year when all other growth factors are optimum). Exceedance of the normal depth of flooding causes a reduction of yields as for example shown in Table 6.3.
The design conditions are defined as the meteorological conditions under which this rise of 0.10 m occurs. This may be caused by a very heavy rainfall of one day or by heavy rains during two or more consecutive days. To prevent a greater rise than 0.10 m, excess water must be drained off.
Standing layer of water
Figure 6.10
Schematic view of drainage of paddy fields
Table 6.3
Example of yield reduction of paddy in % due to exceedance of water tables

Number of days with a high water table
Exceedance of the normal depth in m 1-2 0.05 - 0.15 0.15 - 0.25 0.25 - 0.35 0.35 - 0.45 5 7 9 12
3-4 10 15 25 35
56 15 25 40 50
Another drainage standard follows from the requirement that all the water from the paddy fields must be evacuated in a reasonable time (3 - 4 days) to permit fertiliser application or to remove harmful substances and to allow the paddy to ripe and be harvested.
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Drainage of dry food crops and tree crops
In the case of dry food crops the groundwater level must be controlled so that air (oxygen) remains in the root zone. This can best be accomplished by surface drainage, or by subsurface drainage consisting of a system of rather deep and narrowly spaced open field drains or drain pipes (Schultz, et al., 1990). The groundwater table is normally kept at a depth of 0.8 to 1.5 m-surface. In case of heavy rain the groundwater table will rise. The drainage standard is generally that the groundwater table is allowed to rise not higher than 0.2 to 0.4 m below the surface and this position should not be exceeded more than once to a few times per year depending on the level of agriculture, soil and type of crop (Figure 6.11).
Unsaturated zone
Normal depth
Figure 6.11
Schematic view of drainage of dry food crops, or tree crops
In temperate humid regions it is generally assumed that in the design case all rainwater infiltrates. This condition can be met while the rainfall intensities are not very high. In humid tropical zones this is in general not applicable, while rainfall intensities may be high and overland flow may occur.
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Drainage for salinity control
In arid zones the danger exists of soil salinization and subsurface drainage is required to control the salinity level. Soil salinization may be caused by irrigation in the absence of any drainage (primary salinization). Since evaporation does not remove any salt even with only slightly saline irrigation water a concentration of salt in the root zone will take place, which is harmful to the plants (osmotic pressure preventing the uptake of water) (Figure 6.12).
Secondary soil salinization is caused by capillary rise of brackish or saline groundwater when the groundwater level occurs at a smaller depth than 1.5 - 3 m-surface (depending on the soil).
Primary and secondary salinization can occur concurrently. The remedy is to keep the groundwater table well below the surface by means of subsurface drainage, to maintain a downward percolation of fresh water (leaching or washing out) and to remove the leachate.
I r r ig a tio n
E v a p o tr a n s p ir a tio n
R oot zone
D e e p g r o u n d w a te r ta b le
Figure 6.12
Schematic view of drainage of saline soils
In most cases the groundwater table is maintained at a depth of 1.5 to 1.8 m-surface and at the same time an excess of irrigation water over the consumptive use is applied (10 to 15% more. This excess percolates downward through the soil and is ultimately removed by the field drains (Figure 6.13).
The required depth of the groundwater table can also be achieved by vertical drainage using filter wells (Pakistan - Punjab, Uzbekistan, USA - Colorado) (Figure 6.14).
If the groundwater is not too saline the water pumped can be used for irrigation. To maintain
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the salt balance on a long term, importation of some fresh foreign water is required as well as disposal of some drainage water.
1.5 to 1.8 m
Irrigation
Figure 6.13
Schematic view of the leaching process
Figure 6.14
Vertical drainage
Main drainage system
The primary function of the main drains is to receive water from the field drainage system and convey it to the outlet. The design of a main drainage system may be divided into the selection of type and layout of the system, and the determination of the hydraulic dimensions of the components. The requirements of the field drains form the starting point in the design. From the hydraulic characteristics of the field drains, the amount of water to be evacuated can be derived to obtain the required degree of water control. The discharge capacity of the main drainage system is normally such that a prescribed water level is not exceeded during a certain time at a certain chance of occurrence. This, together with the accepted velocity in the different parts, determines the cross-sections. Distinction has to be made into drainage systems for sloping areas and drainage systems for flat areas. The outlet capacity depends very much on the admissible storage. Two design approaches may be followed: the traditional empirical design and optimisation. In the latter approach, investments and operation and maintenance costs of the drainage system are compared with the yields and damage that can be expected in relation to the functioning of the system (Schultz, 1982a).
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Main drains will almost always be open drains, as these normally constitute the most economical way to convey the relatively large quantities of water involved in drainage discharge. Topography, existing collector and main drains, bridges, farm boundaries and other physical features all influence the location of the main drains. Natural outlets such as estuaries, rivers, lakes or swamps usually fix the general location of a main drain, but the alignment and efficiency of the main drain may be improved by the use of cut-offs, long tangents and smooth curves. Flow velocities can generally be kept sufficiently low to allow the use of earthen drains, with bank protection where necessary.
Two main considerations apply with respect to the main drain alignment and layout, i.e.: main drains should, wherever possible, follow the depressions and downslope sides of the fields. Higher order drains should run through the major depressions or follow the lowest sites in the area, the next lower order of drain following the next lower sites and so on. This alignment guarantees the best gradients for the discharge of field and collector drains into the branch drains, sub-main drains and main drains and onwards to the outlet. In addition, this approach will make the main drains effective collectors of excess water; field and farm boundaries will be essentially formed by the lower order drains towards which the field drainage systems discharge, and therefore these should preferably be laid out in a manner compatible with efficient farming.
Sometimes alignments of main drains may also be dictated by the existing infrastructure (roads, railways, bridge) and/or by administrative divisions. Alignment of drains along property or administrative boundaries divides the landloss evenly between the two parties and underlies the communal character of these drains. Natural drains as a rule follow the predominant gradient of the land, often through the depressions, and as such can normally be integrated rather well into the main drainage system. The location and the structure of the outlet play also an important role in the planning of the main drainage system. They determine the orientation of the system, mainly of the main drains, in so far as the shortest route to the outlet point should be sought.
The level difference between the regional drainage base (critical outlet water level) and the field drainage base constitutes the total available head for drainage flow out of the area (P1 P3 in Figure 6.15). The field drainage base should be low enough to allow efficient collection of the excess water in the field. Depending on the field drainage system used these base levels
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vary from some 0.3 - 0.4 m (shallow drainage) to some 1.2 - 2.0 m (groundwater drainage) below the soil surface. Starting from this level (P1) the inner water level at the outlet (P2) is determined by the hydraulic grade line adopted in the main drainage system:
P2 = P1 - H where H is the total headloss in the main drainage system. When P2 > P3, a gravity outlet may be used but when P2 < P3 pumping is required. Often the outer water level will vary in time. In these cases the frequency and duration of high outer levels should be studied. On the basis of these investigations, it may then be decided whether a discharge sluice, a pumping station, or a combination of them is most feasible.
Field Collector Submain drain X P1 P1=Field drainage base P2=Inner water level P3=Outer water level P2 P3
Branch drain
Main drain
Figure 6.15
Relevant water levels in a drainage system (Vlotman, et al., 2004)
Outlet
Open drains generally discharge through an outlet. The capacity of the outlet must be adequate to carry the design discharge without significant damage downstream. This may require extending the drain improvement further downstream. A comparison of alternative locations for the outlet may also be needed. The stage of a water body during the storm when the drainage system is discharging at the design rate determines the adequacy of the water body as an outlet.
A study of the frequency of high water stages is needed for large streams, lakes, and tidal waters to determine their adequacy as a receiving water body and to establish the elevation of the design hydraulic gradeline for the open drain at the outlet.
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Determination of runoff
Water flowing in the main drainage system can come from a variety of sources: storm runoff; groundwater inflows, both direct and also as an outfall from groundwater pumps and horizontal subsurface drainage systems; overflows from irrigation distribution systems; surplus irrigation water from farms.
Selection of the appropriate design criteria varies widely. At one end of the range for the protection of sensitive high value crops, for example removal of all runoff from a 6 hour rainfall in 24 hours at a change of occurrence of 1/100 per year. At the other end of the range where inundation might be tolerated for some days on less sensitive crops, for example removal of all runoff from a 24 hour rainfall in 120 hours for a storm with a change of occurrence of 1/2 per years.
Coefficients might be applied to rainfall to determine runoff volumes. Calculation of these coefficients takes into account: type of topography; soil textures; soil infiltration rates; soil moisture depletion levels; size of the river basin.
Required data
For the design of a drainage system and in particular the main system, data are required of the following categories: agronomic information; data on topography; hydrometeorological data; prediction of subsidence.
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The agronomic information comprises the requirements at the field level. In addition to this information use is often made of land classification maps indicating the suitability of certain areas for certain crops together with the special requirements with respect to drainage, leaching and irrigation.
The drainage system forms a part of the total infrastructure of the project comprising the system of roads, navigation canals, living centres, and parcellation. Size and shape of the fields are not only related to the field drainage but also to the type of holdings and exploitation.
Topographical data comprise maps and contour lines. In the reconnaissance stage topographic maps of 1 : 50,000 to 1 : 25,000 should be available with contour lines with interval of 0.5 to 1.0 m.
For the feasibility study and pre project maps of 1 : 25,000 and contours of 0.5 m are required, whereas in the design stage for the lay-out of the system maps of 1 : 10,000 to 1 : 5,000 are required and contour lines with intervals of 0.25 m, or even less. For the situations of structures scales of 1 : 1,000 to 1 : 500 will do.
Hydrometeorological information refers to data on rainfall, evaporation, discharges in and levels of watercourses, if any, in or around the project area.
For the design of drainage systems data on rainfall are, of course of utmost significance. For agricultural areas with open watercourses daily rainfalls will do but for urban areas and also sometimes for the field drainage system rainfalls of shorter duration (1 - 3 hours) need to be considered. The data must extend over as long a period as possible so that frequencies of occurrence of heavy rainfalls can be considered. Common use is made of depth-durationfrequency curves as shown in Figure 6.16.
The objection against these curves is that the succession in time of the rains is not considered and that the frequencies also depend on the way the periods of n days are taken from the series of daily historic rains (consecutive periods or 1-day moving totals). Therefore processing daily historic rainfall data through a simulation model is preferable.
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Figure 6.16
Depth-duration-frequency curves
Construction aspects of drainage systems
Construction aspects may refer to the materials that are used and to the machines and equipment for the actual construction, operation, maintenance and monitoring. A wide range of materials and equipment is available, and many new developments may be mentioned like improved installation and construction techniques, improved equipment for the maintenance of drains and automation in the operation of the systems.
Regarding the drainage materials for subsurface pipe drainage, three different groups can be distinguished, namely: drain pipes, envelopes, and structures (Schultz ed., 1990). Structures in main drains refer to weirs, bridges and culverts, but also to bank and bottom protection. Outlet structures can be a drainage sluice, a gated culvert, or a pump. Pumps suited to most drainage conditions must operate efficiently while moving comparatively large quantities of water at low heads. They also may have to handle substantial amounts of sediment and trash.
Several machines and instruments have been developed to establish a proper construction or installation of drains. The equipment may be divided in: dredging equipment, excavation machines, equipment for construction control, and ancillary machinery and equipment.
Operation and maintenance aspects of drainage systems
The need for maintenance of drainage systems differs fundamentally from that of irrigation systems. Generally, maintenance of irrigation systems has to be executed just before the start of the irrigation season and/or during this period. The irrigation water is supplied in more or
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less known quantities, whereas it is generally obvious to the farmers or the authority in charge that without maintenance the crops will suffer from an inadequate water supply. The maintenance of drainage systems is of a more preventive nature. It has to be executed before a, to a certain extent unknown, wet period during which the drains have to fulfil their function. The amount of drainage water to be stored and transported may vary considerably, and the damage resulting from insufficient drainage may arise much later than the occurrence of the wet period (Schultz and De Vries, 1993). This difference compared to the maintenance of irrigation systems results in many cases in insufficient attention to the maintenance of drainage systems. On the other hand the negative effects of inadequate maintenance of drainage systems may be more significant then in case of irrigation systems. One can think of waterlogging, acidity or salinity problems, or rapid subsidence in peat areas. While in case of irrigation there will be only damage to the crops.
Maintenance of drainage systems can aim at removing the cause of insufficient drainage system performance or at preventing this from happening. In the first case a proper monitoring is required, in the latter a schedule is needed, indicating the maintenance activities and their planning. In most cases the aquatic vegetation is the dominating factor of open drain maintenance. An open drain is by definition in a young phase in the vegetation succession, and it has to stay in that phase to keep its hydraulic function. Aquatic vegetation is also needed as the roots of the plants offer a protection against erosion of especially sandy side slopes. It should be kept in mind that it is hardly ever the case that an aquatic plant species as such is unwanted; it is generally its quantity, which causes trouble.
It seems straightforward that maintenance should be considered the prime responsibility of the farmers. However, if this is realistic depends very much on local conditions. In situations with a long drainage tradition and/or where drainage gradually developed from small, farm scale to larger, system scale, maintenance can be organised according to this approach. In situations where drainage systems are developed and installed by the government and then made available to the farmers, it seems neither realistic that in the initial stages the farmers are able to maintain the entire system themselves, nor that they can cover the cost for an authority that could be responsible for the maintenance. On the other hand it is not realistic to expect that the government remains fully responsible for the entire maintenance forever. Therefore, in order to safeguard a sustainable functioning of the system, a framework should be developed in such a way that after a certain initial period the farmers will be able to execute or fund the
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maintenance of the entire system themselves. This implies that before any drainage project can start it should be clear to all parties: what is to be maintained and when, who is maintaining which part of the system and how will the (gradual) transfer of financial responsibility for the maintenance from the government to the farmers take place.
For subsurface pipe drainage maintenance, there is equipment for the inspection of drains and equipment to clean the drainpipes. For the control of aquatic vegetation in open drains three approaches are available: mechanical, chemical and biological.
Also for drainage a distinction can be made in drainage of sloping areas and drainage of level areas. In the next sub sections some typical aspects of these areas will be illustrated.
6.3.1
Drainage of sloping areas
Drainage systems for sloping areas can be designed with: hydrological runoff routing models; hydraulic simulation models.
Generally the hydrological runoff routing models are applied which can be based on the storage principle, or the travel time principle.
The rainfall to be selected depends upon: level of service required; consequences of rainfall being exceeded; time of concentration at the river basin; size and slope of the river basin; reference to rainfall duration frequency curves.
The period selected may be dependent upon: type of crop to be serviced; whether urban or industrial areas are involved; size and shape of river basin; slope of river basin; community expectation of the level of service.
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The sources of water reaching and delivered to the main drainage system, other than storm runoff, can be calculated and regulated. All sources can be combined to form a hydrograph.
In large river basins, the required capacity of drainage systems is worked out farm by farm or out by out, beginning with the highest land and moving downstream progressively along the collector drains and the main drain.
When the land is sloping more or less uniformly over long stretches, it is rational in order to minimise excavation not to excavate field drains or collector drains with a horizontal bottom but to have these drains following the overall slope of the land.
6.3.2
Drainage of level areas
Level areas (flat or almost flat and horizontal topography) are found in lower river valleys, in deltas and in reclaimed marshland, lakes and lagoons. A special type of level land with a controlled water management is a polder. Several definitions of polders exist (Volker, 1982, Segeren, 1983 and ICID, 1996). The definition as given by Segeren is: A polder is a level area, in its original state subject to high water levels (permanently or seasonally, originating from either groundwater or surface water), but which through impoldering is separated from its surrounding hydrological regime in such a way that a certain level of independent control of its water table can be realised.
In this context drainage can be defined as the technical means to remove from a polder excess water originating from precipitation, seepage, irrigation, or water admitted through locking of ships. Drainage is also applied to control the salinity of soil water.
In flat areas, the water level at the outlet governs the hydraulic head available for the drainage flow. It also determines whether the area can be drained by gravity or requires pumping. It is almost impossible to generate in the main drainage system in level areas gradients of 1 - 6
*
10-4 and unless the distances are not more than a few thousands of metres velocities of 0.25 0.4 m/s must be accepted with all nuisance of weed growth.
Drainage systems for flat (polder)areas can be characterised by main elements, which, depending on their value and interrelation, determine the functioning of the system. These are:
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distance between and depth of the field drains; open water level, percentage of open water; discharge, or pumping capacity.
The soils in these areas consist generally of clay or peat. After reclamation soil-ripening processes may occur resulting in changes in the soil structure and permeability as well as in subsidence. The subsidence process is of importance for the determination of relevant levels of structures, open water levels and may influence the suitability of the soils for various land uses. The design of the main drainage system may be complicated, while the hydraulic gradient required for the flow can only be generated artificially by a drawdown at the outlet and by allowing the water level in the drain at its upper end to rise.
Discharge sluices are applied when due to variation in water levels of receiving water bodies, drainage might be hampered. The propagation of abnormally high sea levels, in combination with river floods, is important for the design of such structures. In case the outer waters cause a prolonged period of impeded drainage, additional measures, such as pumping, are needed. As the outlet is generally also part of the flood protection system of an area it should be constructed in such a way that it does not weaken this defence.
A drainage pumping station may have to operate from only a few days annually, to more extended periods. In some situations, need for pumping may develop gradually by increased requirements, or due to subsidence or rise of the mean sea level. While daily runoff generally provides the primary basis for determining pumping capacity, seasonal distribution of rainfall and runoff may have a considerable effect in the final analysis and yearly runoff is useful in estimating annual operating costs.
Optimisation in the design of drainage systems may refer to optimisation of the elements of the drainage system or optimisation of systems and the interaction between systems in a river basin, or a delta (Schultz, 1992 and Suryadi, 1996).
The determination of optimal values for the main elements of a drainage system consists of three parts, viz. drainage calculation, economic calculation and optimisation. The agricultural production strongly depends on the drainage system performance, which on its turn is governed by the quality of operation and maintenance. The level of and relationship between
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the main elements of the drainage system are determined such that an optimal system is created. In this way the annual cost of construction, operation and maintenance of the drainage system as well as the yield reductions and damage are kept to a minimum.
The optimisation of systems and the interaction between systems in a river basin, or a delta may be analysed by a methodology for integrated lowland water management. In case of a delta, field, system and delta level are distinguished, which are inter-related (Figure 6.17).
FIELD LEVEL - water availability - water demands quality, quantity - water balance - drainage possibilities EVALUATION economic, environment PASSED DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY NOT PASSED SYSTEM LEVEL - water balance - crop production EVALUATION AND SYSTEM PERFORMANCE PASSED DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY DELTA LEVEL - water allocation - impact on water quantity and quality BOUNDARY CONDITIONS sustainability BOUNDARY CONDITIONS water, soil, cropping pattern and calendar
DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY NOT PASSED
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS water, soil, cropping pattern and calendar
NOT PASSED
EVALUATION IMPACT ASSESSMENT
PASSED MASTER PLAN
Figure 6.16
Generalised block diagram for optimisation in the design of water management systems for a delta (Suryadi, 1996)
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By comparing various strategies an integrated master plan can be developed taking into account water quality - acidity or salinity - and water quantity. The smallest water management unit is a field. The water management strategy at this level should focus at maintaining the groundwater table at an appropriate level for particular soil, climate and land use conditions. The analysis is mainly related to the hydraulic response of the water management system and the solute transport in groundwater and open water. Focus is on evaluation of hydraulic performance and development of a long-term water management strategy and operational rules and guidelines. At the system level, aspects like tidal range, topographic conditions related to the open water level fluctuations, soil permeability and land use, quality of the surface and groundwater, irrigation and drainage possibilities, and different types of infrastructure systems have to be studied. Based on the hydro-topographical conditions, quantity and quality of water, land use scenarios can be developed. The water resources system in a delta is part of the natural system or ecosystem, which includes physical, chemical and biological components and corresponding processes and interactions. An analysis has to be made, especially related to the impacts of a development strategy on water levels and salinity intrusion in the delta area. Besides that the development of a zonation system - land use related to hydro-topographical conditions - is a crucial element in the development of a delta. Models for the delta level therefore have to be able to evaluate the relationships between tidal range, upland runoff, reclaimed area, water management system, water levels, and salinity intrusion.
Subsidence
Areas with an originally high groundwater table and often water-logged may be subject to considerable subsidence when being drained to make them suitable for agricultural purposes. Therefore a prediction of subsidence is indispensable for the design of a drainage system.
Subsidence in areas with heavy clay and deep drainage with dry food crops, or tree crops may be as much as 1.0 to 1.5 m after 10 - 20 years. In peat areas it may be even much more, due to oxidation of organic matter and compaction. Subsidence is smaller for soils, which are kept, wet the whole year by irrigation (paddy fields).
Subsidence may render a drainage system designed for gravity drainage ineffective. Differential subsidence may change the topographic relief so that the functions of canals for
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irrigation and drainage respectively will be affected.
Most of the subsidence (say 70%) takes place above the groundwater table and can only be predicted using comparative methods; the smaller portion occurring below the groundwater table can be predicted using the methods of soil mechanics.
Seepage
Excessive seepage in polders occurs when these areas are considerably lower than the surrounding areas and when the semi-pervious top layers are poorly developed. Especially when the thickness of these layers is so small that the main drains cut them and even the field drains there is bound to be an excessive seepage. The seepage flow is concentrated towards the drains (Figure 6.18).
In some polders in the Netherlands the seepage flow carries as much as 20 mm/day continuously (or 7,300 mm per year against an annual rainfall of 750 mm).
Figure 6.18
Seepage flow to drains
6.4
COMBINED IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
In flat areas, or polders a ramified network of main drains is required in any case and it seems rational to use the same network for irrigation purposes. Since the irrigation duties are usually much smaller than the drainage modules the capacity of the main drains is normally also sufficient to convey the irrigation water. While the system of main drains has a low level, it is necessary to pump the irrigation water from the main drains to the fields or to apply subirrigation (Figure 6.19).
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This system is widely used in the deltas in South-East Asia and in the Netherlands. The obvious advantages are that only one system of canals is required and that operation is simple. The irrigation water should not contain much silt, is supplied at a low level from outside the area to the canal system.
Drainage outlet
Supply
Figure 6.19
Irrigation water supply in drained land
The above system can be designated as a combined major and minor irrigation and drainage system. If the holdings are not too small and the canal system is dense enough the water can be pumped from the main and field drains by the farmers on an individual basis using small portable pumps. The water can also be supplied on a collective basis to tertiary plots of say 500 to 1,000 ha. In the latter case a small pumping station (0.5 to 1.0 m3/s) can be built on a tertiary canal in fill and water is conveyed by gravity to the individual plots or fields. The major system is then still combined, the low level main canals serving the dual purpose of conveyance of irrigation and conveyance of drainage water, but the minor system is separate with high-level tertiary and quaternary irrigation canals and low field drains.
Whether combination of the irrigation and drainage functions is possible or not depends on: presence of water quality problems; incidence of periods with water excess during the irrigation season.
Presence of water quality problems
The quality of the water in the main drains may be such that even after dilution with good quality water from outside it cannot be used for irrigation because of high salinity, acidity or
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alkalinity. High salinity may be caused by the oozing of brackish or saline groundwater in the area, or by drainage and/or desalinisation of saline soils. This is especially the case in arid zones.
To avoid contamination of the irrigation water with the drainage effluent separation of the two systems is required with respect to both the main and the field canals. The principle of the separation of canals is given in Figure 6.20.
Supply
Irrigation Drainage
to outlet
Figure 6.20
Schematic view of separated irrigation and drainage systems
Incidence of periods with water excess during the irrigation season
If a main drain is to be used for the conveyance of irrigation water the water level in the drain, although still below land elevation, must be raised over a great portion of the total length. This may be admissible in a climate with a distinct dry and wet season, but in a climate where during the irrigation season excessive rainfall may occur, some storage space must be available. In this case it is very desirable to have at least separate main irrigation canals and drains, the latter being kept continuously at a low level.
6.5
BASIC COMPONENTS IN URBAN DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
Urban areas are characterised by their paved and unpaved areas. The paved areas generally consist of the houses and buildings, streets and squares. The unpaved areas consist of the green areas, parks and gardens. Drainage from the paved areas is generally realised by means of sewer systems. Various types of sewer systems exist. Basic decision is whether a so called combined, or a separate sewer system will be installed. However various other options are available. A combined sewer system collects both excess rainwater and domestic and industrial wastewater and transports it either to an open urban drain, a drain in the
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surrounding rural area, the river or the sea, or to a wastewater treatment plant where it is treated before it is released to the open water. If separate systems are applied, the wastewater is generally transported to a wastewater treatment plant and the surplus rainwater is transported to an open urban drain. Drainage of the green areas may be realised by open or subsurface drains that generally drain to the open urban drains.
6.5.1
Role of water in an urban environment
In an urban area water may have different roles, being: temporal storage and transport of surplus rainwater; aesthetic function; recreational function.
First priority is generally given to the drainage function of the urban watercourses. However this function can be very well combined with the aesthetic and recreational function, if these aspects are taken into account in the design of the urban watercourses. This can be done for example by including urban water in parks, or other recreational areas, or incorporating the water in the lay out of housing areas.
6.5.2
Review of urban water management systems
The following systems can be used for ensuring efficient drainage in urban areas (Schultz, 1987; Figure 6.21): subsurface drainage for groundwater control; sewerage for surface water control; open watercourses as main drains in an area.
The drainage criteria of urban areas are higher than those of agricultural areas, as the period between precipitation and its drainage is much shorter, which is caused by the large percentage of impervious surface in an urban environment.
In the new towns Lelystad and Almere in the IJsselmeerpolders, the Netherlands, it is customary to raise the level of the building sites with 1 m of sand, and to construct a subsurface drainage
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system in advance of the actual construction. This subsurface drainage system performs the following functions: a properly drained construction site with an adequate load-bearing capacity; a properly drained residential area; an acceleration of subsidence, which results from the weight of the sand.
Figure 6.21
Schematic presentation of water management in urban areas
Four types of urban subsurface drainage systems can be distinguished (Schultz, 1982b): subsurface single drainage system, consisting of parallel drains, which discharge the water directly into urban canals and main drains (Figure 6.22). This system is temporarily used before and during construction activities, and for sport fields and recreational areas. Advantages of this system are its relatively cheap construction and easy maintenance. The disadvantage is that this system is easily being disrupted in building areas by sewerage and conduit pipes and by pile driving;
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Figure 6.22
Single subsurface drainage system applied in urban areas
cross wise subsurface drainage system, which aims at reducing the negative effects of the drainage system by construction activities. Two single drainage systems are installed perpendicularly to each other, where the upper system is laid some 0.15 m above the lower system, in order to avoid disruption of the lower system by the installation of the upper. Pervious material, like gravel, is applied to allow water flowing from one system into the other in case disruptions occur. Herewith, it remains possible to discharge the water through the intersections with the other system. The relatively high costs are a disadvantage of this system;
composite subsurface drainage system. In both urban and recreational areas, there are mostly too few open drains and canals and/or too many obstacles to allow for a single subsurface drainage system. In these cases, composite subsurface drainage systems are a good alternative. The drains discharge into collector drains, which on their turn discharge into the storm water sewers or canals. Construction is relatively cheap. Disadvantages of this system are its complexity, and the risk that a relatively large area will not be drained adequately when a collector drain is damaged;
block drainage, may be applied for groundwater control around buildings and houses almost directly against their front (Figure 6.23). It is rather difficult to install a block drainage system after the building activities, so block drainage should be laid in advance. At least 0.30 m well permeable sand should be supplied under the buildings and a connection between the sand in the building pit and the sand in the drain trench should be provided. Block drainage is a rather reliable drainage system, but it is also rather expensive.
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Figure 6.23
Block drainage system
The main elements of the drainage system for the urban area are the diameter of the sewer, the width of the urban drains and their distance, the water level and the top width of the discharge weir or the pumping capacity. These dimensions and their interaction determine the functioning of the system as a whole.
6.5.3
Properties of and requirements regarding urban water management systems
Design criteria for urban drainage
In urban areas an unhampered discharge of the sewer system has to be assured. From the hydraulic characteristics of the sewer system the amount of water to be evacuated can be derived to obtain the required degree of water control. Outlet capacity depends very much on the admissible storage. Storage may be on the surface, in the soil, in the sewer system and in the open water system. Criteria for storage on the surface basically depend on the acceptance of temporal inundation of paved surfaces. In urban areas soil storage only can play a role in the unpaved surfaces. Especially significant is surface storage in the open drains, pools and lakes. A permissible rise of the water level under design conditions may vary from 0.10 - 0.40 m.
In urban areas drainage systems are designed in such a way that waterlogging or inundation, resulting in damage to houses and infrastructure are only accepted in extreme situations. In this case one has to bear in mind, that the value of buildings and infrastructure per ha is substantially
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higher than in the rural area. Therefore the requirements for the functioning of the drainage system may be put at a much higher level. This may result to different design criteria in different countries. In general the design criteria are developed as follows: preferred normal conditions. These are the conditions one would like to maintain in the urban drainage system. They result in a preferred water level, or water levels and operation rules for the discharge sluice or the pumping stations. The criteria are strongly linked to the urban land use. Regarding the groundwater it is important to know the desired groundwater table under normal conditions (the so-called drainage base level). In housing, shopping and industrial areas. In general this results in a groundwater table of 0.80 - 1.20 m-surface; design conditions. These are the conditions on which the design of the sewer systems, the watercourses and discharge sluices, or pumping stations is based. In general they are formulated as: * exceedance of the normal water levels; * duration of the exceedance; * chance of occurrence at which the prescribed exceedance occurs. In general the exceedance of the water level is up to a certain number of decimetres below the surface. Chance of occurrence is taken at 1/5 up to 1/10 per year; extreme conditions. Although this is generally not a design criterion, control computations can be made for extreme situations. For urban drainage this means one time in 50 to 100 years. In these situations bankfull storage is generally accepted. The risk of erosion is also investigated. When the results are unacceptable, the design criteria may be modified.
Table 6.4 presents some design criteria regarding the groundwater table and subsurface drain discharge for several purposes in an urban area in the Netherlands.
Table 6.4
Purpose
Design criteria for drainage in urban areas in the Netherlands

Groundwater level in m-surface Discharge in mm/day 0.60 0.70 0.50 0.50 0.35* 10 5 15 7 10
Building site Residential area Sport fields Recreation and green area Cemeteries * In m below the coffin
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Design of sewer systems
Stormwater sewer systems collect the water from the paved areas and maybe also from a certain part of the unpaved areas and transport it to the open urban drains, or to a water course outside the urban area, or to a treatment plant. The sewer itself also has a certain limit until which water can enter the sewer. When this limit will be exceeded, the water will remain on the streets. In combined systems the stormwater is mixed with wastewater. If the water is transported to a treatment plant, this plant has a certain capacity, which means that up to a certain load the water can be stored in the sewer and accepted by the treatment plant. When this load is exceeded, then the remaining part is discharged directly to the open water. In separate sewer systems the stormwater is generally directly discharged through the sewer to an open watercourse without any treatment. There are several variant solutions on the basic systems as outlined. While these will only result in minor variations in the design principles, only the design principles for the combined and separate sewer systems will be given.
For the design of storm sewer systems several approaches are followed: a certain design discharge is given, which is mainly based on experience. The discharge is expressed in l/s.ha. Based on this input at each gutter, the available head between the gutter and the open water course, the required dimensions of the sewer pipes can be determined; application of a routing model to generate the inflow to the sewer system. The most well known routing model is the Rational method. With this method the travelling time from certain distances to the gutter is determined. For a certain schematised design rainfall pattern and runoff coefficients the transformation of rainfall to sewer inflow is determined. Based on this inflow pattern and the available head between the gutter and the open water course, the required dimensions of the sewer pipes can be determined; application of a reservoir model. In this approach the travelling times are neglected and only the storage is taken into account. Generally a non-linear reservoir model gives the best results. Also in this case a design inflow pattern is generated. Based on this inflow pattern and the available head between the gutter and the open water course, the required dimensions of the sewer pipes can be determined; complete modelling of the rainfall runoff process by a physical model. In general this is only applied for research projects and not in practice.
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For combined sewer systems the same approaches can be followed. However in this case an extra load of a certain amount of l/s.ha is added for the wastewater.
The transformation from sewer inflow to sewer outflow is generally approached with a reservoir type of model. In some cases non-steady flow modelling through piped systems is done.
Maps, showing the layout of a drainage system, must give detailed information on the location of canal reaches and related structures. In urban areas this information will be given together with information on the paved and unpaved areas, location of houses and buildings, and may be also location of drinking water supply lines, electricity, telephone, etc.
Design of urban canals
Especially related to the design of urban canals other functions, then the drainage function, play an important role. In general the preferred water level is determined by the drainage function. The acceptable water level rises may also have their repercussion on the lay out of urban canal systems, while these systems play an important role in the storage of surplus rainwater. Especially in humid tropical countries where excessive rains occur it may be required to create a significant storage area. In such situation a solution is sometimes found to incorporate the urban water in relatively low lying park areas and accept that these areas will be inundated on average during some days in a year.
Discharge of urban drainage water
Related to urban drainage systems in polders, two basic solutions can be distinguished, namely: the urban drainage system discharges to the main drainage system of the surrounding rural area in the polder; the urban drainage system discharges directly to the outside water. In both cases discharge through an outlet sluice or a pumping station is applied dependent on the relation between the preferred water level in the urban area and the outside water level. An open connection between urban canals and outside waters is generally not preferred because of the differences in acceptable water level fluctuations and water quality aspects.
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6.6
REFERENCES
Czech Committee of the International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID), 2001. Workshop on transformation and rehabilitation of irrigation and drainage systems in Central and Eastern Europe. In proceedings 19th European Regional Conference on Sustainable uses of land and water, Brno and Prague, Czech Republic.
Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), 1980, Drainage design factors, Irrigation and Drainage Paper no. 38, Rome, Italy.
Framji, K.K., B.C. Garg and S.P. Kaushish, 1987, Design practices for covered drains in an agricultural land drainage system. A worldwide survey, International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID), New Delhi, India.
Glopper, R.J. de, 1973, Subsidence after drainage of the deposits in the former Zuiderzee and in the brackish and marine forelands in the Netherlands, Van Zee tot Land no. 51, the Hague, the Netherlands
Glopper, R.J. de, 1977, The application of consolidation constants, derived from the pore space, in subsidence calculations. Proceedings 2nd Symposium Land Subsidence, IASH, Anaheim (California), USA.
International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID), 1996, Multilingual Technical Dictionary, 2nd edition, New Delhi, India.
International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID), Proceedings Workshop on Micro Irrigation, 15th ICID congress, the Hague, the Netherlands, 1993.
International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID), 2000, Draft strategy for action on water for food and rural development, New Delhi, India.
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International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage, 2001a. ICID strategy for implementing the sector vision on water for food and rural development and country position papers. New Delhi, India.
International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID), 2004, Important data of ICID participating countries, ICID web site: www.icid.org, New Delhi, India.
International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement (ILRI), 1994, Drainage principles and Applications, 2nd edition, Wageningen, the Netherlands.
Japanese National Committee of ICID, 2000. Proceedings Asian Regional Workshop on sustainable development of irrigation and drainage for rice paddy fields, Tokyo, Japan.
Mazure, P.C., 1983, The development of the Dutch polder dikes, Polders of the World, Final report, International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement, Wageningen, the Netherlands.
Plusquellec, H., 2002, Is the daunting challenge of irrigation achievable?. Irrigation and Drainage, volume 51, no. 3.
Schultz, Bart, 1982a, A model to determine optimal sizes for the drainage system in a polder, In: Papers Polders of the World, International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement, Wageningen, the Netherlands.
Schultz, Bart, 1982b, Water management of the new town Almere (in Dutch), H2O (15), no. 12 Schultz, Bart and B. Verhoeven, 1987, Drainage works in the Zuiderzee project, ICID Bulletin, volume 36, no. 2, New Delhi, India
Schultz, Bart ed., 1990, Guidelines on the construction of horizontal subsurface drainage systems, International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID), Working Group on Drainage Construction, New Delhi, India.
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Schultz, Bart, 1992, Water management of the drained lakes in the Netherlands (in Dutch), PhD thesis, Delft University of Technology, Delft, the Netherlands.
Schultz, Bart and W.S. de Vries, 1993, Some typical aspects of maintenance of drainage systems in flat areas, Transactions of the 15th Congress, International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID), New Delhi, India.
Schultz, Bart, 2001, Irrigation, drainage and flood protection in a rapidly changing world. Irrigation and Drainage, volume 50, no. 4.
Schultz, Bart, 2003. Irrigation and drainage. Present and potential role in food production and sustainable rural development. In: Proceedings Water Week, The World Bank, 4 - 6 March, 2003, Washington, USA.
Schultz, Bart. Question 53. Harmonious coexistence with floods. General report. In: Proceedings of the 20th Congress of the International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID), 10 - 18 September 2005, Beijing, China.
Schultz, Bart, C.D. Thatte and V.K. Labhsetwar, 2005, Irrigation and drainage. Main contributors to global food production. Irrigation and Drainage, volume 54, no. 3.
Segeren, W.A., 1983, Introduction to the keynotes of the international symposium Polders of the World, In: Final report international symposium Polders of the World, International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement (ILRI), Wageningen, the Netherlands
Suryadi, F.X., 1996, Soil and water management strategies for tidal lowlands in Indonesia, PhD thesis, Delft University of Technology and International Institute for Infrastructural, Hydraulic and Environmental Engineering (IHE), Delft, the Netherlands.
Tardieu, H. and B. Prfol, 2002, Full cost or sustainability cost pricing in irrigated agriculture. Charging for water can be effective, but is it sufficient?, Irrigation and Drainage, volume 51, no. 2.
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Tardieu, H. (ed.), 2005, Irrigation and drainage services. Some principles and issues towards sustainability. Irrigation and Drainage, volume 54, no. 3. Ukraine National Committee of ICID, 2002, Proceedings 1st International Workshop on Irrigation Management Transfer in Countries with a Transition Economy, Yalta, Crimea, Ukraine.
Vlotman, W., D.W. Rycroft and L.K. Smedema, 2004, Modern land drainage: planning, design and management of agricultural drainage systems, A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
Volker, A., 1982, Polders: an ancient approach to land reclamation, In: Nature and resources, Volume XVIII, No. 4, UNESCO, Paris, France
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Land and Water Development

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Land and Water Development

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Syllabus

5 periods Oral discussion

1.1 1.1 1.2 1.2

2.21 2.23 2.24 2.27

3.1 3.3 3.10

4.1 4.1 4.1 4.7 4.11

Environmental considerations References

5.1 5.1 5.7 5.8

Irrigation 6.2.1 6.2.2 Irrigation in sloping areas Irrigation in level areas

Drainage 6.3.1 6.3.2 Drainage in sloping areas Drainage in level areas

Lester R. Brown, 1996

SCOPE OF THE SUBJECT AND DEFINITIONS

THESE LECTURE NOTES

Need for land and water development

NEED FOR LAND AND WATER DEVELOPMENT

Van Dis, 1993

Need for land and water development

Need for land and water development

Need for land and water development

Need for land and water development

Need for land and water development

Total population in million

Population density in persons/km2 with reference to total area Arable land

Asia Africa Europe America Oceania World

3,177 3,032 2,299 3,997 806 13,311

558 213 297 390 53 1,511

3,911 906 729 892 33 6,471

701 425 245 229 63 428

Developed countries Emerging countries Least developed countries

3,186 8,046 2,079

375 996 140

961 4,751 759

256 477 541

Need for land and water development

Total population in million

Population density in persons/km2 with reference to total area arable land

L = Least developed country

Need for land and water development

1,000 kg (World Resources Institute, 1992).

Cereals Pulses Vegetables

Relation between crop yield and population growth

Need for land and water development

Production of food and cereals in 1990 in different regions

2,600 5,000 4,000 1,800 2,600 3,600

288 3,109 427

680 250 800

0.81 0.15 0.65

1970 1980 20%

Need for land and water development

Development of world grain land

Development of world grain production

Need for land and water development

Required increase in worlds food production

Need for land and water development

Need for land and water development

Developed countries Emerging countries Least developed countries

857 1,118 114

862 1,081 118

887 1,099 119

843 1,070 112

846 1,105 132

906 1,124 130

Global stock in million tonnes *) estimated **) forecasted