Cell UlLrasLrucLure

MagniicaLion 0 increases Lhe size o an objecL

ResoluLion/resolving power 0 abiliLy Lo disLinguish beLween adjacenL poinLs
1able -0-2. Microscopes ()

leature OpticaI microscope Iectron microscope
RadiaLion LighL FlecLrons
MagniicaLion 400x (max500) =500 000x
ResoluLion 2m nm / 0,00m
FlecLrons have a small wavelengLh
\ Higher resoluLion
vacuum in microscope AbsenL PresenL
Specimen is - Alive or dead
- SLained
- Dead (vacuum!)

Transmission microscope.
FlecLrons pass Lhrough inLernal
sLrucLure o specimen

5canning microscope.
8eams o elecLrons are relecLed
o specimens surace. Allows a
Lhree dimensional view

Cell wall (planL cells only)
Made up o cellulose ibres which provide sLrengLh
Cell does noL bursL i surrounding soluLions become diluLe
Nucleus (5m)
ConLains chromosomes (genes made o DNA which conLrol cell acLiviLies)
SeparaLed rom Lhe cyLoplasm by a nuclear envelope
1he envelope is made o a double membrane conLaining small holes
1hese small holes are called nuclear pores (00nm)
Nuclear pores allow Lhe LransporL o proLeins inLo Lhe nucleus
Rough Fndoplasmic ReLiculum (rough FR)
Have ribosomes aLLached Lo Lhe cyLosolic side o Lheir membrane
Found in cells LhaL are making proLeins or exporL (enzymes, hormones, sLrucLural proLeins, anLibodies)
1hus, involved in proLein synLhesis
Modiies proLeins by Lhe addiLion o carbohydraLes, removal o signal sequences
Phospholipid synLhesis and assembly o polypepLides
SmooLh Fndoplasmic ReLiculum (smooLh FR)
Have no ribosomes aLLached and oLen appear more Lubular Lhan Lhe rough FR
Necessary or sLeroid synLhesis, meLabolism and deLoxiicaLion, lipid synLhesis
Numerous in Lhe liver
Ribosomes (20-30nm)
Small organelles oLen aLLached Lo Lhe FR buL also ound in Lhe cyLoplasm
Large (proLein) and small (rRNA) subuniLs orm Lhe uncLional ribosome
4 SubuniLs bind wiLh mRNA in Lhe cyLoplasm
4 1his sLarLs LranslaLion o mRNA or proLein synLhesis (assembly o amino acids inLo proLeins)
Free ribosomes make proLeins used in Lhe cyLoplasm. Responsible or proLeins LhaL
4 go inLo soluLion in cyLoplasm or
4 orm imporLanL cyLoplasmic, sLrucLural elemenLs
Ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA) are made in nucleus o cell
Colgi apparaLus
SLack o laLLened sacs surrounded by membrane
Receives proLein-illed vesicles rom Lhe rough FR (use wiLh Colgi membrane)
Uses enzymes Lo modiy Lhese proLeins (e.g. add a sugar chain, making glycoproLein)
Adds direcLions or desLinaLion o proLein package - vesicles LhaL leave Colgi apparaLus move Lo dierenL locaLions in cell or proceed Lo plasma
membrane or secreLion
lnvolved in processing, packaging, and secreLion
OLher vesicles LhaL leave Colgi apparaLus are lysosomes
vacuole and vesicles
Membranous sacs o liquid which sLore subsLances - vacuoles are sLorage areas
Lysosomes (0.05 Lo 0.5 micron)
Perorms inLracellular digesLion - more numerous in cells perorming phagocyLosis
LimiLing membrane keeps digesLive enzymes separaLe rom Lhe cyLoplasm
Lysosomal enzymes digesL parLicles
4 1hey uncLion opLimally aL pH 5 and are mosLly inacLive aL cyLosolic pH
4 Lysosomal enzymes are synLhesized on rough FR
4 1ranserred Lo Lhe Colgi apparaLus or modiicaLion and packaging
Primary lysosomes are small concenLraLed sacs o enzymes (no digesLion process)
4 Primary lysosomes use wiLh a phagocyLic vacuole
4 8ecome secondary lysosomes
4 DigesLion begins
4 NuLrienLs diuse Lhrough lysosomal membrane inLo Lhe cyLosol
MiLochondria (m in diameLer and 7m in lengLh)
MosLly proLein, buL also conLains some lipid, DNA and RNA
Power house o Lhe cell
4 Fnergy is sLored in high energy phosphaLe bonds o A1P
4 MiLochondria converL energy rom Lhe breakdown o glucose inLo adenosine LriphosphaLe (A1P)
4 Responsible or aerobic respiraLion
MeLabolic acLiviLy o a cell is relaLed Lo Lhe number o crisLae (larger surace area) and miLochondria
Cells wiLh a high meLabolic acLiviLy (e.g. hearL muscle) have many well developed miLochondria
ChloroplasL (4-6m in diameLer and -5m in lengLh)
Only in phoLosynLhesising cells (planLs)
LighL energy, CO2, and H2O are converLed Lo produce carbohydraLes and O2
lnner membrane has olds, called lamellae (where chlorophyll is ound), which surround a luid, called sLroma

Selection and cbange of allele frequency

Natural selection
New environmenLal acLor aecLs survival raLe o phenoLype beore reproducLion
4 //oLherwise populaLion may become exLincL
Organisms beLLer adapLed Lo Lhe environmenL survive, reproduce, pass on Lheir alleles/genes
Allele requency o Lhe advanLageous gene increases
Changes requencies o alleles in gene pool / phenoLype in populaLion
PopulaLion becomes adapLed Lo environmenL
Stabilising selection
NaLural selecLion avours "average" organisms besL adapLed Lo LhaL environmenL
Organisms wiLh exLreme orms o characLerisLics/muLaLions are selecLed againsL
HeaviesL and lighLesL babies have highesL morLaliLy
4 Less likely Lo survive, reproduce, pass on Lheir alleles
[Craph] Normal disLribuLion curve wiLh Lhinner bell-shaped curve
irectional selection
NaLural selecLion avours organisms wiLh one exLreme orm o a characLerisLic
PesLicide resisLance (wararin - poison used Lo kill raLs)
4 ResisLanL raLs / need a loL o viLamin K / sLabilising selecLion
4 New environmenLal eecL. wararin / kills normal raLs
4 ResisLanL raLs survived, reproduced, pass on resisLance gene
4 New populaLion orms by direcLional selecLion
AnLibioLic resisLance (penicillin resisLance)
4 ResisLanL bacLeria / unnecessary enzymes / selecLed againsL
4 New environmenLal acLor. penicillin / kills normal bacLeria
4 ResisLanL bacLeria survived, reproduced, passed on resisLance gene
[Craph] bell-shaped curve shiLed Lo Lhe righL
isruptive selection
NaLural selecLion avours organism wiLh Lwo exLreme orms o a characLerisLic
8alanced polymorphism. equilibrium o non-carriers and carriers o a characLerisLic caused by naLural selecLion
Sickle-cell anaemia
4 Abnormal Hb makes red blood cells sickle-shaped / sLick in capillaries
4 People homozygous or Lhis recessive allele die beore reproducing
4 People heLerozygous or Lhe allele should be aL a disadvanLage / red blood cells can sickle during exercise / allele should be
selecLed againsL and rare
4 here malaria is ound, people heLerozygous or sickle-cell have an advanLage (resisLanL) and are likely Lo survive, reproduce and
pass on Lhe allele, people wiLhouL Lhe allele also have an advanLage, because Lheir red cells behave normally
4 8alanced polymorphism is produced / carrier is heLerozygous or sickle cell
[CRAPH] AcLs againsL Lhe mode in a range o variaLion producing a bimodal disLribuLion (Lwo new modes) / mighL resulL in Lwo disLincL orms
o Lhe species (0morphs)
easons for a bigb incidence of a {dominant] rare diseaseJallele in a
population [EXAM]
Allele requency sLays consLanL due Lo
Common ancesLor/no migraLion/geneLic isolaLion/small gene pool/in-breeding
High probabiliLy o maLing wiLh person having Lhe allele
ReproducLion beore sympLoms o Lhe disease are apparenL
No survival/selecLive disadvanLage (no eliminaLion by naLural selecLion)
Speciation
SpliLLing o one inLo more species/LransormaLion o one inLo a new species over Lime
FmigraLion/immigraLion moves alleles beLween populaLions
Changes allele requency by geneLic variaLion in meiosis
eproductive Isolation Mecbanisms
Premating
HabiLaL isolaLion / populaLions inhibiL dierenL local habiLanLs wiLhin one environmenL
1emporal isolaLion / same environmenL buL are reproducLively acLive aL dierenL Limes
8ehavioural isolaLion / Lwo populaLions have dierenL courLship paLLerns
Ceographical separaLion / populaLions inhabiL dierenL conLinenLs, islands, 0
Postmating
CameLes morLaliLy / sperm cannoL reach or erLilize egg
ZygoLe morLaliLy / erLilisaLion occurs, buL zygoLe ails Lo develop
Hybrid sLeriliLy / hybrid survives (viable) buL is sLerile and cannoL reproduce (no meiosis)
Hybrid inviabiliLy / F hybrid has reduced viabiliLy. incompleLe developmenL
Allopatric speciation {geograpbical isolation]
Physical barrier (H2O, mounLains, desserL) divides a populaLion
1wo dierenL environmenLs (abioLic, bioLic)
NaLural selecLion
CeneLic driL changes genoLype and phenoLype
1wo populaLions evolve separaLely
ReproducLively isolaLed / 2 disLincL species
Sympatric speciation {reproductive isolation]
CeneLic isolaLion by muLaLion / reproducLively isolaLed / buL inhibiL same habiLaL
DriL can cause urLher divergence beLween isolaLed gene pools
HybridisaLion in planLs
4 Ospring produced rom parenLs o Lwo dierenL species
4 Chromosomal number doubles / polyploidy
4 New species is reproducLively isolaLed by a posLmaLing mechanisms
Can only reproduce wiLh oLher polyploids, backcrosses wiLh (2n) parenLs are sLerile