M8A SLMLS1Lk III

M800S0 kesearch Methodo|ogy 4 Cred|ts

(8ook ID 81206)
Ass|gnment Set 1 (60 Marks)
Note Lach quest|on carr|es 10 Marks Answer a|| the quest|ons
1 f ulfferenLlfLe beLween nomlnf ordlnf lnLervf fnd rfLlo scfes wlLh fn exfmpe of efch

eve|s of Measurement

MefsuremenL mf be cfsslfled lnLo four dlfferenL eves bfsed on Lhe chfrfcLerlsLlcs of order dlsLfnce fnd
orlgln

1 Nom|na| measurement

1hls eve of mefsuremenL conslsLs ln fsslgnlng numerfs or smbos Lo dlfferenL cfLegorles of f vfrlfbe 1he
exfmpe of mfe fnd femfe fpplcfnLs Lo fn M8A progrfm menLloned efrler ls fn exfmpe of nomlnf
mefsuremenL 1he numerfs or smbos fre [usL fbes fnd hfve no qufnLlLfLlve vfue 1he numbers of cfses
under efch cfLegor fre counLed nomlnf mefsuremenL ls Lherefore Lhe slmpesL eve of mefsuremenL lL
does noL hfve chfrfcLerlsLlcs such fs order dlsLfnce or frlLhmeLlc orlgln

2 rd|na| measurement

ln Lhls eve of mefsuremenL persons or ob[ecLs fre fsslgned numerfs whlch lndlcfLe rfnks wlLh respecL Lo
one or more properLles elLher ln fscendlng or descendlng order
Lxamp|e

lndlvldufs mf be rfnked fccordlng Lo Lhelr socloeconomlc cfss" whlch ls mefsured b f comblnfLlon of
lncome educfLlon occupfLlon fnd wefLh 1he lndlvlduf wlLh Lhe hlghesL score mlghL be fsslgned rfnk 1 Lhe
nexL hlghesL rfnk 2 fnd so on or vlce versf
1he numbers ln Lhls eve of mefsuremenL lndlcfLe on rfnk order fnd noL equf dlsLfnce or fbsouLe
qufnLlLles 1hls mefns LhfL Lhe dlsLfnce beLween rfnks 1 fnd 2 ls noL necessfrl equf Lo Lhe dlsLfnce
beLween rfnks 2 fnd 3

Crdlnf scfes mf be consLrucLed uslng rfnk order rfLlng fnd pflred compfrlsons vfrlfbes LhfL end
Lhemseves Lo ordlnf mefsuremenL lncude preferences rfLlngs of orgfnlzfLlons fnd economlc sLfLus
SLfLlsLlcf Lechnlques LhfL fre common used Lo fnfze ordlnf scfe dfLf fre Lhe medlfn fnd rfnk order
correfLlon coefflclenLs
3 Interva| measurement

1hls eve of mefsuremenL ls more powerfu Lhfn Lhe nomlnf fnd ordlnf eves of mefsuremenL slnce lL hfs
one fddlLlonf chfrfcLerlsLlc equflL of dlsLfnce Powever lL does noL hfve fn orlgln or f Lrue zero 1hls
lmples LhfL lL ls noL posslbe Lo muLlp or dlvlde Lhe numbers on fn lnLervf scfe

Lxamp|e

1he CenLlgrfde or lfhrenhelL LemperfLure gfuge ls fn exfmpe of Lhe lnLervf eve of mefsuremenL A
LemperfLure of 30 degrees ls exfcL 10 degrees hoLLer Lhfn 40 degrees fnd 10 degrees cooer Lhfn 60
degrees
Slnce lnLervf scfes fre more powerfu Lhfn nomlnf or ordlnf scfes Lhe fso end Lhemseves Lo more
powerfu sLfLlsLlcf Lechnlques such fs sLfndfrd devlfLlon producL momenL correfLlon fnd L" LesLs fnd l"
LesLs of slgnlflcfnce

4 kat|o measurement

1hls ls Lhe hlghesL eve of mefsuremenL fnd ls fpproprlfLe when mefsurlng chfrfcLerlsLlcs whlch hfve fn
fbsouLe zero polnL 1hls eve of mefsuremenL hfs f Lhe Lhree chfrfcLerlsLlcs order dlsLfnce fnd orlgln

Lxamp|es

PelghL welghL dlsLfnce fnd fref

Slnce Lhere ls f nfLurf zero lL ls posslbe Lo muLlp fnd dlvlde Lhe numbers on f rfLlo scfe ApfrL from belng
fbe Lo use f Lhe sLfLlsLlcf Lechnlques LhfL fre used wlLh Lhe nomlnf ordlnf fnd lnLervf scfes Lechnlques
lke Lhe geomeLrlc mefn fnd coefflclenL of vfrlfLlon mf fso be used
1he mfln lmlLfLlon of rfLlo mefsuremenL ls LhfL lL cfnnoL be used for chfrfcLerlsLlcs such fs efdershlp
quflL hfpplness sfLlsffcLlon fnd oLher properLles whlch do noL hfve nfLurf zero polnLs


b WhfL fre Lhe purposes of mefsuremenL ln soclf sclence resefrch?



Def|n|t|on and urpose of Measurement

ulfferenL deflnlLlons of mefsuremenL hfve been offered b dlfferenL fuLhors

1 Accordlng Lo SLevens mefsuremenL ls Lhe fsslgnmenL of numerfs Lo ob[ecLs or evenLs fccordlng Lo
rues"
A slmpe exfmpe of fsslgnmenL of numerfs fccordlng Lo f rue ls descrlbed beow
Suppose f surve ls conducLed Lo sLud Lhe fpplcfnLs of fn M8A progrfm fnd one of Lhe ob[ecLlves of Lhe
sLud ls Lo flnd ouL Lhe sexwlse brefkup of fpplcfnLs ln Lhls cfse we mf fsslgn Lhe number 0" Lo mfe
fpplcfnLs fnd Lhe number 1" Lo femfe fpplcfnLs 1hus numbers mf be used Lo fbe lndlvldufs evenLs or
Lhlngs

2 Cfmpbe deflnes mefsuremenL fs Lhe fsslgnmenL of numbers Lo represenL properLles"

3 ln Lhe words of 1orgerson mefsuremenL ls Lhe fsslgnmenL of numbers Lo ob[ecLs Lo represenL
fmounLs or degrees of f properL possessed b f of Lhe ob[ecLs

ln resefrch lL ls necessfr Lo dlsLlngulsh beLween ob[ecLs" fnd properLles' or chfrfcLerlsLlcs of Lhese
ob[ecLs lor exfmpe f person ls fn ob[ecL fnd hls/her phslcf chfrfcLerlsLlcs lncude helghL welghL coor
eLc whle hls or her pschooglcf chfrfcLerlsLlcs lncude lnLelgence fnd fLLlLudes 1he lmporLfnL polnL Lo
remember ls LhfL Lhe resefrcher ls concerned wlLh mefsurlng properLles fnd noL Lhe ob[ecLs Lhemseves
Whle phslcf properLles mf be dlrecL observed pschooglcf properLles such fs lnLelgence fre lnferred
lor exfmpe f chld's score ln fn lC LesL lndlcfLes hls or her eve of lnLelgence
MefsuremenL fso hfs severf purposes
O 1he resefrcher consLrucLs Lheorles Lo expfln soclf fnd pschooglcf phenomenf (eg fbor unresL
empoee sfLlsffcLlon) whlch ln Lurn fre used Lo derlve hpoLheses or fssumpLlons 1hese
hpoLheses cfn be verlfled sLfLlsLlcf on b mefsurlng Lhe vfrlfbes ln Lhe hpoLheses
O MefsuremenL mfkes Lhe emplrlcf descrlpLlon of soclf fnd pschooglcf phenomenf efsler
Lxfmpe When conducLlng f sLud of f Lrlbf communlL mefsurlng devlces hep Lhe resefrcher ln
cfsslflng cuLurf pfLLerns fnd behfvlors
O MefsuremenL fso mfkes lL posslbe Lo qufnLlf vfrlfbes fnd use sLfLlsLlcf Lechnlques Lo fnfze Lhe
dfLf gfLhered
O MefsuremenL enfbes Lhe resefrcher Lo cfsslf lndlvldufs or ob[ecLs fnd Lo compfre Lhem ln Lerms
of speclflc properLles or chfrfcLerlsLlcs b mefsurlng Lhe concerned vfrlfbes
Lxfmpes
Compfrlson of mfe fnd femfe sLudenLs' performfnce ln coege exfms or of engLh of sLf
on Lhe [ob of oder fnd ounger empoees



2 f WhfL fre Lhe sources from whlch one mf be fbe Lo ldenLlf resefrch probems?



b Wh lLerfLure surve ls lmporLfnL ln resefrch?



3 f WhfL fre Lhe chfrfcLerlsLlcs of f good resefrch deslgn?

ChfrfcLerlsLlcs of f Cood 8esefrch ueslgn

O lL ls f serles of gulde posLs Lo keep one golng ln Lhe rlghL dlrecLlon
O lL reduces wfsLfge of Llme fnd cosL
O lL encourfges coordlnfLlon fnd effecLlve orgfnlzfLlon
O lL ls f LenLfLlve pfn whlch undergoes modlflcfLlons fs clrcumsLfnces demfnd when Lhe sLud
progresses new fspecLs new condlLlons fnd new refLlonshlps come Lo lghL fnd lnslghL lnLo Lhe
sLud deepens
O lL hfs Lo be gefred Lo Lhe fvflfbllL of dfLf fnd Lhe cooperfLlon of Lhe lnformfnLs
O lL hfs fso Lo be kepL wlLhln Lhe mfnfgefbe lmlLs

b WhfL fre Lhe componenLs of f resefrch deslgn?


Components of kesearch Des|gn

lL ls lmporLfnL Lo be ffmllfr wlLh Lhe lmporLfnL concepLs refLlng Lo resefrch deslgn 1he
fre

1 Dependent and Independent var|ab|es A mfgnlLude LhfL vfrles ls known fs f vfrlfbe 1he
concepL mf fssume dlfferenL qufnLlLfLlve vfues lke helghL welghL lncome eLc
CuflLfLlve vfrlfbes fre noL qufnLlflfbe ln Lhe sLrlcLesL sense of ob[ecLlvlL Powever Lhe
quflLfLlve phenomenf mf fso be qufnLlfled ln Lerms of Lhe presence or fbsence of Lhe
fLLrlbuLe consldered henomenf LhfL fssume dlfferenL vfues qufnLlLfLlve even ln
declmf polnLs fre known fs conLlnuous vfrlfbesr 8uL f vfrlfbes need noL be
conLlnuous vfues LhfL cfn be expressed on ln lnLeger vfues fre cfed nonconLlnuous
vfrlfbesr ln sLfLlsLlcf Lerm Lhe fre fso known fs dlscreLe vfrlfber lor exfmpe fge ls
f conLlnuous vfrlfbe wherefs Lhe number of chldren ls f nonconLlnuous vfrlfbe When
chfnges ln one vfrlfbe depends upon Lhe chfnges ln one or more oLher vfrlfbes lL ls
known fs f dependenL or endogenous vfrlfbe fnd Lhe vfrlfbes LhfL cfuse Lhe chfnges ln
Lhe dependenL vfrlfbe fre known fs Lhe lndependenL or expfnfLor or exogenous
vfrlfbes lor exfmpe lf demfnd depends upon prlce Lhen demfnd ls f dependenL
vfrlfbe whle prlce ls Lhe lndependenL vfrlfbe And lf more vfrlfbes deLermlne demfnd
lke lncome fnd prlces of subsLlLuLe commodlL Lhen demfnd fso depends upon Lhem ln
fddlLlon Lo Lhe own prlce 1hen demfnd ls f dependenL vfrlfbe whlch ls deLermlned b Lhe
lndependenL vfrlfbes lke own prlce lncome fnd prlce of subsLlLuLe

2 LxLrfneous vfrlfbe 1he lndependenL vfrlfbes whlch fre noL dlrecL refLed Lo Lhe
purpose of Lhe sLud buL fffecL Lhe dependenL vfrlfbe fre known fs exLrfneous vfrlfbes
lor lnsLfnce fssume LhfL f resefrcher wfnLs Lo LesL Lhe hpoLhesls LhfL Lhere ls refLlonshlp
beLween chldren's schoo performfnce fnd Lhelr sefconcepLs ln whlch cfse Lhe fLLer ls fn
lndependenL vfrlfbe fnd Lhe former Lhe dependenL vfrlfbe ln Lhls conLexL lnLelgence
mf fso lnfuence Lhe schoo performfnce Powever slnce lL ls noL dlrecL refLed Lo Lhe
purpose of Lhe sLud underLfken b Lhe resefrcher lL woud be known fs fn exLrfneous
vfrlfbe 1he lnfuence cfused b Lhe exLrfneous vfrlfbe on Lhe dependenL vfrlfbe ls
Lechnlcf cfed fs fn experlmenLf errorr 1herefore f resefrch sLud shoud fwfs be
frfmed ln such f mfnner LhfL Lhe dependenL vfrlfbe compeLe lnfuences Lhe chfnge ln
Lhe lndependenL vfrlfbe fnd fn oLher exLrfneous vfrlfbe or vfrlfbes

3 ConLro Cne of Lhe mosL lmporLfnL fefLures of f good resefrch deslgn ls Lo mlnlmlze Lhe
effecL of exLrfneous vfrlfbe 1echnlcf Lhe Lerm conLro ls used when f resefrcher
deslgns Lhe sLud ln such f mfnner LhfL lL mlnlmlzes Lhe effecLs of exLrfneous lndependenL
vfrlfbes 1he Lerm conLro ls used ln experlmenLf resefrch Lo refecL Lhe resLrfln ln
experlmenLf condlLlons
4 Confounded refLlonshlp 1he refLlonshlp beLween dependenL fnd lndependenL vfrlfbes ls
sfld Lo be confounded b fn exLrfneous vfrlfbe when Lhe dependenL vfrlfbe ls noL free
from lLs effecLs

C4 f ulsLlngulsh beLween uoubes sfmplng fnd muLlphfse sfmplng

Doub|e Samp||ng and Mu|t|phase Samp||ng
uoube sfmplng refers Lo Lhe subsecLlon of Lhe flnf sfmpe form f preseecLed frger sfmpe LhfL
provlded lnformfLlon for lmprovlng Lhe flnf seecLlon When Lhe procedure ls exLended Lo more
Lhfn Lwo phfses of seecLlon lL ls Lhen cfed muLlphfse sfmplng 1hls ls fso known fs sequenLlf
sfmplng fs subsfmplng ls done from f mfln sfmpe ln phfses uoube sfmplng or muLlphfse
sfmplng ls f compromlse souLlon for f dlemmf posed b undeslrfbe exLremes 1he sLfLlsLlcs
bfsed on Lhe sfmpe of 'n' cfn be lmproved b uslng fnclfr lnformfLlon from f wlde bfse buL Lhls
ls Loo cosL Lo obLfln from Lhe enLlre popufLlon of n eemenLs lnsLefd lnformfLlon ls obLflned
from f frger prelmlnfr sfmpe nL whlch lncudes Lhe flnf sfmpe n

b WhfL ls replcfLed or lnLerpeneLrfLlng sfmplng?

kep||cated or Interpenetrat|ng Samp||ng

lL lnvoves seecLlon of f cerLfln number of subsfmpes rfLher Lhfn one fu sfmpe from f
popufLlon A Lhe subsfmpes shoud be drfwn uslng Lhe sfme sfmplng Lechnlque fnd efch ls f
sefconLflned fnd fdequfLe sfmpe of Lhe popufLlon 8eplcfLed sfmplng cfn be used wlLh fn
bfslc sfmplng Lechnlque slmpe or sLrfLlfled slnge or muLlsLfge or slnge or muLlphfse sfmplng
lL provldes f slmpe mefns of cfcufLlng Lhe sfmplng error lL ls prfcLlcf 1he replcfLed sfmpes
cfn Lhrow lghL on vfrlfbe nonsfmplng errors 8uL dlsfdvfnLfge ls LhfL lL lmlLs Lhe fmounL of
sLrfLlflcfLlon LhfL cfn be empoed
C3 A Pow ls secondfr dfLf usefu Lo resefrcher?

Use of Secondary Data

1he second dfLf mf be used ln Lhree wfs b f resefrcher llrsL some speclflc lnformfLlon from
secondfr sources mf be used for reference purpose lor exfmpe Lhe generf sLfLlsLlcf
lnformfLlon ln Lhe number of cooperfLlve credlL socleLles ln Lhe counLr Lhelr coverfge of vlfges
Lhelr cfplLf sLrucLure voume of buslness eLc mf be Lfken from publshed reporLs fnd quoLed fs
bfckground lnformfLlon ln f sLud on Lhe evfufLlon of performfnce of cooperfLlve credlL socleLles
ln f seecLed dlsLrlcL/sLfLe

Second secondfr dfLf mf be used fs bench mfrks fgflnsL whlch Lhe flndlngs of resefrch mf be
LesLed eg Lhe flndlngs of f ocf or reglonf surve mf be compfred wlLh Lhe nfLlonf fverfges
Lhe performfnce lndlcfLors of f pfrLlcufr bfnk mf be LesLed fgflnsL Lhe correspondlng lndlcfLors
of Lhe bfnklng lndusLr fs f whoe fnd so on

llnf secondfr dfLf mf be used fs Lhe soe source of lnformfLlon for f resefrch pro[ecL Such
sLudles fs securlLles MfrkeL 8ehfvlour llnfnclf Anfsls of compfnles 1rfde ln credlL focfLlon ln
commerclf bfnks soclooglcf sLudles on crlmes hlsLorlcf sLudles fnd Lhe lke depend prlmfrl
on secondfr dfLf ?efr books sLfLlsLlcf reporLs of governmenL depfrLmenLs reporL of publc
orgfnlzfLlons of 8urefu of ublc LnLerprlses Censes 8eporLs eLc serve fs mf[or dfLf sources for
such resefrch sLudles
b WhfL fre Lhe crlLerlf used for evfufLlon of secondfr dfLf?



Lva|uat|on of Secondary Data

When f resefrcher wfnLs Lo use secondfr dfLf for hls resefrch he shoud evfufLe Lhem before
decldlng Lo use Lhem

1 Data ert|nence

1he flrsL conslderfLlon ln evfufLlon ls Lo exfmlne Lhe perLlnence of Lhe fvflfbe secondfr dfLf Lo
Lhe resefrch probem under sLud 1he foowlng quesLlons shoud be consldered
O WhfL fre Lhe deflnlLlons fnd cfsslflcfLlons empoed? Are Lhe conslsLenL?

O WhfL fre Lhe mefsuremenLs of vfrlfbes used? WhfL ls Lhe degree Lo whlch Lhe conform Lo
Lhe requlremenLs of our resefrch?

O WhfL ls Lhe coverfge of Lhe secondfr dfLf ln Lerms of Loplc fnd Llme? uoes Lhls coverfge
flL Lhe needs of our resefrch?

Cn Lhe bfsls of fbove conslderfLlon Lhe perLlnence of Lhe secondfr dfLf Lo Lhe resefrch on hfnd
shoud be deLermlned fs f resefrcher who ls lmfglnfLlve fnd fexlbe mf be fbe Lo redeflne hls
resefrch probem so fs Lo mfke use of oLherwlse unusfbe fvflfbe dfLf

2 Data ua||ty

lf Lhe resefrcher ls convlnced fbouL Lhe fvflfbe secondfr dfLf for hls needs Lhe nexL sLep ls Lo
exfmlne Lhe quflL of Lhe dfLf 1he quflL of dfLf refers Lo Lhelr fccurfc relfbllL fnd
compeLeness 1he fssurfnce fnd relfbllL of Lhe fvflfbe secondfr dfLf depends on Lhe
orgfnlzfLlon whlch coecLed Lhem fnd Lhe purpose for whlch Lhe were coecLed WhfL ls Lhe
fuLhorlL fnd presLlge of Lhe orgfnlzfLlon? ls lL we recognlzed? ls lL noLed for relfbllL? lL ls
cfpfbe of coecLlng relfbe dfLf? uoes lL use Lrflned fnd we quflfled lnvesLlgfLors? 1he fnswers
Lo Lhese quesLlons deLermlne Lhe degree of confldence we cfn hfve ln Lhe dfLf fnd Lhelr fccurfc
lL ls lmporLfnL Lo go Lo Lhe orlglnf source of Lhe secondfr dfLf rfLher Lhfn Lo use fn lmmedlfLe
source whlch hfs quoLed from Lhe orlglnf 1hen on Lhe resefrcher cfn revlew Lhe cfuLlonfr fnds
oLher commenLs LhfL were mfde ln Lhe orlglnf source

3 Data Comp|eteness

1he compeLeness refers Lo Lhe fcLuf coverfge of Lhe publshed dfLf 1hls depends on Lhe
meLhodoog fnd sfmplng deslgn fdopLed b Lhe orlglnf orgfnlzfLlon ls Lhe meLhodoog sound?
ls Lhe sfmpe slze smf or frge? ls Lhe sfmplng meLhod fpproprlfLe? Answers Lo Lhese quesLlons
mf lndlcfLe Lhe fpproprlfLeness fnd fdequfc of Lhe dfLf for Lhe probem under sLud 1he
quesLlon of posslbe blfs shoud fso be exfmlned WheLher Lhe purpose for whlch Lhe orlglnf
orgfnlzfLlon coecLed Lhe dfLf hfd f pfrLlcufr orlenLfLlon? Pfs Lhe sLud been mfde Lo promoLe
Lhe orgfnlzfLlon's own lnLeresL? Pow Lhe sLud wfs conducLed? 1hese fre lmporLfnL cues 1he
resefrcher musL be on gufrd when Lhe source does noL reporL Lhe meLhodoog fnd sfmplng
deslgn 1hen lL ls noL posslbe Lo deLermlne Lhe fdequfc of Lhe secondfr dfLf for Lhe resefrcher's
sLud



S WhfL fre Lhe dlfferences beLween observfLlon fnd lnLervlewlng fs meLhods of dfLf coecLlon? Clve
Lwo speclflc exfmpes of slLufLlons where elLher observfLlon or lnLervlewlng woud be more
fpproprlfLe

CoecLlon of dfLf ls Lhe mosL cruclf pfrL of fn resefrch pro[ecL fs Lhe success or fflure of Lhe pro[ecL ls
dependenL upon Lhe fccurfc of Lhe dfLf use of wrong meLhods of dfLf coecLlon or fn lnfccurfc ln
coecLlng dfLf cfn hfve slgnlflcfnL lmpfcL on Lhe resuLs of f sLud fnd mf efd Lo resuLs LhfL fre noL vfld
1here fre mfn Lechnlques of dfLf coecLlon fong f conLlnuum fnd observfLlon fnd lnLervlewlng fre Lwo of
Lhe popufr meLhods on Lhls conLlnuum LhfL hfs qufnLlLfLlve meLhods fL one end whle quflLfLlve meLhods
fL Lhe oLher end 1hough Lhere fre mfn slmlfrlLles ln Lhese Lwo meLhods fnd Lhe serve Lhe sfme bfslc
purpose Lhere fre dlfferences LhfL wl be hlghlghLed ln Lhls frLlce
bservat|on
CbservfLlon fs Lhe nfme lmples refers Lo slLufLlons where pfrLlclpfnLs fre observed from f sffe dlsLfnce fnd
Lhelr fcLlvlLles fre recorded mlnuLe lL ls f Llme consumlng meLhod of dfLf coecLlon fs ou mf noL geL Lhe
deslred condlLlons LhfL fre requlred for our resefrch fnd ou mf hfve Lo wflL Ll pfrLlclpfnLs fre ln Lhe
slLufLlon ou wfnL Lhem Lo be ln Cfsslc exfmpes of observfLlon fre wld lfe resefrchers who wflL for Lhe
fnlmfs of blrds Lo be ln f nfLurf hfblLfL fnd behfve ln slLufLlons LhfL Lhe wfnL Lo focus upon As f meLhod
of dfLf coecLlon observfLlon hfs lmlLfLlons buL produces fccurfLe resuLs fs pfrLlclpfnLs fre unfwfre of
belng cose lnspecLed fnd behfve nfLurf
Interv|ew|ng
lnLervlewlng ls fnoLher grefL Lechnlque of dfLf coecLlon fnd lL lnvoves fsklng quesLlons Lo geL dlrecL
fnswers 1hese lnLervlews coud be elLher one Lo one ln Lhe form of quesLlonnflres or Lhe more recenL form
of fsklng oplnlons Lhrough lnLerneL Powever Lhere fre lmlLfLlons of lnLervlewlng fs pfrLlclpfnLs mf noL
come up wlLh Lrue or honesL fnswers dependlng upon prlvfc eve of Lhe quesLlons 1hough Lhe Lr Lo be
honesL Lhere ls fn eemenL of le ln fnswers LhfL cfn dlsLorL resuLs of Lhe pro[ecL
1hough boLh observfLlon fnd lnLervlewlng fre grefL Lechnlques of dfLf coecLlon Lhe hfve Lhelr own
sLrengLhs fnd wefknesses lL ls lmporLfnL Lo keep ln mlnd whlch one of Lhe Lwo wl produce deslred resuLs
before flnflzlng

CbservfLlon mefns vlewlng or seelng CbservfLlon mf be deflned fs f ssLemfLlc vlewlng of f speclflc
phenomenon ln lLs proper seLLlng for Lhe speclflc purpose of gfLherlng dfLf for f pfrLlcufr sLud CbservfLlon
ls cfsslcf meLhod of sclenLlflc sLud


bservat|on as a method of data co||ect|on has certa|n character|st|cs
1 It |s both a phys|ca| and a menta| act|v|ty 1he observ|ng eye catches many th|ngs that are present 8ut
attent|on |s focused on data that are pert|nent to the g|ven study

2 bservat|on |s se|ect|ve A researcher does not observe anyth|ng and everyth|ng but se|ects the range of
th|ngs to be observed on the bas|s of the nature scope and ob[ect|ves of h|s study Ior examp|e suppose a
researcher des|res to study the causes of c|ty road acc|dents and a|so formu|ated a tentat|ve hypothes|s that
acc|dents are caused by v|o|at|on of traff|c ru|es and over speed|ng When he observed the movements of
veh|c|es on the road many th|ngs are before h|s eyes the type make s|ze and co|our of the veh|c|es the
persons s|tt|ng |n them the|r ha|r sty|e etc A|| such th|ngs wh|ch are not re|evant to h|s study are |gnored
and on|y over speed|ng and traff|c v|o|at|ons are keen|y observed by h|m

3 bservat|on |s purpos|ve and not casua| It |s made for the spec|f|c purpose of not|ng th|ngs re|evant to
the study It captures the natura| soc|a| context |n wh|ch persons behav|our occur It grasps the s|gn|f|cant
events and occurrences that affect soc|a| re|at|ons of the part|c|pants


4 bservat|on shou|d be exact and be based on standard|zed too|s of research and such as observat|on
schedu|e soc|a| metr|c sca|e etc and prec|s|on |nstruments |f any

Interv|ew|ng |s one of the prom|nent methods of data co||ect|on It may be def|ned as a two way systemat|c
conversat|on between an |nvest|gator and an |nformant |n|t|ated for obta|n|ng |nformat|on re|evant to a
spec|f|c study It |nvo|ves not on|y conversat|on but a|so |earn|ng from the respondent's gesture fac|a|
express|ons and pauses and h|s env|ronment Interv|ew|ng requ|res face to face contact or contact over
te|ephone and ca||s for |nterv|ew|ng sk|||s It |s done by us|ng a structured schedu|e or an unstructured
gu|de Interv|ew|ng may be used e|ther as a ma|n method or as a supp|ementary one |n stud|es of persons
Interv|ew|ng |s the on|y su|tab|e method for gather|ng |nformat|on from ||||terate or |ess educated
respondents It |s usefu| for co||ect|ng a w|de range of data from factua| demograph|c data to h|gh|y persona|
and |nt|mate |nformat|on re|at|ng to a person's op|n|ons att|tudes va|ues be||efs past exper|ence and
future |ntent|ons When qua||tat|ve |nformat|on |s requ|red or prob|ng |s necessary to draw out fu||y and
then |nterv|ew|ng |s requ|red Where the area covered for the survey |s a compact or when a suff|c|ent
number of qua||f|ed |nterv|ewers are ava||ab|e persona| |nterv|ew |s feas|b|e
Interv|ew |s often super|or to other datagather|ng methods eop|e are usua||y more w||||ng to ta|k than to
wr|te nce report |s estab||shed even conf|dent|a| |nformat|on may be obta|ned It perm|ts prob|ng |nto
the context and reasons for answers to quest|ons Interv|ew can add f|esh to stat|st|ca| |nformat|on It
enab|es the |nvest|gator to grasp the behav|oura| context of the data furn|shed by the respondents





bservat|on |s su|tab|e for a var|ety of research purposes It may be used for study|ng
(a) 1he behav|or of human be|ngs |n purchas|ng goods and serv|ces ||fe sty|e customs and manner
|nterpersona| re|at|ons group dynam|cs crowd behav|or |eadersh|p sty|es manager|a| sty|e other
behav|ours and act|ons
(b) 1he behav|our of other ||v|ng creatures ||ke b|rds an|ma|s etc
(c) hys|ca| character|st|cs of |nan|mate th|ngs ||ke stores factor|es res|dences etc
(d) I|ow of traff|c and park|ng prob|ems
(e) movement of mater|a|s and products through a p|ant







M8A SLMLS1Lk III
M800S0 kesearch Methodo|ogy 4 Cred|ts
(8ook ID 81206)
Ass|gnment Set 1 (60 Marks)
Note Lach quest|on carr|es 10 Marks Answer a|| the quest|ons

1 f Lxpfln Lhe Cenerf chfrfcLerlsLlcs of observfLlon



enera| Character|st|cs of bservat|on Method

CbservfLlon fs f meLhod of dfLf coecLlon hfs cerLfln chfrfcLerlsLlcs
1 It |s both a phys|ca| and a menta| act|v|ty 1he observlng ee cfLches mfn Lhlngs LhfL fre
presenL 8uL fLLenLlon ls focused on dfLf LhfL fre perLlnenL Lo Lhe glven sLud

2 bservat|on |s se|ect|ve A resefrcher does noL observe fnLhlng fnd everLhlng buL seecLs
Lhe rfnge of Lhlngs Lo be observed on Lhe bfsls of Lhe nfLure scope fnd ob[ecLlves of hls
sLud lor exfmpe suppose f resefrcher deslres Lo sLud Lhe cfuses of clL rofd fccldenLs
fnd fso formufLed f LenLfLlve hpoLhesls LhfL fccldenLs fre cfused b vlofLlon of Lrffflc
rues fnd over speedlng When he observed Lhe movemenLs of vehlces on Lhe rofd mfn
Lhlngs fre before hls ees Lhe Lpe mfke slze fnd coor of Lhe vehlces Lhe persons slLLlng
ln Lhem Lhelr hflr sLe eLc A such Lhlngs whlch fre noL reevfnL Lo hls sLud fre lgnored
fnd on over speedlng fnd Lrffflc vlofLlons fre keen observed b hlm

3 bservat|on |s purpos|ve and not casua| lL ls mfde for Lhe speclflc purpose of noLlng Lhlngs
reevfnL Lo Lhe sLud lL cfpLures Lhe nfLurf soclf conLexL ln whlch persons behfvlour
occur lL grfsps Lhe slgnlflcfnL evenLs fnd occurrences LhfL fffecL soclf refLlons of Lhe
pfrLlclpfnLs
4 CbservfLlon shoud be exfcL fnd be bfsed on sLfndfrdlzed Loos of resefrch fnd such fs
observfLlon schedue soclf meLrlc scfe eLc fnd preclslon lnsLrumenLs lf fn


b WhfL ls Lhe uLllL of CbservfLlon ln 8uslness 8esefrch?


CbservfLlon cfnnoL be used lndlscrlmlnfLe for f purposes lL hfs lLs own lmlLfLlons

1 CbservfLlon ls of no use sLudlng pfsL evenLs or fcLlvlLles Cne hfs Lo depend upon documenLs or
nfrrfLlons peope for sLudlng such Lhlngs

2 CbservfLlon ls noL sulLfbe for sLudlng fnd fLLlLudes Powever fn observfLlon of refLed
behfvlour fffords f good cue Lo Lhe fLLlLudes Lg fnd observfLlons of Lhe sefLlng pfLLern of hlgh
cfsLe fnd cfss persons ln f generf meeLlng ln f vlfge mf be usefu for formlng fn lndex of
fLLlLude
3 CbservfLlon poses dlfflcuLles ln obLflnlng f represenLfLlve sfmpe lor lnLervlewlng fnd mfllng
meLhods Lhe seecLlon of f rfndom sfmplng cfn be rfpld ensured 8uL observlng peope of f
Lpes does noL mfke Lhe sfmpe f rfndom one
4 CbservfLlon cfnnoL be used fs fnd when Lhe resefrcher flnds f convenlenL Lo use lL Pe hfs Lo
wflL for Lhe eve n Lo occur lor exfmpe fn observfLlon of fok dfnce of f Lrlbf communlL ls
posslbe on when lL ls performed
3 A mf[or lmlLfLlon of Lhls meLhod ls LhfL Lhe observer normf musL be fL Lhe scene of Lhe evenL
when lL Lfkes pfce ?eL lL mf noL be posslbe Lo predlcL where fnd when Lhe even wl occur eg
rofd fccldenL communf cfsh
6 CbservfLlon ls sow fnd expenslve process requlrlng humfn observers fnd/or cosL survelfnce
equlpmenLs




2 f 8rlef expfln lnLervlewlng Lechnlques ln 8uslness 8esefrch?

Interv|ew|ng techn|ques |n 8us|ness kesearch

1he lnLervlew process conslsLs of Lhe foowlng sLfges

1) repfrfLlon
2) lnLroducLlon
3) ueveoplng rfpporL
4) Cfrrlng Lhe lnLervlew forwfrd
3) AddlLlonf SlLLlngs
6) 8ecordlng Lhe lnLervlew
7) Coslng Lhe lnLervlew
8) LdlLlng


1) reparat|on

1he lnLervlewlng requlres some prepfnnlng fnd prepfrfLlon 1he lnLervlewer shoud keep Lhe
coples of lnLervlew schedue/gulde (fs Lhe cfse mf be) refd Lo use Pe shoud hfve Lhe lsL of
nfmes fnd fddresses of respondenLs he shoud regroup Lhem lnLo conLlguous groups ln Lerms of
ocfLlon ln order Lo sfve Llme fnd cosL ln Lrfvelng 1he lnLervlewer shoud flnd ouL Lhe generf dfl
rouLlne of Lhe respondenLs ln order Lo deLermlne Lhe sulLfbe Llmlngs for lnLervlew Above f he
shoud menLf prepfre hlmsef for Lhe lnLervlew Pe shoud Lhlnk fbouL how he shoud fpprofch f
respondenL whfL mode of lnLroducLlon he coud fdopL whfL slLufLlons he mf hfve Lo ffce fnd
how he coud def wlLh Lhem 1he lnLervlewer mf come fcross such slLufLlons fs respondenLs
fvoldfnce reucLfnce susplclon dlffldence lnfdequfLe responses dlsLorLlon eLc 1he lnvesLlgfLor
shoud pfn Lhe sLrfLegles for deflng wlLh Lhem lf such prepfnnlng ls noL done he wl be cfughL
unfwfre fnd ffl Lo def fpproprlfLe when he fcLuf ffces fn such slLufLlon lL ls posslbe Lo
pfn ln fdvfnce fnd keep Lhe pfn fnd mlnd fexlbe fnd expecLfnL of new deveopmenL
2) Introduct|on

1he lnvesLlgfLor ls f sLrfnger Lo Lhe respondenLs 1herefore he shoud be proper lnLroduced Lo
efch of Lhe respondenLs WhfL ls Lhe proper mode of lnLroducLlon? 1here ls no one fpproprlfLe
unlversf mode of lnLroducLlon Mode vfrles fccordlng Lo Lhe Lpe of respondenLs When mfklng f
sLud of fn orgfnlzfLlon or lnsLlLuLlon Lhe hefd of Lhe orgfnlzfLlon shoud be fpprofched flrsL fnd
hls cooperfLlon secured before conLfcLlng Lhe sfmpe lnmfLes/empoees When sLudlng f
communlL or f cuLurf group lL ls essenLlf Lo fpprofch Lhe efder flrsL fnd Lo enlsL cooperfLlon
lor f surve or urbfn househods Lhe resefrch orgfnlzfLlon's eLLer of lnLroducLlon fnd Lhe
lnLervlewer's ldenLlL cfrd cfn be shown ln Lhese dfs of fefr of openlng Lhe door for f sLrfnger
resldenLs cooperfLlon cfn be efsl secured lf Lhe lnLervlewer fLLempLs Lo geL hlm lnLroduced
Lhrough f person known Lo Lhem sf f popufr person ln Lhe fref eg f soclf worker lor
lnLervlewlng rurf respondenLs Lhe lnLervlewer shoud never fLLempL Lo fpprofch Lhem fong wlLh
someone from Lhe revenue depfrLmenL for Lhe woud lmmedlfLe hlde Lhemseves presumlng
LhfL Lhe fre belng conLfcLed for coecLlon of fnd revenue or subscrlpLlon Lo some governmenL
bond Pe shoud noL fso fpprofch Lhem Lhrough f ocf polLlcf efder becfuse persons who do
noL beong Lo hls pfrL wl noL cooperfLe wlLh Lhe lnLervlewer lL ls rfLher deslrfbe Lo fpprofch Lhe
rurf respondenLs Lhrough Lhe ocf Lefcher or soclf worker
AfLer geLLlng hlmsef lnLroduced Lo Lhe respondenL ln Lhe mosL fpproprlfLe mfnner Lhe lnLervlewer
cfn foow f sequence of procedures fs under ln order Lo moLlvfLe Lhe respondenL Lo permlL Lhe
lnLervlew

1 WlLh f smle greeL Lhe respondenL ln fccordfnce wlLh hls cuLurf pfLLern
2 ldenLlf Lhe respondenL b nfme
3 uescrlbe Lhe meLhod b whlch Lhe respondenL wfs seecLed
4 MenLlon Lhe nfme of Lhe orgfnlzfLlon conducLlng Lhe resefrch
3 Assure Lhe fnonmlL or confldenLlf nfLure of Lhe lnLervlew
6 Lxpfln Lhelr usefuness of Lhe sLud
7 Lmphfslze Lhe vfue of respondenL's cooperfLlon mfklng such sLfLemenLs fs ?ou fre fmong Lhe
few ln f poslLlon Lo supp Lhe lnformfLlon" ?our response ls lnvfufbe" l hfve come Lo efrn
from our experlence fnd knowedge"

3) Deve|op|ng kapport

8efore sLfrLlng Lhe resefrch lnLervlew Lhe lnLervlewer shoud esLfblsh f frlend refLlonshlp wlLh
Lhe respondenL 1hls ls descrlbed fs rfpporL" lL mefns esLfblshlng f refLlonshlp of confldence fnd
undersLfndlng beLween Lhe lnLervlewer fnd Lhe respondenL lL ls f skl whlch depends prlmfrl on
Lhe lnLervlewer's commonsense experlence senslLlvlL fnd keen observfLlon SLfrL Lhe
conversfLlon wlLh f generf Loplc of lnLeresL such fs wefLher currenL news sporLs evenL or Lhe lke
percelvlng Lhe probfbe of Lhe respondenL from hls conLexL Such lnlLlf conversfLlon mf crefLe f
frlend fLmosphere fnd f wfrm lnLerpersonf refLlonshlp fnd muLuf undersLfndlng Powever Lhe
lnLervlewer shoud gufrd fgflnsL Lhe over rfpporL" fs cfuLloned b PerberL Pmfn 1oo much
ldenLlflcfLlon fnd Loo much courLes resuL ln Lflorlng repled Lo Lhe lmfge of f nlce lnLervlewer"
1he lnLervlewer shoud use hls dlscreLlon ln sLrlklng f hfpp medlum
4) Carry|ng the Interv|ew Iorward

AfLer esLfblshlng rfpporL Lhe Lechnlcf Lfsk of fsklng quesLlons from Lhe lnLervlew schedue sLfrLs
1hls Lfsk requlres cfre sefresLrflnL ferLness fnd fbllL Lo lsLen wlLh undersLfndlng respecL fnd
curloslL ln cfrrlng on Lhls Lfsk of gfLherlng lnformfLlon from Lhe respondenL b puLLlng quesLlons
Lo hlm Lhe foowlng guldelnes mf be foowed

1 SLfrL Lhe lnLervlew Cfrr lL on ln fn lnformf fnd nfLurf conversfLlonf sLe
2 Ask f Lhe fpplcfbe quesLlons ln Lhe sfme order fs Lhe fppefr on Lhe schedue wlLhouL fn
eucldfLlon fnd chfnge ln Lhe wordlng Ask f Lhe fpplcfbe quesLlons lsLed ln Lhe schedue uo noL
Lfke fnswers for grfnLed
3 lf lnLervlew gulde ls used Lhe lnLervlewer mf Lflor hls quesLlons Lo efch respondenL coverlng of
course Lhe frefs Lo be lnvesLlgfLed
4 know Lhe ob[ecLlves of efch quesLlon so fs Lo mfke sure LhfL Lhe fnswers fdequfLe sfLlsf Lhe
quesLlon ob[ecLlves
3 lf f quesLlon ls noL undersLood repefL lL sow wlLh proper emphfsls fnd fpproprlfLe
expfnfLlon when necessfr
6 1fk f fnswers nfLurf never showlng dlsfpprovf or surprlse When Lhe respondenL does noL
meeL Lhe lnLerrupLlons denlf conLrfdlcLlon fnd oLher hfrfssmenL he mf fee free fnd mf noL
Lr Lo wlLhhod lnformfLlon Pe wl be moLlvfLed Lo communlcfLe when Lhe fLmosphere ls
permlsslve fnd Lhe lsLener's fLLlLude ls non [udgmenLf fnd ls genulne fbsorbed ln Lhe revefLlons

7 LlsLen quleL wlLh pfLlence fnd humllL Clve noL on undlvlded fLLenLlon buL fso personf
wfrmLh AL Lhe sfme Llme be ferL fnd fnfLlc Lo lncompeLe non speclflc fnd lnconslsLenL
fnswers buL fvold lnLerrupLlng Lhe fow of lnformfLlon lf necessfr [oL down unobLruslve Lhe
polnLs whlch need efborfLlon or verlflcfLlon for fLer fnd Llmeler problng 1he fpproprlfLe
Lechnlque for Lhls problng ls Lo fsk for furLher cfrlflcfLlon ln such f polLe mfnner fs l fm noL sure
l undersLood fu ls LhlswhfL ou mefnL?"
8 nelLher frgue nor dlspuLe
9 Show genulne concern fnd lnLeresL ln Lhe ldefs expressed b Lhe respondenL fL Lhe sfme Llme
mflnLfln fn lmpfrLlf fnd ob[ecLlve fLLlLude
10 Shoud noL revef our own oplnlon or refcLlon Lven when ou fre fsked of our vlews fugh
off Lhe requesL sflng We our oplnlons fre more lmporLfnL Lhfn mlne"
11 AL Llmes Lhe lnLervlew runs dr" fnd needs resLlmufLlon 1hen use such expresslons fs uh
huh" or 1hfL lnLeresLlng" or l see" cfn ou Le me more fbouL LhfL?" fnd Lhe lke
12 When Lhe lnLervlewee ffls Lo supp hls refcLlons Lo refLed pfsL experlences represenL Lhe
sLlmuus slLufLlon lnLroduclng fpproprlfLe quesLlons whlch wl fld ln reveflng Lhe pfsL under
whfL clrcumsLfnces dld such fnd such f phenomenon occur?" or Pow dld ou fee fbouL lL fnd Lhe
lke
13 AL Llmes Lhe conversfLlon mf go off Lhe Lrfck 8e ferL Lo dlscover drlfLlng sLeer Lhe
conversfLlon bfck Lo Lhe Lrfck b some such remfrk fs ou know l wfs ver much lnLeresLed ln
whfL ou sfld f momenL fgo Coud ou Le me more fbouL lL?"

14 When Lhe conversfLlon Lurns Lo some lnLlmfLe sub[ecLs fnd pfrLlcufr when lL defs wlLh
crlses ln Lhe lfe of Lhe lndlvlduf emoLlonf bockfge mf occur 1hen drop Lhe sub[ecL for Lhe Llme
belng fnd pursue fnoLher lne of conversfLlon for f whle so LhfL f ess dlrecL fpprofch Lo Lhe
sub[ecL cfn be mfde fLer
13 When Lhere ls f pfuse ln Lhe fow of lnformfLlon do noL hurr Lhe lnLervlew 1fke lL fs f mfLLer
of course wlLh fn lnLeresLed ook or f smpfLheLlc hffsmle lf Lhe slence ls Loo proonged
lnLroduce f sLlmuus sflng ?ou menLloned LhfL WhfL hfppened Lhen?"

S) Add|t|ona| S|tt|ngs

ln Lhe cfse of quflLfLlve lnLervlews lnvovlng onger durfLlon one slnge slLLlng wl noL do fs lL
woud cfuse lnLervlew wefrlness Pence lL ls deslrfbe Lo hfve Lwo or more slLLlngs wlLh Lhe
consenL of Lhe respondenL

6) kecord|ng the Interv|ew

lL ls essenLlf Lo record responses fs Lhe Lfke pfce lf Lhe noLe Lfklng ls done ffLer Lhe lnLervlew f
good def of reevfnL lnformfLlon mf be osL noLhlng shoud be mfde ln Lhe schedue under
respecLlve quesLlon lL shoud be compeLe fnd verbfLlm 1he responses shoud noL be summfrlzed
or pfrfphrfsed Pow cfn compeLe recordlng be mfde wlLhouL lnLerrupLlng Lhe free fow of
conversfLlon? LecLronlc LrfnscrlpLlon Lhrough devlces lke Lfpe recorder cfn fchleve Lhls lL hfs
obvlous fdvfnLfges over noLeLfklng durlng Lhe lnLervlew 8uL lL fso hfs cerLfln dlsfdvfnLfges
Some respondenLs mf ob[ecL Lo or fefr golng on record" ConsequenL Lhe rlsk of ower response
rfLe wl rlse especlf for senslLlve Loplcs

lf Lhe lnLervlewer knows shorLhfnd he cfn use lL wlLh fdvfnLfge CLherwlse he cfn wrlLe rfpld
b fbbrevlfLlng word fnd uslng on ke words fnd Lhe lke Powever even Lhe ffsL wrlLer mf ffl
Lo record f LhfL ls sfld fL conversfLlonf speed AL such Llmes lL ls usefu Lo lnLerrupL b some such
commenL fs LhfL seems Lo be f ver lmporLfnL polnL woud ou mlnd repefLlng lL so LhfL l cfn geL
our words exfcL" 1he respondenL ls usuf ffLLered b Lhls fLLenLlon fnd Lhe rfpporL ls noL
dlsLurbed

1he lnLervlewer shoud fso record f hls probes fnd oLher commenLs on Lhe schedue ln brfckeLs
Lo seL Lhem off from responses WlLh Lhe precoded sLrucLured quesLlons Lhe lnLervlewer's Lfsk ls
efs Pe hfs Lo slmp rlng Lhe fpproprlfLe code or Llck Lhe fpproprlfLe box fs Lhe cfse mf be Pe
shoud noL mfke mlsLfkes b cfreess rlnglng or LlckeLlng f wrong lLem
) C|os|ng the Interv|ew

AfLer Lhe lnLervlew ls over Lfke efve off Lhe respondenL Lhfnklng hlm wlLh f frlend smle ln Lhe
cfse of f quflLfLlve lnLervlew of onger durfLlon seecL Lhe occfslon for depfrLure more cfrefu
Assemblng Lhe pfpers for puLLlng Lhem ln Lhe foder fL Lhe Llme of fsklng Lhe flnf quesLlon seLs Lhe
sLfge for f flnf hfndshfke f Lhfnkou fnd f goodbe lf Lhe respondenL deslres Lo know Lhe
resuL of Lhe surve noLe down hls nfme fnd fddress so LhfL f summfr of Lhe resuL coud be
posLed Lo hlm when refd
) Ld|t|ng

AL Lhe cose of Lhe lnLervlew Lhe lnLervlewer musL edlL Lhe schedue Lo check LhfL he hfs fsked f
Lhe quesLlons fnd recorded f Lhe fnswers fnd LhfL Lhere ls no lnconslsLenc beLween fnswers
AbbrevlfLlons ln recordlng musL be repfced b fu words Pe musL ensure LhfL everLhlng ls eglbe
lL ls deslrfbe Lo record f brlef skeLch of hls lmpresslons of Lhe lnLervlew fnd observfLlonf noLes on
Lhe respondenL's lvlng envlronmenL hls fLLlLude Lo Lhe surve dlfflcuLles lf fn ffced ln securlng
hls cooperfLlon fnd Lhe lnLervlewer's fssessmenL of Lhe vfldlL of Lhe respondenL's fnswers


b WhfL fre Lhe probems encounLered ln lnLervlew?


Interv|ew rob|ems

ln personf lnLervlewlng Lhe resefrcher musL def wlLh Lwo mf[or probems lnfdequfLe response
nonresponse fnd lnLervlewer's blfs

1 Inadequate response

kfhn fnd Cfnne dlsLlngulsh flve prlnclpf smpLoms of lnfdequfLe response 1he fre

O pfrLlf response ln whlch Lhe respondenL glves f reevfnL buL lncompeLe fnswer
O nonresponse when Lhe respondenL remflns slenL or refuses Lo fnswer Lhe quesLlon
O lrreevfnL response ln whlch Lhe respondenL's fnswer ls noL reevfnL Lo Lhe quesLlon fsked
O lnfccurfLe response when Lhe rep ls blfsed or dlsLorLed fnd
O verbflzed response probem whlch frlses on fccounL of respondenL's fflure Lo undersLfnd
f quesLlon or fck of lnformfLlon necessfr for fnswerlng lL

2 Interv|ewer's 8|as

1he lnLervlewer ls fn lmporLfnL cfuse of response blfs Pe mf resorL Lo chefLlng b cooklng upr
dfLf wlLhouL fcLuf lnLervlewlng 1he lnLervlewers cfn lnfuence Lhe responses b lnfpproprlfLe
suggesLlons word emphfsls Lone of volce fnd quesLlon rephrfslng Pls own fLLlLudes fnd
expecLfLlons fbouL whfL f pfrLlcufr cfLegor of respondenLs mf sf or Lhlnk mf blfs Lhe dfLf
AnoLher source of response of Lhe lnLervlewer's chfrfcLerlsLlcs (educfLlon fppfrenL soclf sLfLus
eLc) mf fso blfs hls fnswers AnoLher source of response blfs frlses from lnLervlewer's percepLlon
of Lhe slLufLlon lf he regfrds Lhe fsslgnmenL fs lmposslbe or sees Lhe resuLs of Lhe surve fs
posslbe LhrefLs Lo personf lnLeresLs or belefs he ls lke Lo lnLroduce blfs

As lnLervlewers fre humfn belngs such blfslng ffcLors cfn never be overcome compeLe buL Lhelr
effecLs cfn be reduced b cfrefu seecLlon fnd Lrflnlng of lnLervlewers proper moLlvfLlon fnd
supervlslon sLfndfrdlzfLlon or lnLervlew procedures (use of sLfndfrd wordlng ln surve quesLlons
sLfndfrd lnsLrucLlons on problng procedure fnd so on) fnd sLfndfrdlzfLlon of lnLervlewer
behfvlour 1here ls need for more resefrch on wfs Lo mlnlmlze blfs ln Lhe lnLervlew
3 Nonresponse

nonresponse refers Lo fflure Lo obLfln responses from some sfmpe respondenLs 1here fre mfn
sources of nonresponse nonfvflfbllL refusf lncfpfclL fnd lnfccesslbllL

4 Nonava||ab|||ty

Some respondenLs mf noL be fvflfbe fL home fL Lhe Llme of cf 1hls depends upon Lhe nfLure of
Lhe respondenL fnd Lhe Llme of cfs lor exfmpe empoed persons mf noL be fvflfbe durlng
worklng hours lfrmers mf noL be fvflfbe fL home durlng cuLlvfLlon sefson SeecLlon of
fpproprlfLe Llmlng for cfs coud sove Lhls probem Lvenlngs fnd weekends mf be ffvourfbe
lnLervlewlng hours for such respondenLs lf someone ls fvflfbe Lhen lne respondenL's hours of
fvflfbllL cfn be fscerLflned fnd Lhe nexL vlslL cfn be pfnned fccordlng
S kefusa|

Some persons mf refuse Lo furnlsh lnformfLlon becfuse Lhe fre ldlsposed or fpprofched fL Lhe
wrong hour fnd so on ALhough f hfrdcore of refusfs remflns fnoLher Lr or perhfps fnoLher
fpprofch mf flnd some of Lhem cooperfLlve lncfpfclL or lnfbllL mf refer Lo lness whlch
prevenLs f response durlng Lhe enLlre surve perlod 1hls mf fso frlse on fccounL of fngufge
bfrrler

6 Inaccess|b|||ty

Some respondenLs mf be lnfccesslbe Some mf noL be found due Lo mlgrfLlon fnd oLher refsons
nonresponses reduce Lhe effecLlve sfmpe slze fnd lLs represenLfLlveness







3 f WhfL fre Lhe vfrlous sLeps ln processlng of dfLf?

Mean|ng of Data rocess|ng

ufLf ln Lhe ref word ofLen comes wlLh f frge qufnLum fnd ln f vfrleL of formfLs LhfL fn
mefnlngfu lnLerpreLfLlon of dfLf cfnnoL be fchleved sLrflghLfwf Soclf sclence resefrches Lo be
ver speclflc drfw concuslons uslng boLh prlmfr fnd secondfr dfLf 1o frrlve fL f mefnlngfu
lnLerpreLfLlon on Lhe resefrch hpoLhesls Lhe resefrcher hfs Lo prepfre hls dfLf for Lhls purpose
1hls prepfrfLlon lnvoves Lhe ldenLlflcfLlon of dfLf sLrucLures Lhe codlng of dfLf fnd Lhe grouplng of
dfLf for prelmlnfr resefrch lnLerpreLfLlon 1hls dfLf prepfrfLlon for resefrch fnfsls ls Lefmed fs
processlng of dfLf lurLher seecLlons of Loos for fnfsls woud Lo f frge exLenL depend on Lhe
resuLs of Lhls dfLf processlng

ufLf processlng ls fn lnLermedlfr sLfge of work beLween dfLf coecLlons fnd dfLf lnLerpreLfLlon
1he dfLf gfLhered ln Lhe form of quesLlonnflres/lnLervlew schedues/fled noLes/dfLf sheeLs ls
mosL ln Lhe form of f frge voume of resefrch vfrlfbes 1he resefrch vfrlfbes recognlzed ls Lhe
resuL of Lhe prelmlnfr resefrch pfn whlch fso seLs ouL Lhe dfLf processlng meLhods
beforehfnd rocesslng of dfLf requlres fdvfnced pfnnlng fnd Lhls pfnnlng mf cover such
fspecLs fs ldenLlflcfLlon of vfrlfbes hpoLheLlcf refLlonshlp fmong Lhe vfrlfbes fnd Lhe LenLfLlve
resefrch hpoLhesls

1he vfrlous sLeps ln processlng of dfLf mf be sLfLed fs

O ldenLlflng Lhe dfLf sLrucLures
O LdlLlng Lhe dfLf
O Codlng fnd cfsslflng Lhe dfLf
O 1rfnscrlpLlon of dfLf
O 1fbufLlon of dfLf

b[ect|ves

AfLer sLudlng Lhls esson ou shoud be fbe Lo undersLfnd

O Checklng for fnfsls
O LdlLlng
O Codlng
O CfsslflcfLlon
O 1rfnscrlpLlon of dfLf
O 1fbufLlon
O ConsLrucLlon of lrequenc 1fbe
O ComponenLs of f Lfbe
O rlnclpes of Lfbe consLrucLlon
O lrequenc dlsLrlbuLlon fnd cfss lnLervfs
O Crfphs chfrLs fnd dlfgrfms
O 1pes of grfphs fnd generf rues
O CufnLlLfLlve fnd quflLfLlve fnfsls
O Mefsures of cenLrf Lendenc
O ulsperslon
O CorrefLlon fnfsls
O CoefflclenL of deLermlnfLlon

1 Check|ng for Ana|ys|s

ln Lhe dfLf prepfrfLlon sLep Lhe dfLf fre prepfred ln f dfLf formfL whlch fows Lhe fnfsL Lo use
modern fnfsls sofLwfre such fs SAS or SSS 1he mf[or crlLerlon ln Lhls ls Lo deflne Lhe dfLf
sLrucLure A dfLf sLrucLure ls f dnfmlc coecLlon of refLed vfrlfbes fnd cfn be convenlenL
represenLed fs f grfph where nodes fre fbeed b vfrlfbes 1he dfLf sLrucLure fso deflnes fnd
sLfges of Lhe prelmlnfr refLlonshlp beLween vfrlfbes/groups LhfL hfve been prepfnned b Lhe
resefrcher MosL dfLf sLrucLures cfn be grfphlcf presenLed Lo glve cfrlL fs Lo Lhe frfmes
resefrched hpoLhesls A sfmpe sLrucLure coud be f lnefr sLrucLure ln whlch one vfrlfbe efds Lo
Lhe oLher fnd flnf Lo Lhe resuLfnL end vfrlfbe

1he ldenLlflcfLlon of Lhe nodf polnLs fnd Lhe refLlonshlps fmong Lhe nodes coud someLlmes be f
compex Lfsk Lhfn esLlmfLed When Lhe Lfsk ls compex whlch lnvoves severf Lpes of lnsLrumenLs
belng coecLed for Lhe sfme resefrch quesLlon Lhe procedures for drfwlng Lhe dfLf sLrucLure woud
lnvove f serles of sLeps ln severf lnLermedlfLe sLeps Lhe heLerogeneous dfLf sLrucLure of Lhe
lndlvlduf dfLf seLs cfn be hfrmonlzed Lo f common sLfndfrd fnd Lhe sepfrfLe dfLf seLs fre Lhen
lnLegrfLed lnLo f slnge dfLf seL Powever Lhe cefr deflnlLlon of such dfLf sLrucLures woud hep ln
Lhe furLher processlng of dfLf
2 Ld|t|ng
1he nexL sLep ln Lhe processlng of dfLf ls edlLlng of Lhe dfLf lnsLrumenLs LdlLlng ls f process of
checklng Lo deLecL fnd correcL errors fnd omlsslons ufLf edlLlng hfppens fL Lwo sLfges one fL Lhe
Llme of recordlng of Lhe dfLf fnd second fL Lhe Llme of fnfsls of dfLf
Data Ld|t|ng at the 1|me of kecord|ng of Data

uocumenL edlLlng fnd LesLlng of Lhe dfLf fL Lhe Llme of dfLf recordlng ls done conslderlng Lhe
foowlng quesLlons ln mlnd

O uo Lhe flLers fgree or fre Lhe dfLf lnconslsLenL?
O Pfve mlsslng vfuesr been seL Lo vfues whlch fre Lhe sfme for f resefrch quesLlons?
O Pfve vfrlfbe descrlpLlons been speclfled?
O Pfve fbes for vfrlfbe nfmes fnd vfue fbes been deflned fnd wrlLLen?

A edlLlng fnd cefnlng sLeps fre documenLed so LhfL Lhe redeflnlLlon of vfrlfbes or fLer
fnfLlcf modlflcfLlon requlremenLs coud be efsl lncorporfLed lnLo Lhe dfLf seLs

Data Ld|t|ng at the 1|me of Ana|ys|s of Data

ufLf edlLlng ls fso f requlslLe before Lhe fnfsls of dfLf ls cfrrled ouL 1hls ensures LhfL Lhe dfLf ls
compeLe ln f respecL for sub[ecLlng Lhem Lo furLher fnfsls Some of Lhe usuf check lsL quesLlons
LhfL cfn be hfd b f resefrcher for edlLlng dfLf seLs before fnfsls woud be

l ls Lhe codlng frfme compeLe?
ll ls Lhe documenLfr mfLerlf sufflclenL for Lhe meLhodooglcf descrlpLlon of Lhe sLud?
lll ls Lhe sLorfge medlum refdfbe fnd relfbe
lv Pfs Lhe correcL dfLf seL been frfmed?
v ls Lhe number of cfses correcL?
vl Are Lhere dlfferences beLween quesLlonnflre codlng frfme fnd dfLf?
vll Are Lhere undeflned fnd socfed wld codes"?
vlll Compfrlson of Lhe flrsL counLlng of Lhe dfLf wlLh Lhe orlglnf documenLs of Lhe resefrcher


1he edlLlng sLep checks for Lhe compeLeness fccurfc fnd unlformlL of Lhe dfLf fs crefLed b Lhe
resefrcher

Comp|eteness 1he flrsL sLep of edlLlng ls Lo check wheLher Lhere ls fn fnswer Lo f Lhe
quesLlons/vfrlfbes seL ouL ln Lhe dfLf seL lf Lhere were fn omlsslon Lhe resefrcher someLlmes
woud be fbe Lo deduce Lhe correcL fnswer from oLher refLed dfLf on Lhe sfme lnsLrumenL lf Lhls
ls posslbe Lhe dfLf seL hfs Lo rewrlLLen on Lhe bfsls of Lhe new lnformfLlon lor exfmpe Lhe
fpproxlmfLe ffml lncome cfn be lnferred from oLher fnswers Lo probes such fs occupfLlon of
ffml members sources of lncome fpproxlmfLe spendlng fnd sfvlng fnd borrowlng hfblLs of
ffml membersr eLc lf Lhe lnformfLlon ls vlLf fnd hfs been found Lo be lncompeLe Lhen Lhe
resefrcher cfn Lfke Lhe sLep of conLfcLlng Lhe respondenL personf fgfln fnd solclL Lhe requlslLe
dfLf fgfln lf none of Lhese sLeps coud be resorLed Lo Lhe mfrklng of Lhe dfLf fs mlsslng" musL be
resorLed Lo
Accuracy ApfrL from checklng for omlsslons Lhe fccurfc of efch recorded fnswer shoud be
checked A rfndom check process cfn be fppled Lo Lrfce Lhe errors fL Lhls sLep ConslsLenc ln
response cfn fso be checked fL Lhls sLep 1he cross verlflcfLlon Lo f few refLed responses woud
hep ln checklng for conslsLenc ln responses 1he relfbllL of Lhe dfLf seL woud hefvl depend on
Lhls sLep of error correcLlon Whle cefr lnconslsLencles shoud be recLlfled ln Lhe dfLf seLs ffcL
responses shoud be dropped from Lhe dfLf seLs

Un|form|ty ln edlLlng dfLf seLs fnoLher keen ookouL shoud be for fn fck of unlformlL ln
lnLerpreLfLlon of quesLlons fnd lnsLrucLlons b Lhe dfLf recorders lor lnsLfnce Lhe responses
Lowfrds f speclflc feelng coud hfve been querled from f poslLlve fs we fs f negfLlve fnge Whle
lnLerpreLlng Lhe fnswers cfre shoud be Lfken fs f record Lhe fnswer fs f poslLlve quesLlon"
response or fs negfLlve quesLlon" response ln f unlformlL checks for conslsLenc ln codlng
LhroughouL Lhe quesLlonnflre/lnLervlew schedue response/dfLf seL
1he flnf polnL ln Lhe edlLlng of dfLf seL ls Lo mflnLfln f og of f correcLlons LhfL hfve been cfrrled
ouL fL Lhls sLfge 1he documenLfLlon of Lhese correcLlons heps Lhe resefrcher Lo reLfln Lhe orlglnf
dfLf seL




b Pow ls dfLf edlLlng ls done fL Lhe 1lme of 8ecordlng of ufLf?


Data Ld|t|ng at the 1|me of Ana|ys|s of Data

ufLf edlLlng ls fso f requlslLe before Lhe fnfsls of dfLf ls cfrrled ouL 1hls ensures LhfL Lhe dfLf ls
compeLe ln f respecL for sub[ecLlng Lhem Lo furLher fnfsls Some of Lhe usuf check lsL quesLlons
LhfL cfn be hfd b f resefrcher for edlLlng dfLf seLs before fnfsls woud be

l ls Lhe codlng frfme compeLe?
ll ls Lhe documenLfr mfLerlf sufflclenL for Lhe meLhodooglcf descrlpLlon of Lhe sLud?
lll ls Lhe sLorfge medlum refdfbe fnd relfbe
lv Pfs Lhe correcL dfLf seL been frfmed?
v ls Lhe number of cfses correcL?
vl Are Lhere dlfferences beLween quesLlonnflre codlng frfme fnd dfLf?
vll Are Lhere undeflned fnd socfed wld codes"?
vlll Compfrlson of Lhe flrsL counLlng of Lhe dfLf wlLh Lhe orlglnf documenLs of Lhe resefrcher


1he edlLlng sLep checks for Lhe compeLeness fccurfc fnd unlformlL of Lhe dfLf fs crefLed b Lhe
resefrcher

Comp|eteness 1he flrsL sLep of edlLlng ls Lo check wheLher Lhere ls fn fnswer Lo f Lhe
quesLlons/vfrlfbes seL ouL ln Lhe dfLf seL lf Lhere were fn omlsslon Lhe resefrcher someLlmes
woud be fbe Lo deduce Lhe correcL fnswer from oLher refLed dfLf on Lhe sfme lnsLrumenL lf Lhls
ls posslbe Lhe dfLf seL hfs Lo rewrlLLen on Lhe bfsls of Lhe new lnformfLlon lor exfmpe Lhe
fpproxlmfLe ffml lncome cfn be lnferred from oLher fnswers Lo probes such fs occupfLlon of
ffml members sources of lncome fpproxlmfLe spendlng fnd sfvlng fnd borrowlng hfblLs of
ffml membersr eLc lf Lhe lnformfLlon ls vlLf fnd hfs been found Lo be lncompeLe Lhen Lhe
resefrcher cfn Lfke Lhe sLep of conLfcLlng Lhe respondenL personf fgfln fnd solclL Lhe requlslLe
dfLf fgfln lf none of Lhese sLeps coud be resorLed Lo Lhe mfrklng of Lhe dfLf fs mlsslng" musL be
resorLed Lo
Accuracy ApfrL from checklng for omlsslons Lhe fccurfc of efch recorded fnswer shoud be
checked A rfndom check process cfn be fppled Lo Lrfce Lhe errors fL Lhls sLep ConslsLenc ln
response cfn fso be checked fL Lhls sLep 1he cross verlflcfLlon Lo f few refLed responses woud
hep ln checklng for conslsLenc ln responses 1he relfbllL of Lhe dfLf seL woud hefvl depend on
Lhls sLep of error correcLlon Whle cefr lnconslsLencles shoud be recLlfled ln Lhe dfLf seLs ffcL
responses shoud be dropped from Lhe dfLf seLs

Un|form|ty ln edlLlng dfLf seLs fnoLher keen ookouL shoud be for fn fck of unlformlL ln
lnLerpreLfLlon of quesLlons fnd lnsLrucLlons b Lhe dfLf recorders lor lnsLfnce Lhe responses
Lowfrds f speclflc feelng coud hfve been querled from f poslLlve fs we fs f negfLlve fnge Whle
lnLerpreLlng Lhe fnswers cfre shoud be Lfken fs f record Lhe fnswer fs f poslLlve quesLlon"
response or fs negfLlve quesLlon" response ln f unlformlL checks for conslsLenc ln codlng
LhroughouL Lhe quesLlonnflre/lnLervlew schedue response/dfLf seL
1he flnf polnL ln Lhe edlLlng of dfLf seL ls Lo mflnLfln f og of f correcLlons LhfL hfve been cfrrled
ouL fL Lhls sLfge 1he documenLfLlon of Lhese correcLlons heps Lhe resefrcher Lo reLfln Lhe orlglnf
dfLf seL





4 f WhfL fre Lhe fundfmenLf of frequenc ulsLrlbuLlon?

Irequency D|str|but|on and C|ass Interva|s

vfrlfbes LhfL fre cfsslfled fccordlng Lo mfgnlLude or slze fre ofLen frrfnged ln Lhe form of f
frequenc Lfbe ln consLrucLlng Lhls Lfbe lL ls necessfr Lo deLermlne Lhe number of cfss lnLervfs
Lo be used fnd Lhe slze of Lhe cfss lnLervfs

A dlsLlncLlon ls usuf mfde beLween conLlnuous fnd dlscreLe vfrlfbes A conLlnuous vfrlfbe hfs
fn unlmlLed number of posslbe vfues beLween Lhe owesL fnd hlghesL wlLh no gfps or brefks
Lxfmpes of conLlnuous vfrlfbe fre fge welghL LemperfLure eLc A dlscreLe vfrlfbe cfn hfve f
serles of speclfled vfues wlLh no posslbllL of vfues beLween Lhese polnLs Lfch vfue of f dlscreLe
vfrlfbe ls dlsLlncL fnd sepfrfLe Lxfmpes of dlscreLe vfrlfbes fre gender of persons (mfe/femfe)
occupfLlon (sffrled buslness professlon) cfr slze (800cc 1000cc 1200cc)

ln prfcLlce f vfrlfbes fre LrefLed fs dlscreLe unlLs Lhe conLlnuous vfrlfbes belng sLfLed ln some
dlscreLe unlL slze fccordlng Lo Lhe needs of f pfrLlcufr slLufLlon lor exfmpe engLh ls descrlbed ln
dlscreLe unlLs of mllmeLres or f LenLh of fn lnch
C|ass Interva|s Crdlnfrl Lhe number of cfss lnLervfs mf noL be ess Lhfn 3 noL more Lhfn 13
dependlng on Lhe nfLure of Lhe dfLf fnd Lhe number of cfses belng sLudled AfLer noLlng Lhe hlghesL
fnd ower vfues fnd Lhe fefLure of Lhe dfLf Lhe number of lnLervfs cfn be efsl deLermlned
lor mfn Lpes of dfLf lL ls deslrfbe Lo hfve cfss lnLervfs of unlform slze 1he lnLervfs shoud
nelLher be Loo smf nor Loo frge Whenever posslbe Lhe lnLervfs shoud represenL common fnd
convenlenL numerlcf dlvlslons such fs 3 or 10 rfLher Lhfn odd dlvlslon such fs 3 Lo 7 Cfss lnLervfs
musL be cefr deslgnfLed ln f frequenc Lfbe ln such f wf fs Lo obvlfLe fn posslbllL of
mlslnLerpreLfLlon of confuslon lor exfmpe Lo presenL Lhe fge group of f popufLlon Lhe use of
lnLervfs of 120 2030 fnd 30 fnd fbove woud be confuslng 1hls mf be presenLed fs 120 21
30 fnd fbove 30

Lver cfss lnLervf hfs f mld polnL lor exfmpe Lhe mldpolnL of fn lnLervf 120 ls 103 fnd Lhe
mldpolnL of cfss lnLervf 123 woud be 13 Cnce cfss lnLervfs fre deLermlned lL ls rouLlne work Lo
counL Lhe number of cfses LhfL ff ln efch lnLervf

neWay 1ab|es Cnewf frequenc Lfbes presenL Lhe dlsLrlbuLlon of cfses on on f slnge
dlmenslon or vfrlfbe lor exfmpe Lhe dlsLrlbuLlon of respondenLs of gender b relglon soclo
economlc sLfLus fnd Lhe lke fre shown ln one wf Lfbes (1fbe 101) usLrfLes onewf Lfbes Cne
wf Lfbes fre rfre used slnce Lhe resuL of frequenc dlsLrlbuLlons cfn be descrlbed ln slmpe
senLences lor lnsLfnce Lhe gender dlsLrlbuLlon of f sfmpe sLud mf be descrlbed fs 1he sfmpe
dfLf represenLs 38 b mfes fnd 42 of Lhe sfmpe fre femfes"

1owWay 1ab|e ulsLrlbuLlons ln Lerms of Lwo or more vfrlfbes fnd Lhe refLlonshlp beLween Lhe
Lwo vfrlfbes fre show ln Lwowf Lfbe 1he cfLegorles of one vfrlfbe fre presenLed one beow
fnoLher on Lhe efL mfrgln of Lhe Lfbe Lhose of fnoLher vfrlfbe fL Lhe upper pfrL of Lhe Lfbe one
b Lhe slde of fnoLher 1he ces represenL pfrLlcufr comblnfLlon of boLh vfrlfbes 1o compfre Lhe
dlsLrlbuLlons of cfses rfw numbers fre converLed lnLo percenLfges bfsed on Lhe number of cfses ln
efch cfLegor 8eow Lfbe lusLrfLe Lwowf Lfbes

AnoLher meLhod of consLrucLlng f Lwowf Lfbe ls Lo sLfLe Lhe percenL of represenLfLlon fs f wlLhln
brfckeLs Lerm rfLher Lhfn fs f sepfrfLe coumn Pere speclf cfre hfs been Lfken fs Lo how Lhe
percenLfges fre cfcufLed elLher on f horlzonLf represenLfLlon of dfLf or fs verLlcf
represenLfLlon of dfLf SomeLlmes Lhe Lfbe hefdlng lLsef provldes f mefnlng fs Lo Lhe meLhod of
represenLfLlon ln Lhe Lwowf Lfbe

b WhfL fre Lhe Lpes fnd generf rues for grfphlcf represenLfLlon of dfLf?

1ypes of raphs and enera| ku|es

1he mosL common used grfphlc forms mf be grouped lnLo Lhe foowlng cfLegorles

f) Llne Crfphs or ChfrLs
b) 8fr ChfrLs
c) SegmenLf presenLfLlons
d) ScfLLer poLs
e) 8ubbe chfrLs
f) SLock poLs
g) lcLogrfphs
h) Chesnokov lfces


1he generf rues Lo be foowed ln grfphlc represenLfLlons fre

f 1he chfrL shoud hfve f LlLe pfced dlrecL fbove Lhe chfrL
b 1he LlLe shoud be cefr conclse fnd slmpe fnd shoud descrlbe Lhe nfLure of Lhe dfLf
presenLed
c numerlcf dfLf upon whlch Lhe chfrL ls bfsed shoud be presenLed ln fn fccompfnlng
Lfbe
d 1he horlzonLf lne mefsures Llme or lndependenL vfrlfbe fnd Lhe verLlcf lne Lhe
mefsured vfrlfbe
e MefsuremenLs proceed from efL Lo rlghL on Lhe horlzonLf lne fnd from boLLom Lo Lop on
Lhe verLlcf
f Lfch curve or bfr on Lhe chfrL shoud be fbeed
g lf Lhere fre more Lhfn one curves or bfr Lhe shoud be cefr dlfferenLlfLed from one
fnoLher b dlsLlncL pfLLerns or coors
h 1he zero polnL shoud fwfs be represenLed fnd Lhe scfe lnLervfs shoud be equf
l Crfphlc forms shoud be used spfrlng 1oo mfn forms deLrfcL rfLher Lhfn lumlnfLlng Lhe
presenLfLlon
[ Crfphlc forms shoud foow fnd noL precede Lhe refLed LexLuf dlscusslon




3 SLrlcL spefklng woud cfse sLudles be consldered fs sclenLlflc resefrch? Wh or wh noL?

Cfse sLudles fre f Loo for dlscusslng sclenLlflc lnLegrlL ALhough one of Lhe mosL frequenL used
Loos for encourfglng dlscusslon cfses fre on one of mfn posslbe Loos Mfn of Lhe prlnclpes
dlscussed beow for dlscusslng cfse sLudles cfn be generflzed Lo oLher fpprofches Lo encourfglng
dlscusslon fbouL resefrch eLhlcs
Cfses fre deslgned Lo confronL refders wlLh speclflc reflfe probems LhfL do noL end Lhemseves Lo
efs fnswers Cfse dlscusslon demfnds crlLlcf fnd fnfLlcf skls fnd when lmpemenLed ln smf
groups fso fosLers cofborfLlon (lmpe 2002) 8 provldlng f focus for dlscusslon cfses hep
Lrflnees Lo deflne or reflne Lhelr own sLfndfrds Lo fppreclfLe fLernfLlve fpprofches Lo ldenLlflng
fnd resovlng eLhlcf probems fnd Lo deveop skls for fnfzlng fnd deflng wlLh hfrd probems on
Lhelr own 1he effecLlve use of cfse sLudles ls comprlsed of mfn ffcLors lncudlng
O fpproprlfLe seecLlon of cfse(s) (Loplc reevfnce engLh compexlL)
O meLhod of cfse presenLfLlon (verbf prlnLed before or durlng dlscusslon)
O formfL for cfse dlscusslon (Lmfl or lnLerneLbfsed smf group frge group)
O efdershlp of cfse dlscusslon (cholce of dlscusslon efder roes fnd responslbllLles for
dlscusslon efder)
O ouLcomes for cfse dlscusslon (fnswers Lo speclflc quesLlons fnswers Lo generf quesLlons
wrlLLen or verbf summfrles)
8esefrch meLhods donL seem so lnLlmldfLlng when oure ffmllfr wlLh Lhe Lermlnoog 1hls ls
lmporLfnL wheLher oure conducLlng evfufLlon or mere refdlng frLlces fbouL oLher sLudles Lo
lncorporfLe ln our progrfm 1o hep wlLh undersLfndlng here fre some bfslc deflnlLlons used

O vfrlfbe ChfrfcLerlsLlcs b whlch peope or Lhlngs cfn be descrlbed MusL hfve more Lhfn
one eve ln oLher words Lo be fbe Lo chfnge over Llme for Lhe sfme person/ob[ecL or from
person Lo person or ob[ecL Lo ob[ecL Some vfrlfbes cfed fLLrlbuLes cfnnoL be
mfnlpufLed b Lhe resefrcher (eg socloeconomlc sLfLus lC score rfce gender eLc)
Some vfrlfbes cfn be mfnlpufLed buL fre noL ln f pfrLlcufr sLud 1hls occurs when
sub[ecLs sefseecL Lhe eve of Lhe lndependenL vfrlfbe or Lhe eve ls nfLurf occurrlng
(fs wlLh ex posL ffcLo resefrch)
O MfnlpufLlon 8fndom fsslgnmenL of sub[ecLs Lo eves of Lhe lndependenL vfrlfbe
(LrefLmenL groups)
O lndependenL vfrlfbe 1he LrefLmenL ffcLor or presumed cfuse LhfL wl produce f chfnge
ln Lhe dependenL vfrlfbe 1hls ls whfL Lhe experlmenLer Lrles Lo mfnlpufLe lL ls denoLed fs
x on Lhe horlzonLf fxls of f grfph
O uependenL vfrlfbe 1he presumed effecL or consequence resuLlng from chfnges ln Lhe
lndependenL vfrlfbe 1hls ls Lhe observfLlon mfde fnd ls denoLed b ? on Lhe verLlcf fxls
of f grfph 1he score of ? depends on Lhe score of x
O opufLlon 1he compeLe seL of sub[ecLs LhfL cfn be sLudled peope ob[ecLs fnlmfs
pfnLs eLc
O Sfmpe A subseL of sub[ecLs LhfL cfn be sLudled Lo mfke Lhe resefrch pro[ecL more
mfnfgefbe 1here fre f vfrleL of wfs sfmpes cfn be Lfken lf f frge enough rfndom
sfmpes fre Lfken Lhe resuLs cfn be sLfLlsLlcf slmlfr Lo Lfklng f census of fn enLlre
popufLlonwlLh reduced efforL fnd cosL

Case Study
A cfse sLud ls conducLed for slmlfr purpose fs Lhe fbove buL ls usuf done wlLh f smfer sfmpe
slze for more lndepLh sLud A cfse sLud ofLen lnvoves dlrecL observfLlon or lnLervlews wlLh slnge
sub[ecLs or slnge smf soclf unlLs such fs f ffml cub schoo cfssroom eLc 1hls ls Lplcf
consldered quflLfLlve resefrch
urpose Lxp|a|n or red|ct
1ype of kesearch to Use ke|at|ona| Study
ln f refLlonf sLud ou sLfrL wlLh f resefrch hpoLhesls LhfL ls ls whfL oure Lrlng Lo prove
Lxfmpes of resefrch hpoLheses for f refLlonf sLud
O 1he oder Lhe person Lhe more hefLh probems he or she encounLers
O 4P members fLLendlng 4P summer cfmp sLf enroed ln 4P onger
O 1he grefLer Lhe number of mone mfnfgemenL cfsses fLLended Lhe grefLer Lhe fmounL of
fnnuf sfvlngs fchleved
1pes of refLlonf sLudles lncude co refLlonf sLudles fnd ex posL ffcLo sLudles
Corre|at|ona| Study
A co refLlonf sLud compfres Lwo or more dlfferenL chfrfcLerlsLlcs from Lhe sfme group of peope
fnd expflns how Lwo chfrfcLerlsLlcs vfr LogeLher fnd how we one cfn be predlcLed from
knowedge of Lhe oLher
A co refLlonf sLud compfres Lwo or more dlfferenL chfrfcLerlsLlcs from Lhe sfme group of peope
fnd expflns how Lwo chfrfcLerlsLlcs vfr LogeLher fnd how we one cfn be predlcLed from
knowedge of Lhe oLher
A concurrenL co refLlonf sLud drfws f refLlonshlp beLween chfrfcLerlsLlcs fL Lhe sfme polnL ln
Llme lor exfmpe f sLudenLs grfde polnL fverfge ls refLed Lo hls or her cfss rfnk
A predlcLlve co refLlonf sLud coud predlcL f fLer seL of dfLf from fn efrler seL lor exfmpe f
sLudenLs grfde polnL fverfge mlghL predlcL Lhe sfme sLudenLs grfde polnL fverfge durlng senlor
efr A predlcLlve co refLlonf sLud coud fso use one chfrfcLerlsLlc Lo predlcL whfL fnoLher
chfrfcLerlsLlc wl be fL fnoLher Llme lor exfmpe f sLudenLs SA1 score ls deslgned Lo predlcL coege
freshmfn grfde polnL fverfge

Lx ost Iacto (After the Iact) Study
An ex posL ffcLo sLud ls used when experlmenLf resefrch ls noL posslbe such fs when peope hfve
sefseecLed eves of fn lndependenL vfrlfbe or when f LrefLmenL ls nfLurf occurrlng fnd Lhe
resefrcher coud noL conLro Lhe degree of lLs use 1he resefrcher sLfrLs b speclflng f dependenL
vfrlfbe fnd Lhen Lrles Lo ldenLlf posslbe refsons for lLs occurrence fs we fs fLernfLlve (rlvf)
expfnfLlons such confoundlng (lnLervenlng conLfmlnfLlng or exLrfneous) vfrlfbes fre conLroed
uslng sLfLlsLlcs
1hls Lpe of sLud ls ver common fnd usefu when uslng humfn sub[ecLs ln refword slLufLlons fnd
Lhe lnvesLlgfLor comes ln ffLer Lhe ffcL lor exfmpe lL mlghL be observed LhfL sLudenLs from one
Lown hfve hlgher grfdes Lhfn sLudenLs from f dlfferenL Lown fLLendlng Lhe sfme hlgh schoo Woud
[usL belng from f cerLfln Lown expfln Lhe dlfferences? ln fn ex posL ffcLo sLud speclflc refsons for
Lhe dlfferences woud be expored such fs dlfferences ln lncome eLhnlclL pfrenL supporL eLc lL ls
lmporLfnL Lo recognlze LhfL ln f refLlonf sLud cfuse fnd effecL cfnnoL be cflmed A LhfL cfn
be cflmed ls LhfL LhfL Lhere ls f refLlonshlp beLween Lhe vfrlfbes
lor LhfL mfLLer vfrlfbes LhfL fre compeLe unrefLed coud ln ffcL vfr LogeLher due Lo noLhlng
more Lhfn colncldence 1hfL ls wh Lhe resefrcher needs Lo esLfblsh f pfuslbe refson (resefrch
hpoLhesls) for wh Lhere mlghL be f refLlonshlp beLween Lwo vfrlfbes before conducLlng f sLud
lor lnsLfnce lL mlghL be found LhfL f fooLbf Lefms wlLh bue unlforms won fsL week 1here ls no
lke refson wh Lhe unlform coor hfd fn refLlonshlp Lo Lhe gfmes ouLcomes fnd lL cerLfln wfs
noL Lhe cfuse for vlcLor Slmlfr ou musL be cfrefu fbouL cflmlng LhfL our LxLenslon progrfm
wfs Lhe cfuse of posslbe resuLs



3 f Anfse Lhe cfse sLud fnd descrlpLlve fpprofch Lo resefrch

uescrlpLlve resefrch fso known fs sLfLlsLlcf resefrch descrlbes dfLf fnd chfrfcLerlsLlcs fbouL Lhe
popufLlon or phenomenon belng sLudled uescrlpLlve resefrch fnswers Lhe quesLlons who whfL where
when fnd how
ALhough Lhe dfLf descrlpLlon ls ffcLuf fccurfLe fnd ssLemfLlc Lhe resefrch cfnnoL descrlbe whfL cfused f
slLufLlon 1hus uescrlpLlve resefrch cfnnoL be used Lo crefLe f cfusf refLlonshlp where one vfrlfbe fffecLs
fnoLher ln oLher words descrlpLlve resefrch cfn be sfld Lo hfve f ow requlremenL for lnLernf vfldlL
1he descrlpLlon ls used for frequencles fverfges fnd oLher sLfLlsLlcf cfcufLlons CfLen Lhe besL fpprofch
prlor Lo wrlLlng descrlpLlve resefrch ls Lo conducL f surve lnvesLlgfLlon
CuflLfLlve resefrch ofLen hfs Lhe flm of descrlpLlon fnd resefrchers mf foowup wlLh exfmlnfLlons of wh
Lhe observfLlons exlsL fnd whfL Lhe lmplcfLlons of Lhe flndlngs fre
ln shorL descrlpLlve resefrch defs wlLh everLhlng LhfL cfn be counLed fnd sLudled 8uL Lhere fre fwfs
resLrlcLlons Lo LhfL ?our resefrch musL hfve fn lmpfcL Lo Lhe lves of Lhe peope fround ou eg flndlng Lhe
mosL frequenL dlsefse LhfL fffecLs Lhe chldren of f Lown 1he refder of Lhe resefrch wl know whfL Lo do Lo
prevenL LhfL dlsefse Lhus more peope wl lve f hefLh lfe
uescrlpLlve resefrch does noL flL nefL lnLo Lhe deflnlLlon of elLher qufnLlLfLlve or quflLfLlve resefrch
meLhodoogles buL lnsLefd lL cfn uLllze eemenLs of boLh ofLen wlLhln Lhe sfme sLud 1he Lerm descrlpLlve
resefrch refers Lo Lhe Lpe of resefrch quesLlon deslgn fnd dfLf fnfsls LhfL wl be fppled Lo f glven Loplc
uescrlpLlve sLfLlsLlcs Le whfL ls whle lnferenLlf sLfLlsLlcs Lr Lo deLermlne cfuse fnd effecL
A cfse sLud ls f resefrch meLhod common ln soclf sclence lL ls bfsed on fn lndepLh lnvesLlgfLlon of f slnge
lndlvlduf group or evenL Cfse sLudles mf be descrlpLlve or expfnfLor 1he fLLer Lpe ls used Lo expore
cfusfLlon ln order Lo flnd underlng prlnclpes 1he mf be prospecLlve ln whlch crlLerlf fre esLfblshed fnd
cfses flLLlng Lhe crlLerlf fre lncuded fs Lhe become fvflfbe or reLrospecLlve ln whlch crlLerlf fre
esLfblshed for seecLlng cfses from hlsLorlcf records for lncuslon ln Lhe sLud
8fLher Lhfn uslng sfmpes fnd foowlng f rlgld proLoco (sLrlcL seL of rues) Lo exfmlne lmlLed number of
vfrlfbes cfse sLud meLhods lnvove fn lndepLh onglLudlnf (over f ong perlod of Llme) exfmlnfLlon of f
slnge lnsLfnce or evenL f cfse 1he provlde f ssLemfLlc wf of ooklng fL evenLs coecLlng dfLf fnfzlng
lnformfLlon fnd reporLlng Lhe resuLs As f resuL Lhe resefrcher mf gfln f shfrpened undersLfndlng of wh
Lhe lnsLfnce hfppened fs lL dld fnd whfL mlghL become lmporLfnL Lo ook fL more exLenslve ln fuLure
resefrch Cfse sLudles end Lhemseves Lo boLh generfLlng fnd LesLlng hpoLheses
AnoLher suggesLlon ls LhfL cfse sLud shoud be deflned fs f resefrch sLrfLeg fn emplrlcf lnqulr LhfL
lnvesLlgfLes f phenomenon wlLhln lLs reflfe conLexL Cfse sLud resefrch mefns slnge fnd muLlpe cfse
sLudles cfn lncude qufnLlLfLlve evldence reles on muLlpe sources of evldence fnd beneflLs from Lhe prlor
deveopmenL of LheoreLlcf proposlLlons Cfse sLudles shoud noL be confused wlLh quflLfLlve resefrch fnd
Lhe cfn be bfsed on fn mlx of qufnLlLfLlve fnd quflLfLlve evldence Slngesub[ecL resefrch provldes Lhe
sLfLlsLlcf frfmework for mfklng lnferences from qufnLlLfLlve cfsesLud dfLf








b ulsLlngulsh beLween resefrch meLhods resefrch MeLhodoog

8esefrch MeLhods fnd 8esefrch MeLhodoog fre Lwo Lerms LhfL fre ofLen confused fs one fnd Lhe
sfme SLrlcL spefklng Lhe fre noL so fnd Lhe show dlfferences beLween Lhem Cne of Lhe prlmfr
dlfferences beLween Lhem ls LhfL resefrch meLhods fre Lhe meLhods b whlch ou conducL resefrch
lnLo f sub[ecL or f Loplc Cn Lhe oLher hfnd resefrch meLhodoog expflns Lhe meLhods b whlch
ou mf proceed wlLh our resefrch
8esefrch meLhods lnvove conducL of experlmenLs LesLs surves fnd Lhe lke Cn Lhe oLher hfnd
resefrch meLhodoog lnvoves Lhe efrnlng of Lhe vfrlous Lechnlques LhfL cfn be used ln Lhe
conducL of resefrch fnd ln Lhe conducL of LesLs experlmenLs surves fnd crlLlcf sLudles 1hls ls Lhe
Lechnlcf dlfference beLween Lhe Lwo Lerms nfme resefrch meLhods fnd resefrch meLhodoog
ln shorL lL cfn be sfld LhfL resefrch meLhods flm fL flndlng souLlons Lo resefrch probems Cn Lhe
oLher hfnd resefrch meLhodoog flms fL Lhe empomenL of Lhe correcL procedures Lo flnd ouL
souLlons
lL ls Lhus lnLeresLlng Lo noLe LhfL resefrch meLhodoog pfves Lhe wf for resefrch meLhods Lo be
conducLed proper 8esefrch meLhodoog ls Lhe beglnnlng wherefs resefrch meLhods fre Lhe end
of fn sclenLlflc or nonsclenLlflc resefrch
LeL us Lfke for exfmpe f sub[ecL or f Loplc nfme 'empomenL of flgures of speech ln Lnglsh
lLerfLure' ln Lhls Loplc lf we fre Lo conducL resefrch Lhen Lhe resefrch meLhods LhfL fre lnvoved
fre sLud of vfrlous works of Lhe dlfferenL poeLs fnd Lhe undersLfndlng of Lhe empomenL of
flgures of speech ln Lhelr works
Cn Lhe oLher hfnd resefrch meLhodoog perLflnlng Lo Lhe Loplc menLloned fbove lnvoves Lhe
sLud fbouL Lhe Loos of resefrch cofLlon of vfrlous mfnuscrlpLs refLed Lo Lhe Loplc Lechnlques
lnvoved ln Lhe crlLlcf edlLlon of Lhese mfnuscrlpLs fnd Lhe lke
lf Lhe sub[ecL lnLo whlch ou conducL f resefrch ls f sclenLlflc sub[ecL or Loplc Lhen Lhe resefrch
meLhods lncude experlmenLs LesLs sLud of vfrlous oLher resuLs of dlfferenL experlmenLs
performed efrler ln refLlon Lo Lhe Loplc or Lhe sub[ecL fnd Lhe lke
Cn Lhe oLher hfnd resefrch meLhodoog perLflnlng Lo Lhe sclenLlflc Loplc lnvoves Lhe Lechnlques
regfrdlng how Lo go fbouL conducLlng Lhe resefrch Lhe Loos of resefrch fdvfnced Lechnlques LhfL
cfn be used ln Lhe conducL of Lhe experlmenLs fnd Lhe lke An sLudenL or resefrch cfndldfLe ls
supposed Lo be good fL boLh resefrch meLhods fnd resefrch meLhodoog lf he or she ls Lo succeed
ln hls or her fLLempL fL conducLlng resefrch lnLo f sub[ecL